Symmetry

Symmetry (from Greek συμμετρία symmetria "agreement

in dimensions, due proportion, arrangement")[1] in
everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and
beautiful proportion and balance.[2][3][a] In mathematics,
"symmetry" has a more precise definition, and is usually
used to refer to an object that is invariant under some
transformations; including translation, reflection, rotation
or scaling.[4] Although these two meanings of "symmetry"
can sometimes be told apart, they are intricately related,
and hence are discussed together in this article.
Symmetry (left) and asymmetry (right)
Mathematical symmetry may be observed with respect to
the passage of time; as a spatial relationship; through
geometric transformations; through other kinds of functional
transformations; and as an aspect of abstract objects, including theoretic
models, language, and music.[5][b]

This article describes symmetry from three perspectives: in mathematics,

including geometry, the most familiar type of symmetry for many people;
in science and nature; and in the arts, covering architecture, art and music.

The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry, which refers to the absence or a

violation of symmetry.
A spherical symmetry group
with octahedral symmetry.
The yellow region shows the
Contents fundamental domain.

In mathematics
In geometry
In logic
Other areas of mathematics
In science and nature
In physics
In biology
In chemistry
In psychology and neuroscience
A fractal-like shape that has
In social interactions
reflectional symmetry,
In the arts rotational symmetry and self-
In architecture similarity, three forms of
In pottery and metal vessels symmetry. This shape is
obtained by a finite
In carpets and rugs
subdivision rule.
In music
Musical form
Pitch structures
 Equivalency
In quilts
In other arts and crafts
In aesthetics
In literature
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

In mathematics

In geometry

A geometric shape or object is symmetric if it can be divided into two or

more identical pieces that are arranged in an organized fashion.[6] This
means that an object is symmetric if there is a transformation that moves
individual pieces of the object, but doesn't change the overall shape. The
type of symmetry is determined by the way the pieces are organized, or by
the type of transformation:

An object has reflectional symmetry (line or mirror symmetry) if

there is a line (or in 3D a plane) going through it which divides it The triskelion has 3-fold
into two pieces that are mirror images of each other.[7] rotational symmetry.
An object has rotational symmetry if the object can be rotated
about a fixed point (or in 3D about a line) without changing the
overall shape.[8]
An object has translational symmetry if it can be translated (moving every point of the object by
the same distance) without changing its overall shape.[9]
An object has helical symmetry if it can be simultaneously translated and rotated in three-
dimensional space along a line known as a screw axis.[10]
An object has scale symmetry if it does not change shape when it is expanded or
contracted.[11] Fractals also exhibit a form of scale symmetry, where smaller portions of the
fractal are similar in shape to larger portions.[12]
Other symmetries include glide reflection symmetry (a reflection followed by a translation) and
rotoreflection symmetry (a combination of a rotation and a reflection[13]).

In logic

A dyadic relation R = S × S is symmetric if for each element a, b in S, whenever it is true that Rab, it is also
true that Rba.[14] Thus, the relation "is the same age as" is symmetric, for if Paul is the same age as Mary,
then Mary is the same age as Paul.
In propositional logic, symmetric binary logical connectives include and (∧, or &), or (∨, or |) and if and
only if (↔), while the connective if (→) is not symmetric.[15] Other symmetric logical connectives include
nand (not-and, or ⊼), xor (not-biconditional, or ⊻), and nor (not-or, or ⊽).

Other areas of mathematics

Generalizing from geometrical symmetry in the previous section, one can say that a mathematical object is
symmetric with respect to a given mathematical operation, if, when applied to the object, this operation
preserves some property of the object.[16] The set of operations that preserve a given property of the object
form a group.

In general, every kind of structure in mathematics will have its own kind of symmetry. Examples include
even and odd functions in calculus, symmetric groups in abstract algebra, symmetric matrices in linear
algebra,[4] and Galois groups in Galois theory. In statistics, symmetry also manifests as symmetric
probability distributions, and as skewness—the asymmetry of distributions.[17]

In science and nature

In physics

Symmetry in physics has been generalized to mean invariance—that is, lack of change—under any kind of
transformation, for example arbitrary coordinate transformations.[18] This concept has become one of the
most powerful tools of theoretical physics, as it has become evident that practically all laws of nature
originate in symmetries. In fact, this role inspired the Nobel laureate PW Anderson to write in his widely
read 1972 article More is Different that "it is only slightly overstating the case to say that physics is the study
of symmetry."[19] See Noether's theorem (which, in greatly simplified form, states that for every continuous
mathematical symmetry, there is a corresponding conserved quantity such as energy or momentum; a
conserved current, in Noether's original language);[20] and also, Wigner's classification, which says that the
symmetries of the laws of physics determine the properties of the particles found in nature.[21]

Important symmetries in physics include continuous symmetries and discrete symmetries of spacetime;
internal symmetries of particles; and supersymmetry of physical theories.

In biology

In biology, the notion of symmetry is mostly used explicitly to describe body shapes. Bilateral animals,
including humans, are more or less symmetric with respect to the sagittal plane which divides the body into
left and right halves.[22] Animals that move in one direction necessarily have upper and lower sides, head
and tail ends, and therefore a left and a right. The head becomes specialized with a mouth and sense organs,
and the body becomes bilaterally symmetric for the purpose of movement, with symmetrical pairs of
muscles and skeletal elements, though internal organs often remain asymmetric.[23]

Plants and sessile (attached) animals such as sea anemones often have radial or rotational symmetry, which
suits them because food or threats may arrive from any direction. Fivefold symmetry is found in the
echinoderms, the group that includes starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies.[24]

In biology, the notion of symmetry is also used as in physics, that is to say to describe the properties of the
objects studied, including their interactions. A remarkable property of biological evolution is the changes of
symmetry corresponding to the appearance of new parts and dynamics.[25][26]
In chemistry

Symmetry is important to chemistry because it undergirds essentially all

specific interactions between molecules in nature (i.e., via the interaction
of natural and human-made chiral molecules with inherently chiral
biological systems). The control of the symmetry of molecules produced in
modern chemical synthesis contributes to the ability of scientists to offer
therapeutic interventions with minimal side effects. A rigorous
understanding of symmetry explains fundamental observations in quantum
chemistry, and in the applied areas of spectroscopy and crystallography.
The theory and application of symmetry to these areas of physical science
draws heavily on the mathematical area of group theory.[27]

In psychology and neuroscience

Many animals are
For a human observer, some symmetry types are more salient than others, approximately mirror-
in particular the most salient is a reflection with a vertical axis, like that symmetric, though internal
present in the human face. Ernst Mach made this observation in his book organs are often arranged
"The analysis of sensations" (1897),[28] and this implies that perception of asymmetrically.
symmetry is not a general response to all types of regularities. Both
behavioural and neurophysiological studies have confirmed the special
sensitivity to reflection symmetry in humans and also in other animals.[29]
Early studies within the Gestalt tradition suggested that bilateral symmetry
was one of the key factors in perceptual grouping. This is known as the
Law of Symmetry. The role of symmetry in grouping and figure/ground
organization has been confirmed in many studies. For instance, detection
of reflectional symmetry is faster when this is a property of a single
object.[30] Studies of human perception and psychophysics have shown
that detection of symmetry is fast, efficient and robust to perturbations. For
example, symmetry can be detected with presentations between 100 and
150 milliseconds.[31]

More recent neuroimaging studies have documented which brain regions

are active during perception of symmetry. Sasaki et al.[32] used functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare responses for patterns
with symmetrical or random dots. A strong activity was present in Leonardo da Vinci's 'Vitruvian
extrastriate regions of the occipital cortex but not in the primary visual Man' (ca. 1487) is often used
cortex. The extrastriate regions included V3A, V4, V7, and the lateral as a representation of
occipital complex (LOC). Electrophysiological studies have found a late symmetry in the human body
posterior negativity that originates from the same areas.[33] In general, a and, by extension, the natural
large part of the visual system seems to be involved in processing visual universe.
symmetry, and these areas involve similar networks to those responsible
for detecting and recognising objects.[34]

In social interactions
People observe the symmetrical nature, often including asymmetrical balance, of social interactions in a
variety of contexts. These include assessments of reciprocity, empathy, sympathy, apology, dialogue,
respect, justice, and revenge. Reflective equilibrium is the balance that may be attained through deliberative
mutual adjustment among general principles and specific judgments.[35] Symmetrical interactions send the
moral message "we are all the same" while asymmetrical interactions may send the message "I am special;
better than you." Peer relationships, such as can be governed by the golden rule, are based on symmetry,
whereas power relationships are based on asymmetry.[36] Symmetrical relationships can to some degree be
maintained by simple (game theory) strategies seen in symmetric games such as tit for tat.[37]

In the arts

In architecture

Symmetry finds its ways into

Symmetric arcades of a
portico in the Great Mosque of
Kairouan also called the
Mosque of Uqba, in Tunisia.
architecture at every scale, from
the overall external views of
buildings such as Gothic cathedrals
and The White House, through the
layout of the individual floor plans, The ceiling of Lotfollah mosque,
and down to the design of Isfahan, Iran has 8-fold symmetries.
individual building elements such
as tile mosaics. Islamic buildings
such as the Taj Mahal and the
Lotfollah mosque make elaborate
use of symmetry both in their
structure and in their
ornamentation. [38][39] Moorish
buildings like the Alhambra are
ornamented with complex patterns
made using translational and Seen from the side, the Taj Mahal
has bilateral symmetry; from the top
reflection symmetries as well as
(in plan), it has fourfold symmetry.
rotations.[40]

It has been said that only bad architects rely on a "symmetrical

layout of blocks, masses and structures";[41] Modernist architecture, starting with International style, relies
instead on "wings and balance of masses".[41]

In pottery and metal vessels

Since the earliest uses of pottery wheels to help shape clay vessels,
pottery has had a strong relationship to symmetry. Pottery created
using a wheel acquires full rotational symmetry in its cross-section,
while allowing substantial freedom of shape in the vertical direction.
Upon this inherently symmetrical starting point, potters from ancient
times onwards have added patterns that modify the rotational
symmetry to achieve visual objectives.

Cast metal vessels lacked the inherent rotational symmetry of wheel-

made pottery, but otherwise provided a similar opportunity to Clay pots thrown on a pottery wheel
decorate their surfaces with patterns pleasing to those who used acquire rotational symmetry.
them. The ancient Chinese, for example, used symmetrical patterns
in their bronze castings as early as the 17th century BC. Bronze
vessels exhibited both a bilateral main motif and a repetitive translated border design.[42]
In carpets and rugs

A long tradition of the use of symmetry in carpet

and rug patterns spans a variety of cultures.
American Navajo Indians used bold diagonals and
rectangular motifs. Many Oriental rugs have
intricate reflected centers and borders that translate
Persian rug with rectangular symmetry a pattern. Not surprisingly, rectangular rugs have
typically the symmetries of a rectangle—that is,
motifs that are reflected across both the horizontal
and vertical axes (see Klein four-group § Geometry).[43][44]

In music

Symmetry is not restricted to the visual arts. Its role in the history of
music touches many aspects of the creation and perception of music.

Musical form

Symmetry has been used as a formal constraint by many composers,

such as the arch (swell) form (ABCBA) used by Steve Reich, Béla Major and minor triads on the white
piano keys are symmetrical to the D.
Bartók, and James Tenney. In classical music, Bach used the
(compare article) (file)
symmetry concepts of permutation and invariance.[45]

Pitch structures

Symmetry is also an important consideration in the formation of scales and chords, traditional or tonal music
being made up of non-symmetrical groups of pitches, such as the diatonic scale or the major chord.
Symmetrical scales or chords, such as the whole tone scale, augmented chord, or diminished seventh chord
(diminished-diminished seventh), are said to lack direction or a sense of forward motion, are ambiguous as
to the key or tonal center, and have a less specific diatonic functionality. However, composers such as Alban
Berg, Béla Bartók, and George Perle have used axes of symmetry and/or interval cycles in an analogous way
to keys or non-tonal tonal centers.[46] George Perle explains "C–E, D–F ♯ , [and] Eb–G, are different
instances of the same interval … the other kind of identity. … has to do with axes of symmetry. C–E belongs
to a family of symmetrically related dyads as follows:"[46]

D D♯ E F F♯ G G♯
D C♯ C B A♯ A G♯

Thus in addition to being part of the interval-4 family, C–E is also a part of the sum-4 family (with C equal
to 0).[46]

2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+ 2 1 0 11 10 9 8
4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Interval cycles are symmetrical and thus non-diatonic. However, a seven pitch segment of C5 (the cycle of
fifths, which are enharmonic with the cycle of fourths) will produce the diatonic major scale. Cyclic tonal
progressions in the works of Romantic composers such as Gustav Mahler and Richard Wagner form a link
with the cyclic pitch successions in the atonal music of Modernists such as Bartók, Alexander Scriabin,
Edgard Varèse, and the Vienna school. At the same time, these progressions signal the end of tonality.[46][47]

The first extended composition consistently based on symmetrical pitch relations was probably Alban Berg's
Quartet, Op. 3 (1910).[47]

Equivalency

Tone rows or pitch class sets which are invariant under retrograde are horizontally symmetrical, under
inversion vertically. See also Asymmetric rhythm.

In quilts

As quilts are made from square blocks (usually 9, 16, or 25 pieces to a block)
with each smaller piece usually consisting of fabric triangles, the craft lends itself
readily to the application of symmetry.[48]

In other arts and crafts

Symmetries appear in the design of objects of

Kitchen kaleidoscope
quilt block
all kinds. Examples include beadwork,
furniture, sand paintings, knotwork, masks, and
musical instruments. Symmetries are central to
the art of M.C. Escher and the many applications of tessellation in art and
craft forms such as wallpaper, ceramic tilework such as in Islamic
geometric decoration, batik, ikat, carpet-making, and many kinds of textile
and embroidery patterns.[49]

Celtic knotwork showing p4

In aesthetics symmetry

The relationship of symmetry to aesthetics is complex. Humans find

bilateral symmetry in faces physically attractive;[50] it indicates health and genetic fitness.[51][52] Opposed
to this is the tendency for excessive symmetry to be perceived as boring or uninteresting. People prefer
shapes that have some symmetry, but enough complexity to make them interesting.[53]

In literature

Symmetry can be found in various forms in literature, a simple example being the palindrome where a brief
text reads the same forwards or backwards. Stories may have a symmetrical structure, as in the rise:fall
pattern of Beowulf.[54]

See also
Automorphism Fixed points of isometry groups in Euclidean
Burnside's lemma space – center of symmetry
Chirality Isotropy
Even and odd functions Palindrome
Spacetime symmetries
 Spontaneous symmetry breaking Symmetries of polyominoes
Symmetry-breaking constraints Symmetry group
Symmetric relation Wallpaper group
Symmetries of polyiamonds

Notes
a. For example, Aristotle ascribed spherical shape to the heavenly bodies, attributing this formally
defined geometric measure of symmetry to the natural order and perfection of the cosmos.
b. Symmetric objects can be material, such as a person, crystal, quilt, floor tiles, or molecule, or it
can be an abstract structure such as a mathematical equation or a series of tones (music).

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and judgements of apparent health Support for a “‘ good genes ’” explanation of the
attractiveness – symmetry relationship, 22, 417–429.
53. Arnheim, Rudolf (1969). Visual Thinking (https://archive.org/details/visualthinking00rudo).
University of California Press.
54. Jenny Lea Bowman (2009). "Symmetrical Aesthetics of Beowulf" (http://trace.tennessee.edu/c
gi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1925&context=utk_gradthes). University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Further reading
The Equation That Couldn't Be Solved: How Mathematical Genius Discovered the Language
of Symmetry, Mario Livio, Souvenir Press 2006, ISBN 0-285-63743-6

External links
Symmetry (definition) (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1522069) at the
Encyclopædia Britannica
Symmetry (physics) (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/577918) at the
Encyclopædia Britannica
Symmetry (biology) (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/577895) at the
Encyclopædia Britannica
Dutch: Symmetry Around a Point in the Plane (http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/SYMMETRY/2DPT
GRP.HTM)
Chapman: Aesthetics of Symmetry (http://home.earthlink.net/~jdc24/symmetry.htm)
ISIS Symmetry (http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/~jablans/isis0.htm)
Symmetry (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00776v8), BBC Radio 4 discussion with Fay
Dowker, Marcus du Sautoy & Ian Stewart (In Our Time, Apr. 19, 2007)

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