1 Background Information

1.1 Requirements for Operation of System

A fluorescent lighting fixture consists of 4 major components and the supply all connected in
parallel:

 Fluorescent Tube
 Starter Switch
 Ballast
 Capacitor

All components are necessary for operation of the lamp, except the capacitor. However it is
recommended to include it in the design for power factor correction purposes. This would be
elaborated on further in this project.

SPECS OF SYSTEM

1.2 Description for Operation of System

Operation of Bulb

Fluorescent lamps are commonly used nowadays and are rapidly replacing their incandescent
counterparts. This is as a result of them being more energy efficient, allowing them to produce
the same amount of light using less power. Fluorescent lamps work on the principle of using
electricity to excite gas molecules, emitting short wave radiation.

Fluorescent lamps consist of an inert gas at low pressure, usually argon, sealed in a glass tube
along with a few drops of mercury. Electrode filaments are placed at either end of the tube. The
electrode filaments are preheated to reduce the voltage requirements and remain hot
throughout the operation of the lamp. The inside surface of the glass tube is coated with the
element phosphor, a white powder. It is this coating that allows the tube to produce light.
When a potential difference is applied to the electrodes, the mercury vaporises and causes
electrons to move from one end of the tube to another. Mercury atoms then become excited
and electrons of the atoms move from low energy levels to higher energy levels. When
electrons move back down to a lower energy level short wave ultra violet radiation is released.
This ultra violet radiation is not part of the visible spectrum and hence phosphor is needed.
Phosphor, being a fluorescent material absorbs ultraviolet radiation and emits photons of light
in the visible part of the spectrum. Hence fluorescent light is produced. A fluorescent lamp
converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently than the traditional incandescent
lamp.

Initially when the lamp is off, and there is no potential difference across the electrodes, the
mixture of mercury and inert gas is non-conductive. Therefore when a voltage is first applied
across the terminals, a high voltage is needed to overcome the resistance and initiate the
discharge. This is provided by the ballast of the lamp fixture However, once this initial condition
occurs, a much lower voltage is needed to maintain the operation of the lamp.

Operation of Circuit – Starter and Ballast

As stated in the previous section, the mercury atoms in the fluorescent tube need to be ionised
before the arc is formed between the electrodes to allow electron flow between electrodes. A
relatively high voltage is required for this to occur. A starter is used to initially allow for the
creation of this high voltage, the process is known as preheating. The starter consists of a small
gas-discharge tube, containing an inert gas such as argon or neon and a bimetallic electrode. As
a potential difference is applied to the fluorescent lamp circuit, a glow gas discharge is initiated
over the electrodes of the starter, subsequently heating the gas of the starter. This heat causes
the bimetallic strip to bend and complete the circuit as the electrodes of the starter now touch.
This causes the supply voltage to now be connected in series with the ballast and the
electrodes of the lamp. The lamp filaments begin to glow and now emit electrons via
thermionic emission into the glass tube. However the gas in the starter now cools, causing the
bimetallic strip to return to its original position, effectively breaking the circuit. This in turn
results in an inductive kick from the ballast which creates the high voltage necessary for the
starting of the lamp.
Since the main discharge keeps the electrode hot, thermionic emission continues, without the
need of the starter. The fluorescent tube now remains lit, as the resistance of the gas in the
tube is now lower, thus a lower voltage is required to maintain the flow of electrons.

However, this is not the only function of the ballast. Consider the gas discharge of a fluorescent
lamp where large amounts of electrons are produced. This large amount of electrons would
have a large current associated with it. If this current is not controlled, it can cause electrical
components in the circuit to dangerously blow out, and causing the tube to shatter. The ballast
prevents this from occurring by regulating the flow of current in the circuit. The inductor in a
ballast allows it to do this. Ballasts are used in instances where an electrical is unable to control
the current flowing through it. In an alternating supply, the current rises causing the inductor to
absorb energy building up its magnetic field. In the AC supply when the mains voltage drops to
zero, the magnetic energy that was stored, provides energy to maintain the lighting of the tube.
The cycle is then repeated. The impedance of the ballast at 50-60Hz effectively limits and
controls the current through the bulb.

Operation of Relay and Start Stop Push Buttons

The relay and the start/ stop push buttons are designed to act as the switches for controlling
the bulb. Essentially they start and stop buttons are normally open and normally closed
switches respectively. The circuit under consideration is designed to be turned on when the
start button is pressed, and would remain on until the stop button is pressed. These buttons
works hand in hand with the relay's switch to turn the circuit on. This would be explained
further in the project.

Relay Definition

A relay is a type of electromechanical switch used in power supplies, counting systems and
many other applications. It is used to control a large current with a small current. Most relays
require a small continuous voltage to stay on. A latching relay is different. It uses a pulse to
move the switch, then stays in position, slightly reducing the electric power requirement.
1.3 Existing Types of Fluorescent Lamps
Presently there are 2 basic types of fluorescent lamps. Over the years investments were made
to develop more practical fluorescent lighting as they were seen to be more efficient at
illumination than their incandescent counterparts. Hence, the original design was modified to
produce more efficient lighting systems:

 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's)

 Fluorescent Tube and Circline Lamps

Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's)

Compact Florescent Lamps function similarly to standard fluorescent lamps. They consist of a
magnetic or electronic ballasts and a tube coated with fluorescent material containing a
mixture of inert gas and mercury, which operates similarly as previously described. There are
two types of CFL's integrated and non-integrated lamps. Integrated lamps contain the tube as
well an electronic ballast in one complete unit. These usually fit into standard incandescent
light sockets, this reduces the cost of conversion to fluorescent lighting. Non integrated lamps
where the ballast and the bulb are in two separate units.

CFL's are now widely used globally, as the cost of these fixtures have declined over the years.
Many people were opting to switch to this type of lamp as they last over 10,000 hours and use
less energy per lumen compared to incandescent lamps. These bulb can vary in colour by
varying the mixture of phosphor coating of the bulb. This allows for colours of white such as
daylight, cool white, warm white and full spectrum, as seen in the diagram below:
Fluorescent Tube and Circline Lamps

The luminaire or lighting fixture consists two main components; the fluorescent tube and the
ballast enclosed in a fixture. The tube is coated with fluorescent material containing a mixture
of inert gas and mercury, which operates similarly as previously described. The ballast may be
inductive or electronic in nature. These bulbs vary in length consisting of standard lengths
ranging from 12 inches to 96 inches with usually 1 ½ inch diameter with two pins on either end
of the tube. However the diameter of the bulb may vary depending on the type of ballast used
in the fixture or inert gas used in the tube. Circline lamps operate almost identically, however,
as the name states, the bulbs and housing are circular in shape.

Fluorescent tubes and circline lamps are used in home, office and even industry. Bulbs tend to
last up to 20,000 hours, and ballast last as long as 50, 000 hours.

Other Types of Lamps

Apart from the two main types, other types of fluorescent lamps include:

 Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamps

 Black Lights
 Tanning Lamps
 Grow Lamps
 Infrared Lamps
 Bilirubin Lamps
 Germicidal Lamps
 Electrodeless Lamps
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluorescent Lighting Systems

There are two types of fluorescent lighting systems, with respect to the type of ballast used:

 Inductive/ magnetic ballast

 Electronic ballast

INDUCTIVE BALLASTS

The inductive ballast was the first type of ballast developed and the same general principle

of operation applies in these types of ballast today. The advantages and disadvantages of

this kind of ballast include:

Advantages:

 The major advantage of the inductive ballast is that it effectively regulates the

current for the load.

 They are relatively cheap compared to other types of ballasts

 Relatively long life cycle

DISADVANTAGES

 Inductive Ballasts are relatively heavy and bulky.

 There is a delay before the fixture is switched on, as the large inductance causes a slow

response to changes in current.

 There is a distinctive "hum" when fixtures with these types of ballasts are in operation,

making it unsuitable for quite environments.

ELECTRONIC BALLAST

ADVANTAGES

1) Efficiency: they do not generate a lot of internal heat and reduces the losses in straight

tube fluorescent lamps because of their frequency operations. Also because they lack

the core and coil, power losses are reduced.

2) Reduced flickering of the lamp: this is due to their high frequency operations.

3) Lighter in mass.

4) Operates silently.

5) Ability to drive more lamps and results in reduced costing.

DISADVANTAGES

1) Designed as a non serviceable disposable product.

2) Higher initial cost outlay compared to magnetic ballasts.

2 Design Brief
For this year one design project, students enrolled in this course are required to design a
system to power a small fluorescent lamp. The system must utilise a pair start/stop push button
switches which controls a relay. The relay, when switched on, connects the 110V mains supply
to the fluorescent lamp, effectively powering on the system. Additionally, since the ballast of
the lamp as well as the coils of the relay are inductive, the current would now lag the voltage.
Therefore the power the power factor of the system is to be determined. A capacitor is then to
be used to correct the power factor of the system to at least 0.9 lagging. Furthermore this
includes mathematical modelling of the relay, based on the principle of operation of the vertical
lift contractor. A detailed operation of the system would be given using phasors. Additionally
this design project includes laboratory protocol, industry standards, codes of practice and risk
assessments. This design project incorporates substantial material from the year one course
ECNG 1015, Introduction to Electrical Energy Systems.

A time management schedule was developed to allow for completion of this project in the
allocated time.

TIME MANAGEMENT SCHEDULE:

WEEK # ACTIVITY
1 Design brief
2 Saftey and risk assessment
3 Measuring of circuit parameters
4 Obtaining power factor
5 Implemented corrected circuit for 0.9 laggings
6 Write up of report

3 Design of Start/Stop Switch

The start stop switch was designed using the relay as well as the mai
This projected required that a relay be used. Though relays are typically used in situations
where electrical isolation electrical isolation is needed between the user and the external circuit
or where multiple circuits are controlled by a single input signal. Though a relay was not
necessary for the lighting of a fluorescent bulb, it however gave the students a chance to
understand the operation of the relay system, as it relates to the courses under study.

A relay essentially consists of a solenoid – a coil of wire wrapped around a metallic core such
that a magnetic field is generated as a current passes through the wire. The metallic core has a
relatively low reluctance allowing magnetic flux to easily pass through the material. The
latching relay consists of a metallic strip or armature which is able to move between two
terminal contacts. This strip is held by a spring, which prevents it from making contact with the
other terminal. However when a current is applied to the coil, the solenoid generates a
magnetic field, this in turn attracts the armature to it. When the force of attraction is greater
than the force applied by the spring, the metallic strip moves to the other terminal contact
thereby completing the external circuit. When the armature makes contact, a clicking sound is
heard. The armature remains in this position unless the coil Is de-energised that is less than the
force exerted by the spring. The armature will now move back to its initial position, breaking
the circuit.

Once the fundamentals of the latching relay was understood, the design of the start stop switch
using push buttons could now be implemented.
The Normally Open Push Button

NO

The normally open push button, when connected to a circuit, creates an open circuit, unless it is
pressed. The two terminals are connected and a short circuit is created. However, when
released, the circuit is broken as the switch returns to its original position.

The Normally Closed Push Button

NC

The normally closed push button

The bulb would be connected to the supply, and power on, an remain on when the "red" or
"normally open" button is pressed an released. When the "black" or "normally closed" button
is pressed, this would turn off the circuit.
4 Mathematical Model of Relay
A Mathematical model is a description of a physical system using purely mathematical terms
and expressions. These models relate all the variables of the system. However in most
instances, mathematical models represent ideal conditions, so some deviation is expected
between the model and the system's operation in the real world.

Mathematical modelling would allow us to understand from first principles the operations of
the relay.

Consider Ampere's Circuital Law for a coil consisting of N turns of :

∮ ⃗H . dl=∫ ⃗J . dA−(1)
A

Equation 1 above reflects Ampere's Circuital law which states that line integral of the magnetic
field intensity, H is equal to the surface integral of the current density, J.

From Equation 1, consider a non ferromagnetic torus of mean radius, r m , wound with N turns of
a conductor. When a current, i, is applied to the coil a magnetic field with intensity, H is
produced. The product of magnetic field intensity directed along the path of a torus and the
length of the closed path is equal to the sum of the electric current passing through the area
enclosed by the path[ CITATION Gor92 \l 1033 ].

Therefore:

H ( 2 π r m ) =¿−(2)

Where 2 πr is the length, l where the flux φ travels:

l=2 π r m

Similarly for a solenoid of length, l. Equation 2 becomes:

Hl=¿−(3)

Recall that total current equals magneto motive force, MMF:

MMF =¿=Hl−(4)
Now consider Magnetic Flux Density, B in the equation:

B=μ0 μr H−(5)

μm =μo μ r−(6)

∴ B=μm H−(7)

Where :

μm −permeabilty of the material

μr −relative permeabilty of the material

μo −permeabilty of free spac e

Therefore:

B
H= −(7)
μ0 μ r

Equation 4 now becomes:

B
MMF =¿=l −(8)
μ 0 μr

Recall:

φ
B= −(9)
A

where A−cross sectional area of solenoid

Equation 8 becomes:

l
MMF =φ
A (μ¿¿ m)−(10)¿
From Hopkinson's Law of Proportionality:

MMF ∝φ−(11)

Comparing this equation 11 to equation 10, it can be seen that the constant of proportionality
l
is This is the magnetic reluctance of the circuit Rm .
A (μ¿¿ m). ¿

l
Rm =
A ( μ¿¿ m)−(12)¿

Therefore:

MMF =R m φ−(13)

With this being done, the magnetic equivalent circuit can now be drawn:

F=¿
Rm

Consider an alternating current through a coil. A changing magnetic field is produced with
changing flux linkage. From Faraday's Law and emf is induced in the system, the direction of the
emf, e, is given by Lenz's Law:

dφ
e= −(14)
dt

For N number of turns:

dφ
e=N −(15)
dt
Recall flux linkage, λ:

λ=Nφ−( 16)

From equations 15 and 16:

dλ
e= −( 17 )
dt

From equation 17, it can be seen that if there is no changing flux linkage, no emf will be
induced.

From Hopkinson's Law, equation 13 and 16:

MMF
λ= N
Rm

l
where Rm =
A(μ ¿¿ m)−(12) ¿

But from Ampere's Circuital Law:

MMF =¿−( 4 )

N2
∴ λ= i−(18)
Rm

Equation 18 above shows that the constant of proportionality between λ∧i is:

N2
L= −(19)
Rm

λ=Li−(20)

l
where Rm =
A(μ ¿¿ m)−(12) ¿

The constant of proportionality, L , is the inductance of the coil of the relay.

Consider the electric equivalent circuit:

From the circuit above it can be seen that:

V =IR +e−(21)

But from equation 17:

dλ
V =IR + −(22)
dt

But λ=Li:

di
V =Ri + L −(23)
dt

Power supplied to circuit:

P=Vi=R i 2+ ei

Differentiating with respect to time, t:

Vidt =R i 2 dt +ei . dt−(24)

From the law of conservation of energy, the energy supplied by the source to the magnetic
field, equals the sum of the energy in the magnetic field and the energy converted to
mechanical work:

d W e =d W f +d W m−(25)

d W e =is energy supplied by source ¿ the field

d W m =isenergy converted ¿ mechanical work

d W f =is energy stored ∈field

The power equation can be re-written as:

d W e =( V + Ri ) i .dt

d W e =ei . dt

Now consider the situation of the mechanical relay. The armature underwent rapid movement
when the switch was turned on. It is known that for rapid armature movement, the flux linkage
is very close to a constant value. It can now be said that:

d W e =0

Re-writing equation 25:

d W m =−d W f −(26)

It can be seen from equation 26 that the magnetic field loses energy providing useful
mechanical work.

The reduction of the area under the λ−i curve gives the amount of energy supplied to do
mechanical work, d W f .

F . dx=d W m =d W e −d W f

where F=Force, N
Therefore:

−∂ W f
F= −(27)
∂x

It is seen that the mechanical energy was supplied entirely by the field.

W f =∫ i . dλ

Recall from equation 20, we now have:

λ
W f =∫ . dλ
L

λ2
W f= −(28)
2L

Substituting (28) into (27):

λ2
F=
−∂
2L( )
−(29)
∂x

λ
From equation 20, L= :
i

i2 dL
F= . −(30)
2 dx

Because i 2 is always positive, the value of "F" is also always positive and in the direction of the

positive x-axis. This also implies that the force acts in such a direction to increase the

inductance of the system.

If λ=constant ∧φ=constant and:

 R φ2
W f =∫ F .dφ=¿ ¿
2

Therefore:

R φ2
F=
δWf
=
−δ ( )2
δx δx

where φ is constant .

This now gives us:

−φ2 dR
F=
2 dx

It can be seen that the force acts in such a way to decrease the reluctance of the system

[ CITATION Ron11 \l 1033 ].

5 Consideration of System Requirements

5.1 Determination of the magnitude of inductance required to light

fluorescent lamp

Consider the system under testing:

The Total Impedance of the Circuit is consists of the Lamp and the Ballast:

ZT =Z L + Z B

where Z T =Total Impedence

Z L =Impedence of Lamp

Z B=Impedence of Ballast

And:

V
ZT =
I

V =Voltage across the circuit

I =Lamp Load Curr ent

During lab testing, an ammeter and voltmeter was used to find the lamp load current, I, and
the voltage across it, V , respectively.

V =118.2 V

I =0.26 A

118.2
ZT = =454.61Ω
0.26
A wattmeter was used during laboratory testing to measure the power dissipated in the lamp,
P L.

P L=21.5 W

PL
Z L=
I2

21.5
Z L=
( 0.26 )2

Z L =318.05Ω

Recall Previous Expression for Total Impedance:

ZT =Z L + Z B

Substituting Values for ZT ∧Z L:

∴ Z B =Z T −Z L =454.61−318.05

Z B=136.56 Ω

The Ballast can be considered purely inductive. The magnitude of the impedance of the
inductor, Z B, can be assumed to be equal to the magnitude of the reactance, X B:

In other words:

Z B= X B

Recall equation for reactance of Inductor:

X L =2 πfL

Substituting:

Z B=2 πf L B

136.56
LB =
2 π (60)

LB =0.362 H

Minimum inductance of the Ballast required to light the fluorescent lamp is 0.362H
5.2 Force Required to Activate the Relay
In the section labelled mathematical modelling of the relay, equation 30 denotes an expression
for the force required to activate the relay, in terms of the variables of the system.

i2 dL
F= −30
2 dx

Where:

i=minimum curren t ¿ activate relay

x=length of air gap

L=inductance of the relay coil

Consider a situation where a current (above or equal to the minimum current, i) flows through
the relay. The armature would be in its closed position. In this situation the impedance of the
relay is due to the coil alone. However when no current flows (or when it is below the minimum
current, i) the armature is remains open. An air gap now exists between the armature and the
coil. Thus, the total impedance of the relay considerably increases. This is due to the fact that
the reluctance present in the air gap is comparable to the impedance of the coil, and the
resultant impedance is the sum of the individual impedances. As a result the inductance of the
relay significantly increases in its open state.

Therefore the change in inductance, dL, when the relay is off and when it is on can be
determined by simply subtracting the two values:

dL=Inductance when Armature isOFF−Inductance when Armatureis ON

Calculation of Inductance of Coil When Switch is closed (Armature ON):

The impedance when the armature is on is given by the following equation:

Z R= X L =Measured Impedence of Rela y ' s Coil

R

Recall General Equation of reactance of Inductor:

X L =2 πfL

where :

L=Inductance

f =frequency of supply

Therefore Substituting:

2 πf LR =2264.6 Ω

2264.6
LR =
2 π ( 60 )

LR =6.01 H

Where:

LR =Inductance of the Rela y ' s Coil

Therefore the Inductance of the coil when the switch is closed (armature on):

LR =6.01 H
Calculation of Inductance of Coil When Switch is open (Armature OFF):

When the armature is OFF, (switch considered open as magnetic field de-energised) as
previously stated, the impedance of the relay coil is due to the impedance of the coil as well as
the reluctance of the air gap.

V
∴ ZR=
i

Z R=Impedence of Relay (air gap∧coil)

From previous lab testing, the minimum relay latching current,i , was found to be 14.8mA. This
was when there was a pot in series with the relay. The voltage, V , across the relay was 93.7V.

93.7
Hence :Z R=
0.0148

Z R=6331.76Ω

Similarly using Formula of Reactance and Inductance: X c =2 πfL

ZR
LR =
2 πf

6331.76Ω
LR =
2 π (60)

LR =16 . 80 H

Therefore when the switch is open (armature off & air gap present) the inductance of the relay
is: 21.18 H.

Since both Inductances when the armature is off and on, were calculated, equation 30 can now
be used to calculate the force required to activate the relay:

dL=16.80−6.01=10.79 H

The air gap,x , of the relay was measured in the lab:

x=1.5 mm

Therefore the armature undergoes a change of 0.015m

 ∴ dx=0.0015 m.

Recall from equation 30:

2
i2 dL (0.0148) (10.79)
F= = .
2 dx 2 (0.0015)

∴ F=0.787 N
5.3 Determination of the load current to be supplied to the lamp
The load current supplied to the lamp can be determined by the use of:

P=IVcosφ

From lab testing the input power, P was determined to be 20W.

Real Power 20
The power factor from lab testing, cosφ= = =0.59
Apparent Power 33.6

wher e :

apparent power=I V

real power= power ¿ wattmeter

Therefore substituting into Power Equation:

20=I ( 118.2 ) 0.59

I =0.287 A

∴ Load Current=0.287 A
5.4 Determination of Key Circuit Parameters
The key circuit parameters are essentially the elements that characterise the system and are
required for analysis. They are usually obtained via measurement and testing in the laboratory.

Inductance of Fluorescent Fixture Ballast:

This was calculated in section 5.1, and was determined to be 0.632 H.

Resistance of the Fluorescent Ballast:

This was found using the LCR meter, it was found to be 154.7Ω.

Minimum Current to Activate Relay

This was found by placing a variable resistor "pot" in series with the relay connected to the
supply. The pot was set to it maximum resistance value, and the circuit powered on. The
resistance was slowly decreased until the relay clicked. The resistance of the pot at that
moment was then found using the LCR meter. The voltage across the pot was then divided by its
resistance to find the minimum current. It was calculated to be 14.8mA.

Air Gap of Relay

This was measured in the lab, by removing the casing of the relay and directly measuring the
length of the air gap. It was found to be 1.5mm in length.

Relay Coil Inductance (armature ON)

This was calculated in section 5.2, and determined to be 16.08H.

Relay Coil Inductance (armature OFF)

This was also calculated in section 5.2, and determined to be 6.01H.

Relay Coil Resistance

This was determined using the LCR meter and found to be 2264.6Ω

Supply Voltage

This was found using the voltmeter to be 118V RMS.

Lamp Load Current

This was calculated to be 0.287 A, as seen in section 5.3.

Key Parameter Value

Inductance of Fluorescent Fixture Ballast: 0.632 H
Resistance of the Fluorescent Ballast: 154.7 Ω
Minimum Current to Activate Relay 14.8 mA
Air Gap of Relay 1.5mm
Relay Coil Inductance (armature ON) 6.01 H
Relay Coil Inductance (armature OFF) 16.08 H
Relay Coil Resistance 2.2646 H
Supply Voltage 118.3 V
Lamp Load Current 0.287 A
Detailed Explanation of the System Using Phasors
6 Safety Considerations and Industry Standards
Lab Protocol

According to the HSU (Health and Safety Unit) of The University of the West Indies, students are
required to conform to laboratory protocol. Failure to comply may result in serious injury. In
the laboratory environment, students are expected to follow all laboratory protocol and related
procedures, some of these are as follows:

 Work space must be kept clean and in order at all times.

 Wear proper and appropriate clothing must be worn as well as footwear (no open toed
shoes or slippers)
 Hanging jewellery must not be worn as it can be obstructive when carrying out tests.
 Conductive jewellery must also not be worn, because if contact is made with live wires,
one can be electrocuted.
 Know the evacuation plans and location of emergency exits and emergency safety
equipment.
 Know the operation of safety equipment in the lab, such as fire extinguishers, fire
alarms.
 No eating or drinking in the lab.
 There is to be no unruly behaviour in the laboratory or any playing of games.
 Be alert and cautious to oneself and others around you when dealing with equipment in
the lab.
Industry Standards

Industry standards have been created to optimise operation of fluorescent lamp ballasts.
Today, energy conservation is a must, an new industrial standards for manufacturing of ballasts
are being put in place to optimise efficiency. The ballasts used in the lab conform to these
standards. However from the "Energy Policy Act Update" included in the appendix, it can be
seen that magnetic ballasts, such as those used in this project are being phased, being replaced
by electronic ballasts.

The following is a document taken from HOWARD INDUSTRIES INC. – BALLAST PRODUCTION
DIVISION.

"Energy Policy Act Update:

Fluorescent Ballast Efficiency Baseline Increases

Energy Efficient Ballast Standards

Due to The Department of Energy finalized a rule regarding the manufacture and sale of
fluorescent lamp ballasts that will result in significant energy savings and emissions reductions.
The commercial and industrial lighting sector will be subject to new energy-efficient lighting
regulations beginning April 1, 2005.

Under these regulations ballast manufacturers can no longer produce ballasts for installation
into new lighting fixtures unless they meet the new minimum Ballast Efficacy requirements
(BEF’s). These regulations affect ballasts that operate T12 fluorescent lamps. The new
regulation has a different effective date for new fixtures versus replacing existing ballasts in the
field or replacement ballasts. With existing technology today, only electronic ballasts comply
with these new DOE guidelines.

The following is a summary of this new regulation and the products and markets affected.

Ballast Regulations 
T12 magnetic ballasts for replacement purposes in existing installations can be manufactured
until June 30, 2010, but must meet the following requirements:
• Be labeled “For Replacement Use Only”
• Have leads shorter than the length of lamps intended to be operated
• Be shipped in packages not exceeding 10 ballasts
• Meet existing T12 magnetic BEF criteria

Exemptions include:
• T12 dimming ballasts that dim to 50% or less
• Two lamp F96T12HO ballasts designed for -20F operation and used in an outdoor sign
• Magnetic ballasts with power factors less than 0.90 designed and labeled for residential
building applications.

The lamps covered and BEF numbers are as follows:

Application Ballast Input Voltage Ballast Efficacy Factor
One F40 T12 lamp 120 or 277 2.29
Two F40 T12 lamps 120 or 277 1.17
Two F96T12 lamps 120 or 277 0.63
Two F96T12HO lamps 120 or 277 0.39

Important Effective Dates 

• July 1, 2005 ballast manufacturers can no longer sell ballasts for use in new fixtures that do
not meet the BEF requirements. Replacement ballasts marked “For Replacement Use Only” are
to be provided until the final implementation date.
• April 1, 2006 lighting fixture manufacturers can no longer incorporate ballasts that do not
meet the new BEF requirements in new fixtures.
• July 1, 2010 ballasts, including replacements, can no longer be manufactured unless they
meet the new BEF Guidelines."

- [ CITATION How11 \l 1033 ]

Codes of Practice

Certain protocol must be followed when operating electrical equipment in the laboratory:

 Ensure that the power supply is off before connecting wires or altering the circuit.
 Cover all exposed wires with caps and minimise connecting wire to wire, use junctions
instead.
 Avoid direct contact with energized circuits.
 If a person comes in contact with a live exposed wire, turn off the circuit breaker. It is
mandatory not to make contact with the person or equipment until this is done, as you
may endanger yourself as well.
 Safety is of utmost importance, lives are dependent on it. Therefore when operating
electrical equipment, always put safety in first priority.
Risk Assessment

A hazard by definition is anything that has potential to harm or injure an individual. Risks
however refers to the probability that hazards would cause harm to an individual in the
specified environment.
From observation and subsequent research, it was found that there were several
hazards in the year one Laboratory which produced risks of varying intensity. Furthermore it
was seen that steps can be taken and measures can be taken to mitigate these hazards. It was
seen that the individuals primarily at risk were the students and the lab
demonstrators/technicians.
Conclusively, the main objective of this risk assessment is to efficiently assess the
hazards of the work space. In some cases the points raised can be eradicated or mitigated
ultimately benefitting students presently and those to come.
Risk Assessment Table

Hazard Risk Risk Risk Matrix Precautions

Serverity Probability Rating

Electric Supply wires if not High Low E Ensure all wires are
Shock from properly secured or properly secured and
Supply wires improperly properly insulated.
insulated, there is
the risk of electric
shock and burns
due to the fact of a
120V source being
used.

Inductive This provides a start Extreme Low L The ballast is sealed

Ballast of for the fluorescent inside the fluorescent
Fluorescent bulb to light. fixture preventing the
Fixture Contact with the wires from becoming in
ballast during contact with individuals
operation may
result in severe
shock and burns.

Short in A short circuit in Medium Low E All connecting wires are

Connecting connecting wires connected securely and
Wires in can initiate an wires are inspected
Workspace electric spark. If in before use to ensure
contact with they are suitable for use.
flammable material,
a fire may result.

Chemical If a tube should Moderate Moderate M Fluorescent lamps should

Exposure to break in the lab, be handled with care
Mercury in mercury vapour will when replacing or
Fluorescent be released. Short moving as to not break
Lamp Tubes term exposure can the tubes. Also dispose
lead to rashes, of tubes according to
diarrhoea and local guidelines.
respiratory distress.
 Cuts from Cuts from shards of Low Low L Fluorescent lamps should
Broken Glass glass from a be handled with care
of fluorescent tube when replacing or
Fluorescent may be possible. An moving as to not break
Tubes additional risk exists the tubes.
with mercury
exposure and can
lead to rashes,
diarrhoea and
respiratory distress.

Faulty Safely Fire Extinguishers High Low H Ensure extinguishers are

equipment may not have been maintained properly and
re-filled or regularly inspected.
inspected on their
due date, and may
be inoperable
during the event of
a fire.
Risk Assessment Matrix

Level of Risk