Green Functions in Electrodynamics-

Non-covariant formalism

ics
am
yn
od
tr
ec
El
& Shobhit Mahajan
shobhit.mahajan@gmail.com
r y
eo
Th
tic
ne
ag
om
tr
ec
El

Version 1.0
Last modified on March 29, 2020
 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

ics
Chapter 1

am
Wave Solutions: Non-covariant approach

yn
od
1.1 Wave Solutions in Electrodynamics

tr
ec
Let us review what we have learnt so far. We reviewed the potential formalism of electrodynamics and
got the Maxwell’s equations in terms of the four potential, Aµ . We also studied gauge transformations,

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specifically the Lorenz and Coulomb gauges. From the evolution equation for the four potential, we
obtained the evolution equations for the three vector potential, A and the scalar potential φ in the two
gauges. These were inhomogeneous equations for the scalar and vector potentials in the Lorenz and
&
Coulomb gauges. These equations are
y
Lorenz Gauge:
r

R
eo

1 ∂ 2φ
φ = − ∇2 φ = 4πρ (1.1)
Th

c2 ∂t2

R 1 ∂ 2A
− ∇2 A =
4πJ
tic

= 2 2
(1.2)
c ∂t c
Coulomb Gauge
ne

R
ag

∇2 φ = −4πρ (1.3)

R
om

1 ∂ 2A 4π
∇2 A − 2 2
= − Jt (1.4)
c ∂t c
tr

We want to solve these equations using the Green function approach which we outlined in the previous
ec

set of notes. This is obviously not a covariant approach since we are going to solve for the three vector
A and the scalar φ separately. However we shall first do this to illustrate the general principles and
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then later on follow a covariant approach. To start with, we consider the equations in the Lorenz gauge

1.1.1 Lorenz Gauge

We first attempt to solve the equations in the Lorenz gauge. Recall that the equations for both φ and
A are of the form

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

1 ∂ 2φ
 
2
Ψ(x, t) = 2 2 − ∇ Ψ(x, t) = 4πf (x, t) (1.5)
c ∂t
We will attempt to solve this equation using the appropriate Green Function. From the discussion

ics
on Green functions, we know that all we need to do is to find the Green function for the d’Alembertian
operator (which is a linear operator) for the appropriate boundary conditions. Notice that unlike

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the Poisson equation that we discussed when we discussed Green functions, the equation has time
dependence and so the Green function would also be time dependent. The way to remove the explicit
time dependence of the equation is to go to Fourier space. Recall that we do exactly this when we ty

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to solve the wave equation classically. We assume that both the wavefunction, Ψ(x, t) and the source
function, f (x, t) have Fourier expansions given by

od
∞
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x, ω)e−iωt dω (1.6)

tr
−∞

ec
and
∞

El
f (x, t) = f (x, ω)e−iωt dω (1.7)
−∞
&
The inverse transformations, for going from time domain to the frequency domain are obviously,
∞
1
y
Ψ(x, ω) = Ψ(x, t)eiωt dt (1.8)
r
2π
eo

−∞

and
∞
Th

1
f (x, ω) = f (x, t)eiωt dt (1.9)
2π
−∞
tic

Now we also know that the frequency (ν) and the wavelength λ are related by
c = νλ
ne

and the angular frequency ω and wavenumber k are given by

ag

2π
ω = 2πν k=
λ
om

and hence ω
c=
k
tr

Question: Use the Fourier expansions above into the original differential equation
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Eq(1.5) and use the fourier transforms for derivatives discussed in the Green Function
notes to obtain the equation in the frequency domain given by
El

∇2 + k 2 Ψ(x, ω) = −4πf (x, ω)

 
(1.10)

This is the inhomogeneous Helmhotz equation. Notice that the Helmhotz equation
reduces to the Poisson equation for k = 0. Our task is thus to find the Green function for the

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

Helmholtz equation.

The Green function is, as we have seen, the solution to

∇ + k 2 Gω (x, x0 ) = δ 3 (x − x0 )
 2

ics

(1.11)
that is the solution to the differential equation with a delta function source.

am
If there are no boundary surfaces, which we can assume as a boundary condition, then it follows that
the Green function must be translationally symmetric. This basically means that I can shift the origin

yn
of the coordinate system and it should not change. This implies that it is only a function of x − x0 .
Further, we assume that there is spherical symmetry in the system and this implies that the Green

od
function can only be a function of the magnitude of x − x0 or R = |x − x0 |. These two conditions imply,
Gω (x, x0 ) = Gω (x − x0 ) = Gω (R) = Gω (|R|) = Gω (R)

tr
Thus we have finally

ec
∇2 + k 2 Gω (R) = δ 3 (R)
 
(1.12)

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So the problem has been reduced to finding the solution of Eq(1.12). Once we have the
Green Function, then we know from our discussion of Green function that the wavefunction Ψ(x, ω) is
given by &
 
3 0 0 0
Ψ(x, ω) = −4π d x f (x , ω)Gω (x, x ) = −4π d3 x0 f (x0 , ω)Gω (R) (1.13)
r y
Let us for the moment not solve Eq(1.12) and instead see what the situation is in the Coulomb
eo

Gauge.
Th

1.1.2 Coulomb Gauge

In the Coulomb gauge the equations satisfied by φ and A are Eq(1.3 & 1.4)
tic

∇2 φ(x, t) = −4πρ(x, t)
ne

1 ∂ 2 A(x, t) 4π
∇2 A(x, t) − = − J t (x, t)
c2 ∂t2 c
ag

We notice that the equation for A is the same as that in the Lorenz gauge. However, the equation
for φ is the time dependent Poisson equation. We have seen how to solve the usual Poisson equation
om

in our Green function notes. We now solve this time dependent equation again using the same method
as we used above for the Lorenz gauge.
tr

We need to find the Green function for −∇2 . So we expand φ(x, t) and ρ(x, t) in Fourier series as
ec

∞
El

φ(x, t) = dωφ(x, ω)e−iωt (1.14)

−∞

and
∞
ρ(x, t) = dωρ(x, ω)e−iωt (1.15)
−∞

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

Clearly, φ(x, ω) and ρ(x, ω) are Fourier transforms of φ(x, t) and ρ(x, t)
∞
1
φ(x, ω) = dtφ(x, t)eiωt (1.16)
2π

ics
−∞

and
∞

am
1
ρ(x, ω) = dtρ(x, t)eiωt (1.17)
2π
−∞

yn
Then the solution to the equation will be given by


od
φ(x, ω) = −4π d3 x0 ρ(x0 , ω)Gω (x, x0 ) (1.18)

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where Gω (x, x0 ) is the solution to
∇2 Gω (x, x0 ) = δ 3 (x − x0 )

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(1.19)
Once again using translation and spherical symmetry we get

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∇2 Gω (R) = δ 3 (R) R ≡ x − x0 (1.20)

1.1.3 Solution to Poisson’s Equation

&
y
We now have the two equations that we need to solve to get the solution in the two gauges. We have
r
the inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation for A in both the gauges and the Poisson equation for φ in the
eo

Coulomb gauge. If we can find the Green functions which are solutions to Eq(1.12) and Eq(1.20), we
can find the wavefunctions which are solutions to the original equations. Let us first solve Eq(1.20).
Th

To do this, we expand the Green function in a Fourier series,


1
d3 k G̃(k)e−ik·R
tic

Gω (R) = (1.21)
(2π)3
where G̃(k) is the Fourier transform of Gω (R)
ne


d3 RGω (R)eik·R
ag

G̃(k) = (1.22)
om

We also know that the delta function, δ 3 (R) can be written as


1
3
δ (R) = d3 ke−ik·R (1.23)
tr

(2π)3
ec

Question: Using Eq(1.23), show that the Fourier expansion of the Green Function Gω (R)
is given by 
El

1 3 1 −ik·R
Gω (R) = − d k 2e (1.24)
(2π)3 k

Thus we have reduced the problem to solving this integral to get Gω (R) from which we can get φ(x)
as we have seen. We can solve this integral in several different ways. Let us see how to do it.

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

We choose the k to be along the ẑ axis

k = kẑ
Then in spherical coordinates, we have

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d3 k = k 2 dk sin θdθdφ

am
and
k · R = kR cos θ
Putting all this into Eq(1.24), we have

yn
∞ π 2π
1 1 −ikR cos θ 2

od
Gω (R) = − e k dk sin θdθdφ (1.25)
(2π)3 k2
0 0 0

tr
which gives us
∞ π 2π

ec
1
Gω (R) = − e−ikR cos θ dk sin θdθdφ (1.26)
(2π)3

El
0 0 0

Doing the φ integration, and using the substitution,

χ = cos θ
&
y
we get
∞ −1
r

1
eo

Gω (R) = 2 e−ikRχ dkdχ (1.27)

4π
0 1
Th

Doing the χ integration then gives us

∞  
1 2 sin kR
tic

Gω (R) = 2 − dk (1.28)
4π kR
0
ne

or
∞  
1 sin kR 1 π 
Gω (R) = − 2 d(kR) = − (1.29)
ag

2π R kR 2π 2 R 2
0
om

and so we finally get

R Green Function Poisson Equation Gω (R) = −

1
=−
1
(1.30)
tr

4πR 4π|x − x0 |
ec

which is exactly what we expect for the Green function for the Poisson equation which
recall is the solution that is the potential for a point charge at x0 .
El

Question: Using Contour integration, solve the integral in Eq(1.24). You should do this
in two different ways- one by shifting the poles and second by shifting the contour and see
that both give the same result.

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

1.1.4 Solution to the Wave Equation

Our next task is to find the Green function and hence the solution to the wave equation satisfied by
the vector potential A in both the Lorenz and Coulomb gauges. Recall that the Green Function is the

ics
solution to Eq(1.12) which by using Eq(1.13) will give us the wavefunction.

∇2 + k 2 Gω (R) = δ 3 (R)
 

am
Since we are assuming spherical symmetry, we write out the Laplacian in spherical polar coordinates,
∂ 2ψ
   
1 ∂ 2 ∂ψ 1 ∂ ∂ψ 1

yn
2
∇ψ= 2 r + 2 sin θ + 2 2
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2

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Since there is spherical symmetry, the θ and φ contributions vanish and we have
 
1 ∂ 2 ∂Gω (R)

tr
2
r + k 2 Gω (R) = δ 3 (R) (1.31)
r ∂r ∂r

ec
we can write this as (since Gω is a function of R alone)

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1 ∂ 2 (RGω (R))
+ k 2 Gω (R) = δ 3 (R) (1.32)
R ∂R2
or  2  &
∂
2
2
+ k (RGω (R)) = Rδ 3 (R) (1.33)
∂R
y
Notice that everywhere except at R = 0, the quantity, RGω (R) satisfies the homogeneous equation,
r
eo

 2 
∂ 2
+ k (RGω (R)) = 0 (1.34)
∂R2
Th

This homogeneous equation has a solution,

RGω (R) = AeikR + Be−ikR (1.35)
tic

as can be easily verified. We still need to find the arbitrary constants, A and B. To do this, note
that as R → 0, the delta function starts to come into play. In the limit, R → 0, we also have kR  1
ne

and hence the equation reduces to the Poisson equation. In that limit, that is kR → 0, we thus have
ag

1
lim Gω (R) = − (1.36)
kR→0 4πR
om

from Eq(1.30). Thus we have the general solution for the Green function as
−
Gω (R) = AG+
ω (R) + BGω (R) (1.37)
tr

where
ec

e±ikR
G±
ω (R) =
R
El

and
1
A+B =−
4π
We can see this in another way. We take this general solution, Eq(1.35) and insert this into the
original equation,  2
∇ + k 2 Gω (R) = δ 3 (R)


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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

and integrate over a small volume V around R = 0. We get

    
3 2 1 1
(A + B) d R∇ + k (A + B) d R ≈ d3 Rδ(R)
2 3
(1.38)
R R

ics
V V V

which is true if kR  1. Now the second term goes to zero as R → 0 since it is

 

am
2 1 1
k (A + B) 3
d R = 4πk 2 (A + B) R2 dR
R R
V V

yn
Also we know that  
1

od
2
∇ = −4πδ 3 (R)
R
Thus we have finally  

tr
3 3
(A + B) d R(−4πδ (R)) = d3 Rδ(R) (1.39)

ec
V V

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and thus in this approximation,
1
A+B =−
4π
&
Thus we can write the general solution for the Green function as
G−
y
− ω (R)
Gω (R) = A(G+
ω (R) − Gω (R)) − (1.40)
r
4π
eo

One can ask the question as to why there was only one solution to the Poisson equation and here we
have two solutions. Actually, the general solution of any inhomogeneous equation is always of the form
Th

General Solution = Particular Solution to the inhomogeneous equation + general solu-

tion to the homogeneous equation
tic

−
In our case we can think of G+
ω (R) or Gω (R) as a particular solution to the inhomogeneous equation
ne

and to this we can add the general solution to the homogeneous equation as

G− + − +
ω (R) = Gω (R) + (Gω (R) − Gω (R))
ag

where obviously (G− +

ω (R) − Gω (R)) satisfies the homogeneous equation.
om

−
The two terms with G+ ω (R) and Gω (R) represent spherical waves. The first term is a diverging
spherical wave from the origin while the second term is a converging spherical wave.
tr

As is always the case with differential equations, the choice of A and B depends on the boundary
ec

conditions in time for our physical situation. We can think about a source which is switched on only
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at time t = 0. Then it is obvious that only the first term is the operational term which is appropriate
since it describes waves emanating from the origin after the source is switched on. This is correct but
it is only a convention. We next turn to end the discussion with finding the potentials which is what
our original problem was.

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

1.2 Potential Solutions

We now have the Green functions for the Poisson equation and also the wave (Helmholtz) equation,
Eq(1.30) and Eq(1.37 & 1.40). We now need to find the potentials. We first discuss the Lorenz gauge

ics
in which we know that the scalar and vector potentials both satisfy a inhomogeneous wave equation.
(Eq(1.1 & 1.2).

am
1.2.1 Lorenz Gauge

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We substitute the Green function, Eq(1.40) into the equation for the wave function, Eq(1.13). Doing
this, we get

od


tr
Ψ(x, ω) = −4π d3 x0 f (x0 , ω)Gω (R)


ec
= −4π d3 x0 f (x0 , ω)(AG+ −
ω (R) + BGω (R))

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= AΨ+ (x, ω) + BΨ− (x, ω) (1.41)
where  &
±
Ψ (x, ω) = −4π d3 x0 f (x0 , ω)G±
ω (R) (1.42)
y
This gives us Ψ(x, ω). But we are interested in Ψ(x, t). So we substitute this into Eq(1.6)
r
eo

∞
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x, ω)e−iωt dω
Th

−∞

to get
Ψ(x, t) = AΨ+ (x, t) + BΨ− (x, t) (1.43)
tic

where
 ∞
ne

± 3 0
Ψ (x, t) = −4π dx f (x0 , ω)G±
ω (R)e
−iωt
dω (1.44)
ag

−∞

But we know what G±

ω (R) is
om

e±ikR
G±
ω (R) =
R
Substituting and replacing R by |x − x0 |, we get
tr

 ∞
ec

0
± 3 0 0 e±ik|x−x | −iωt
Ψ (x, t) = −4π dx f (x , ω) e dω (1.45)
|x − x0 |
El

−∞

R
We now define
k 1 R
t± = t ∓ |x − x0 | = t ∓ |x − x0 | = t ∓ (1.46)
ω c c

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

Then we can write Eq(1.45) as

 ∞
± 3 0 f (x0 , ω) −iωt±
Ψ (x, t± ) = −4π dx e dω (1.47)
|x − x0 |

ics
−∞

Recall that (Eq(1.7)) we can write

am
∞
f (x0 , ω)e−iωt± dω = f (x0 , t± )

yn
−∞

od
Thus we see that we have
Ψ(x, t) = AΨ+ (x, t) + BΨ− (x, t) (1.48)

tr
where 
± f (x0 , t± )
Ψ (x, t) = −4π d 3 x0 (1.49)

ec
|x − x0 |
We can understand the different time behaviour of the two Green function solutions, G±

El
ω (R) by con-
structing the time dependent Green functions. These will satisfy

1 ∂ 2φ
c2 ∂t2
2

− ∇ G± 0 0
& 3 0 0
ω (x, t; x , t ) = −4πδ (x − x )δ(t − t ) (1.50)
y
From the inverse Fourier transform definition, Eq(1.8 & 1.9) we see that the source term in Eq(1.10)
r
and Eq(1.50) is
eo

1 0
−4πδ 3 (x − x0 ) eiωt
2π
Th

The Green functions are thus

1 iωt0
G±ω (R) e
2π
tic

Substituting this into the time dependent Green function definition, Eq(1.6 & 1.7), we get
∞
e±ikR −iωτ
ne

± 1
G (R, τ ) = e dω (1.51)
2π R
−∞
ag

where
om

τ = t − t0
is the relative time. Thus we see that the Green function is only a function of the relative
tr

distance R and the relative time τ between the source and field point. If there is no dispersion
ec

in the medium, we then have the relation

ω
c=
El

k
and thus
∞
± 1 1 ωR 1 R
G (R, τ ) = e±i c e−iωτ dω = δ(−τ ± ) (1.52)
2π R R c
−∞

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

using the definition of a delta function as

∞
0 1 0
δ(x − x ) = eiω(x−x ) dω
2π

ics
−∞

and since R = |x − x0 | we have

am
|x − x0 |
  
± 1 0
G (R, τ ) = δ t − t∓ (1.53)
|x − x0 | c

yn
The Green function G+ is called the retarded Green function because it is associated with

od
a wave disturbance. However, the argument of the delta function, ensures that the effect
which is observed at the field point x at time t is caused by the source at x0 that is at a

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distance R at an earlier time t0 = t − Rc . This time difference is precisely the time required
for a signal moving at c to go from x0 to x. Similarly G− is the advanced Green function

ec
which gives us the result or effect of the source at an advanced or later time t + Rc .

El
Now we have already studied that causes must come before effects, that is causality. Thus we only
retain the retarded Green function (or the potential derived from it) as the physical solution. Thus we
have
A+B =−
1
&A=−
1
4π 4π
y
since B = 0 because we only consider the retarded Green function. Thus from Eq(1.41 & 1.42), we
r

have 
eo

f (x0 , t0r )
Ψ(x, t) = d3 x0 (1.54)
|x − x0 |
Th

R
where
|x − x0 |
t0r ≡ t0+ = t −
tic

(1.55)
c
ne

is the retarded time. Since the wavefunction Ψ satisfied the equations for the scalar and vector
potentials in the Lorenz gauge, we finally have

R 
ag

0 0
 
3 0 ρ(x , t )
φ(x, t) = d x (1.56)
|x − x0 | r
om

where [ ]r indicates that the quantity has to be evaluated at the retarded time. Similarly

R
tr

  0 0

1 3 0 J (x , t )
A(x, t) = dx (1.57)
ec

c |x − x0 | r
El

We have thus solved for the potentials in the Lorenz gauge. Once the source terms are known, these
integrals can in principle be solved to get the solution to the problem we started with. Of course, these
equations only give us the potentials while the actual observables are the fields which can easily be
obtained from the potentials.

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

1.2.2 Coulomb Gauge

We need to solve the equations for the scalar and vector potentials in the Coulomb Gauge. (Eq(1.3 &
1.4))
∇2 φ = −4πρ

ics
1 ∂ 2A 4π
∇2 A − = − Jt

am
c2 ∂t2 c
We have already found the Green function for the Poisson equation in Eq(1.30)

yn
1 1
Gω (R) = − =−
4πR 4π|x − x0 |

od
Thus the scalar potential is simply

ρω (x0 )

tr
φω (x) = d 3 x0 (1.58)
|x − x0 |

ec
To get the time dependent potential, we use the Fourier transforms (Eq(1.14 & 1.16) to get

R
El
  
3 0 ρω (x0 ) −iωt ρ(x0 , t)
φ(x, t) = dx dω e = d 3 x0 (1.59)
|x − x0 | & |x − x0 |

Note that in this instance, the potential is just the instantaneous usual Coulomb potential due to
y
ρ(x0 , t).
r
eo

For the vector potential, the equation is once again the wave equation (or Helmholtz equation in k
space) and so the solutions are just like those in Lorenz gauge though with only the transverse current
Th

density contributing as we saw earlier. Thus

R A(x, t) =
1
  0 0
3 0 J t (x , t )
dx

(1.60)
tic

c |x − x0 | r

Since only the transverse component of J contributes in the Coulomb gauge, it is also called the
ne

Transverse gauge.
ag
om
tr
ec
El

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