Florida State University Department of Philosophy

THE INFLUENCE OF BRUNO BAUER ON MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION

Author(s): Zvi Rosen
Source: Social Theory and Practice, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Fall 1970), pp. 50-68
Published by: Florida State University Department of Philosophy
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 THE INFLUENCE OF BRUNO BAUER ON MARX' CONCEPT
OF ALIENATION

by
Zvi Rosen

problem of alienation in Marx' not Marx himself point to Hegel as his

The theory, has, as a certain philosopher source of inspiration on this subject? Do
once put it, proven to be a gold-mine the Economic and Philosophic Manu
for many scholars. An examination of scripts leave any room for doubt re
the number of scholarly studies which garding Marx' to come to terms
attempt
deal with the question of alienation in with Hegel's concept of alienation, as
the works of Marx, particularly the early expressed in Phenomenology of Mind,
writings, proves this remark to be cor and particularly in those chapters on
rect. Since the Economic and Philoso the master and the slave and on the

phic Manuscripts and the German Ide alienated

spirit itself? Is it not obvious
ology were first published, many articles that, in his struggle against the Hegelian
have appeared which examine the var system, Marx based himself on Feuer
ious aspects of the problem of aliena bach's transformation method, and in
tion: the political, the religious, the particular on those sections in which he
ideological, the social and the economic. exposed the speculative and idealistic
The concept of alienation has, to a cer character of Hegel's thought? And if all
tain extent under the influence of these this is true, then we should deduce that
studies, invaded literature, and Hegel and Feuerbach are the sole source
sociology

psychology—which proves the wide—al and basis of Marx' analyses regarding

most universal of states of aliena the problems of alienation. Marcuse, Lo
scope
tion and their human and social with, Bloch,1 and others
sig subsequently
nificance. arrived at this conclusion, even if they
At the same time it should be em did not state it explicitly.
phasized that the large number of pub
lications dealing with alienation and 1. See: Herbert "Neue zur
Marcuse, Quellen
the great interest which scholars have des Historischen Materialismus"
Grundlegung
displayed in this question, should not Die Gesellschaft 7/IX, Berlin, 1932: Ideen zu

obscure the fact that the einer Kritischen Theorie der "Gesellschaft."
study of aliena
Frankfurt a/M, 1969, pp. 22-30, 42-54; Reason
tion within the framework of Marx'
and Revolution, 2nd. ed. Boston, 1960, pp.
thought is still in its early days, and 275-287 Karl Lôwith: Von Hegel zu Nietzsche,
that many problems have not yet been 5th ed., Stuttgart, 1964, pp. 295-304. Max Weber

sufficiently clarified. The question of and Karl Marx, Gesammelte Ahhandlungen,

the sources of Marx' of aliena Stuttgart, 1960, pp. 37-44, 52-58. Ernst Bloch,
concept
Das Prinzip Hoffnung, Frankfurt a/M, 1968,
tion is one of the most and
important, Vol. 1, pp. 289-318; Suhjekt-Objekt. Erlau
perhaps the central, of these problems. terungen zu Hegel, Frankfurt a/M, 1962, pp.
This may sound paradoxical. Did 408-441.

50

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 51

But this problem is not as simple as the framework of Hegel's thought nor in
it may appear at first glance. On the one Feuerbach's system. In Hegel's writings
hand, there is no room for doubt re alienation is vital and essential for the
garding Marx' dependence on the above formation and cognition of reality, and
mentioned sources, on condition that we in Feuerbach's work—despite his criti
remember that Marxist philosophy was, cism of this
phenomenon—man has need

almost from the first, independent and of alienation in order to arrive at com

original in character, and that the adap prehension of his own true essence and
tation of certain Hegelian and Feuer his place in the world. In Marx' work,
bachian elements was carried out in ac however, or at least in his earlier writ
cordance with Marx' system and were ings—alienation is totally negative.
thus isolated from their original context If the question of the sources of in
becoming an integral part of a new con of the Marxist has not
spiration concept

cept, so that at times they constituted yet been sufficiently clarified for the pur
an essential contradiction to their for pose of understanding the essence of its
mer meaning (for example: the concept various components, the reason would
of the civil society in Hegelian and appear to be an utter disregard for, or
Marxist thought: the universality which too little attention to the views of Bruno

Hegel attributes to the state and Marx Bauer, which exerted considerable in
to the proletariat; the character of la fluence over Marx' ideas regarding
bour and its meaning within the frame alienation. To this very day Bruno
work of these two theories, etc.) On the Bauer's concepts have remained terra

other hand, it is not sufficient to single incogita and are almost unknown,
out Hegelian and Feuerbachian sources apart from the caricatured version which
in order to solve the basic problems en appears in Marx' polemical writings.
tailed in the question of alienation. The No study has as yet been written re

reason is that we cannot limit ourselves garding the relations between Marx and
to a study of visible surface facts. We Bauer and the extent of the latter's in
must strive to uncover the deep and fluence over the former. At one time
hidden roots of the Marxist concept, and Ernst Barnikol, who was interested in

only then can we answer several ques Bauer and reissued his book Das Ent

tions raised by this context, which have deckte Christentum, spoke of writing a
not yet found their solution.
monograph on this subject, but he did
can we for
not keep his promise. The only article
How explain, example,
that alienation, which Marx generally on the subject, that of Jiirgen Gebhardt,2
deals solely with the controversy between
regards in his early work as an anthoro
is nevertheless de Bauer and Marx regarding the Jewish
pological category,
as more and more question. There are apparently several
scribed becoming
reasons for the lack of interest in Bauer:
acute under the conditions of the civil
of the nineteenth century, as a 1) Bauer's ideas have so far been
society
which came into studied only within the context of
phenomenon being
Marxist criticism of him. Most of
long before, but which reached its peak
within the framework of the society in
2. . Gebhardt, "Karl Marx und Bruno
which Marx actually lived? There is no
Bauer," Festgabe fur Eric Voegelin, MUnchen,
answer to this question, neither within 1962, pp. 202-243.

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52 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

the scholars,
including non-Marx elder and was a university lecturer when

ists, accepted Marx' views, as pre Marx was still a student. Marx became

sented in The Holy Family and friendly with Bauer and attended his
German Ideology. According to lectures, at first at Berlin University and
Marx' devastating opinion, Bauer later at Bonn. He also took an active

was a complete nihilist, an idealist, part in the work of the "Doctors Club"
individualist and utopist of the in Berlin, in which Bauer was the cen
worst kind. Bauer was treated in the tral figure. The twelve letters which
same fashion by Hook, who presents Bauer wrote to Marx between 1839

Bauer's ideas in permanent confron 18424 provide indisputable evidence of

tation with Marx' criticism of him.3 their mutual ties, and it is to be re
Incidentally, Hook totally disre gretted that Marx' letters to Bauer,

gards Marx' theory of alienation which could undoubtedly have thrown

and therefore the qeustion of Marx' additional light on the relationship,
affinity to Bauer in this area does have not been preserved. The coopera
not arise at all. tion between the two was so close that

2) Most of the Bauerian ideas they decided to publish a journal to

which have any connection with gether, to specialize in critique of re
political, sociological and ideolog ligion. Marx prepared material for
ical problems were published in Bauer's book on Hegel's of art
theory

journals with limited circulation, and religion. There

proof is no that
which were immediately confiscated Marx was directly responsible for the
by the police or closed down for writing of certain of the chapters, but
various technical reasons, As a re there can be no doubt that his ideas were
sult, it is difficult for scholars to taken into consideration the author.
by
gain access to them. Marx' influence is also evident—if we
3) Bauer displayed a radical ap judge according to letters to
Koppen's
for a few years, and for Marx5—in Bauer's articles in the Hal
proach only
most of his life he was a conserva lische Jahrbücher. On the other hand,
tive, who fought against the liberal Bauer's considerable influence over Marx
and progressive forces in Germany. finds expression in many ideas raised by
The tendency of many scholars to Marx in his dissertation and in the vari
evaluate Bauer in retrospective, as ous articles which he wrote in 1842-1843.
the leader of political and social In Marx' article on the Prussian

conservatism, is clearly discernible, censorship, one can clearly discern Bau

and his tendency has led them to erian motifs, and particularly in those
ignore this thoughts and his beliefs. sections relating to the postulate of the
free state, the affinity between state and
In actual fact Bauer was very close to
Marx for quite a number of years, or, religious institutions, the definition of
to be more exact, Marx was close to

him, since Bauer was nine years the

3. See: Sidney Hook, From Hegel to Marx. 4. See: Marx-Engels, Gesamtaugabe (MEGA)
Studies in the Intellectual Development of Karl I, 2, pp. 233-245, 245-247, 248-250, 251-254, 265
Marx, The University of Michigan Press, 1962, 266, 269-270, 291-292 .

pp. 98-125. 5. Ibid, p. 257.

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 53

the existing state as Christian, etc.6 At of overcoming his ideological past. But
tacks on religion and state in Bauerian this was not a complete victory, and we
style are discernible in other articles, find in Marx clear traces of the ele
such as those which Marx wrote as edi ments of Bauerian concepts long after

tor of the Rheinische Zeitung.7 wards. One of the outstanding examples

Marx and Bauer parted ways since is the Marxist theory of alienation. In
a sharp controversy arose between them order to comprehend its affinity to Bauer
which ended in open breach. Marx we must study the latter's views on the

wrote hundreds of pages against Bauer subject.

in the Allgemeine Literaturzeitung of the Hegelian
Through analyzing
which Bauer was chief editor. From On texts, and in particular the Phenome
the Jewish Question to German Ideol
nology and the Lectures on the Philoso
Marx devoted attention
ogy, particular phy of Religion, Bauer arrived at the
to the
ideological struggle against conclusion that is not
self-knowledge
Bauer's beliefs and dwelt on infinitesi on external factors and is
dependent
mal details so as to expose their dema not conditional on the exis
certainly
and character. It was
gogic reactionary tence of super-natural forces. The oppo
this fact which has misled scholars, who site is true: self-consciousness is not a
believe that this was a final reckon cause in itself, but creates the world
ing between them. But the truth lies and all its qualities (this is the origin
elsewhere: Marx himself had need of
of Bauerian atheism). Consciousness is
this wearysome polemical discussion, endowed with the quality of self-activity,
in order to cut himself off from Bauer's which by its very essence is unlimited.
ideas, which had exerted such strong This activity brings about realization of
influence over him for so many years. the imminent powers of the conscious
This is also a reply to those who fail ness and take on the concrete form
they
to understand how Marx could de
of things and phenomena, such as the
scribe Bauer's views as "the most
objects of religious worship and rituals,
enemy of realistic human
dangerous social institutions, various customs, etc.
ism" (in the preface to The Holy As the motives for the process of
regards
Family), since it is, after all, well-known realization of consciousness, Bauer repre
that Bauerian were by
concepts accepted sents a clearly dialectical position and
a very limited stratum of intellect
only claims that consciousness is characterized
uals and never took root among the gen
by an unceasing stream of thought, opin
eral public to the extent that they could be trans
ions, views, etc., which must
have constituted a hindrance to the dis
planted beyond the borders of the con
semination of the ideas of Marx and
sciousness, since otherwise it would be
Engels. But they did take root in Marx This externalization con
destroyed.
himself, and thus the controversy with
sciously brings about the creation of a
Bauer was, in actual fact, Marx' way world of things, a solid world, in which
consciousness becomes objective reality.
6. "Comments on the Latest Prussian Censor of objectivization and
But the process
Writings of the Young Marx
ship Instruction," the conversion of the consciousness into
on Philosophy and Society. Edited by L. D.
substance impoverishes its creative
Easton and K.H. Guddat. N.Y., 1967, pp. 67-92.
7. MEGA I, 1, pp. 191, 236-240, 243-248. which have been transplanted
powers,

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54 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

to the product of its activity. Thus this does not know that the world which
leads to the creation of a dialectical con controls him is only his own product, a
tradiction. Within the solid and defined product which has been transformed
world self-knowledge is exactly the op into a creator, and is now grasped as

posite of what it should be by its very something to which consciousness is

essence, i.e., incessant and unlimited cre subordinate and over which it has no

ative activity. In this context, Bauer control. At this stage consciousness is

raises an additional conjecture connec "natural," since it conceives of the world
ted with his preceding argument: the as dominated by the natural forces. Since

human world, created through the activ the consciousness constitutes the central

ity of self-consciousness, is, at this stage, point of any analysis by Bauer of the
an alienated and dismembered world. relations between man and the world—

Self-knowledge has emptied itself of con the entire human world (state, society,
tent, and the world has gained content
religion) takes on the character of a
which not belong in it: thus the
does natural world.

subject and
the object change places. this stage man did not
Throughout
The former is conceived as a valueless himself as free and as an equal
regard
and dominated object and as limited and but rather as
among equals, belonging
finite consciousness, which reflects the to a certain class, a natural class, i.e.,
realistic world and nothing more; while
regarded as determined by the same
the latter is regarded as a decisive factor
forces which controlled his every-day
and an absolute force.
independent life. Thisprinciple was also valid as re
This is the contradiction between an
gards the affiliation of a man to a group
alienated production which loses its true based on the blood tie, i.e., the family,
and a world, which is far from etc.
identity, clan, tribe,
conditions under which a man
creating The first sign of liberation from the
can restore to himself his true essence.
natural state, which is nothing but a
And what is even more important: as
state of enslavement to those natural
as a man does not delve into his in
long forces, is found by Bauer in classical phi
ner self and is not capable of under
losophy, from Plato to Seneca, and in
it, he cannot the essence
particular in the philosophical
standing grasp theories
of alienation, and therefore any bridging
of Epicurism, Stoicism and Scepticism,
of the between man and the external
gap where the individual consciousness dis
world is a vain effort.8 As a result he
covers itself in the field of philosophy,
8. "Der christliche Staat und unsere Zeit," penetrates into its inner self, studies its
Op. cit. pp. 556-557; see also Bruno Bauer, Feld essence and fights for its rights—rights
der reinen Kritik, Frankfurt a/M, 1968
züge which are, in the final analysis, the gen
pp. 39-40; Theologische Schamlosigkeiten ibid.,
und
eral rights of humanity. This self-con
pp. 44-46; Die gute Sache der Freiheit
meine Ziirich und Win sciousness destroys the network of nat
eigene Angelegenheit,
terthur, 1842, pp. 17-18; Das entdeckte Christen ural relations and, in place of the tra

turn, Zurich und Winterhur, 1843, p. 18, edit, ditional of society, based on
division
by E. Barnikol, 1927; "Die christliche
Jena, natural distinguishing features, it de
Glaubenslehre" (Rez.), Deutsche Jahrbücher fur
mands realization of the principle of
Wissenschaft und Kunst, Nr. 21-24, p. 83; Kritik
der Geschichte der free consciousness, untrammeled and
evangelischen Synoptiker,
Vol. 1, Leipzig, 1841, p. 69. infinite. That which philosophy brings

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 55

about in the
spiritual-internal sphere in the very essence of Christianity, which
was carried out by the Roman Empire constituted man's triumph over the ob

in the political and national area as a jective world, which was but an illusory
result of the destruction which it triumph, a total mystification. Because
brought down on old-established na of this religion's inability to introduce
tions and particular states. By creating basic changes into the world, it found
a world power, it united mankind and the only solution in conceptual negation.

helped it understand its universal char It retreated from the world, declared it

acter, which is not consistent with differ to be

corrupt and
opposed to the au

ences of race, religion, nationality, etc.9 thentic needs of man, and established a
The process of humanization of the better world for itself—beyond the real
natural man and the victory of the world. As a symbol of Christianity's il
in
principle of inner spirit terminated lusory triumph over the world, the
the creation of Christianity and the con alienated essence of man in the image of
solidation of its principles, while within Jesus was raised to the level of divinity.
its framework consciousness arrived at
Jesus was not a historical figure, but the
comprehension of its subjective and in expression of alienated self-knowledge,
finite character. The subjective factor which preferred to perform miracles and

(philosophy of self-knowledge) and the create a false reality rather than to take

objective factor (the destruction of the over the world and exert real leadership
ancient world) engendered a deeply sig over it. Liberation from external forces

nificant revolution: they prepared the is only claimed to be realized in Chris

ground for the triumph of Christianity tianity, while reality is totally different
and this was a truly revolutionary vic —man ascending heavenwards not only

tory. Christianity liberated humanity does not represent the true man, but

from the rule of nature and from sub turns him into a slave, as he never was

ordination to the natural religions, before. Since he—the Christian Messiah

abolished the division based on blood —is regarded as the realization of the

ties and cancelled out all national and

pure and creative spirit and the embodi
racial differences. But Christianity, de ment of the active element, man be

spite the fact that it implies understand comes passive. His inner being is totally
ing of the subjective character of con emptied, or as Bauer says: "Religion is
sciousness—not only failed to help the man's passivity, which has been raised to
consciousness liberate itself from the the level of a supreme entity, the su

chains of alienation, but even streng preme suffering that man can cause him

thened it and left man totally dependent self, poverty and spiritual emptiness,
on religion, the church and external au the catastrophe of the world . . . abso

thority. This phenomenon is inherent lute religion is the absolute catastrophe

of the world."10
9. See: "Die christliche Glaubenslehre," op.
cit. pp. 90, 92-93, 95; Die der heutigen TheChristian religion is represented
Fàhigkeit
Juden und Christen frei zu sein, 21 Bogen aus by Bauer as the religion of total aliena
der Schweiz. Zurich und Winterthur, 1843, p. 60; tion, a quality which was not charac
see also: Feldziige . . . op. cit., pp. 179-180; Sy
noptiker . . . Vol II Leipzig, 1841, pp. 46-47.
. . . Vol. Ill, Braunschweigh, 1842, 10. Das entdeckte Christentum, op. cit. p.
Synoptiker
pp. 309-310. 95.

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 56 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

teristic of the rule of nature and natural to an egoist and sacrifices the purpose of
religions. The natural consciousness man's life on earth for the ideal and il
draws a distorted picture of subject-ob lusionary world; it strangles all human
ject relations, with man being conceived feeling, initiative and free labour and
as ruled by external forces—nature, so prevents man from arriving at authentic
state institutions etc. and not as human satisfaction.11
ciety,

demiurge of the world and of himself. The church does not act alone in en

But natural consciousness is not dis

slaving men and imposing a regime of
torted and alienated in all respects. It alienation over them. It is aided in its
does not ignore sensibility, enjoyment, work by the so-called Christian state,
or the fact that man possesses both a which cooperates with it so as to safe
soul and a body. It perceives
the aes guard its own positions and privileges.
thetic aspect
of nature, regarding the In this state theological principles reign,
world and its order, the state, science, and through these principles the sub
and art as a single reality, without cre jects are educated in the spirit of obedi
ating for itself the illusion of the exis ence to the regime, while at the same
tence of an additional world, and there time disciplinary principles are operated
fore Bauer it as or so as to preserve the It is not to
regards incomplete peace.

fragmented alienation. be wondered at, therefore, that this

takes on a completely state lacks that it

Alienation freedom, does not

different form within the framework of deserve to be recognized as

representing
the Christian religion. This religion does the principle of the free consciousness.
not the existence of man, and Bauer vehemently attacks that state
recognize
his submission to earthly orders. It di which imposes authority and subordina
vides him into body and spirit, and de tion to authority and accuses it of de

clares the to exist in sem fending the regime of alienation.12

body only
blance, and the "other" world to be the Bauer's historisophical concept is based,
real one. to a large extent, on this view of aliena
Christianity negates earthly
and, to Bauer, tion. He divided world history into the
reality, according regards
it with hatred. stage of alienation and the era in which
arrived at the conclusion
alienation is absent, which will come
Thus Bauer
about as the result of the triumph of
that Christianity is the most compre
the free consciousness. Since Bauer
hensive negation of man and the world re

which has ever existed since the begin

ning of history. This negation finds ex 11. Hegels Lehre von der Religion und

pression in the contempt which charac Kunst, Leipzig, 1842, p. 61; Synoptiker . . . Vol.

terizes Christianity's Ill

attitude towards op. cit., pp. XXIII-XXIV, 25, 69-71, 81-2;
Das entdeckte Christentum (ed.
the conditions under which man can Barnikol), pp.
60, 125, 136-138, 141, 156-158; Die gute Sache
conduct human life, and in total dehu . . . op. cit., p. 217; Theologische
Schamlosig
manization. Christianity removes man keiten, op. cit., pp. 44-47 "Leiden und Freuden
from the most of the des theologischen Bewussteins," Feldzüge . . .
important spheres
and does not him to op. cit., pp. 156-157, 163-167, 169; Die Fahigkeit
world, permit
. . . op. cit., 59, 61-62, 64-69.
emerge in independent development of
12. "Der christliche Staat und unsere Zeit,"
sciences and arts, in the advancement of
Feldzüge . . . op. cit., pp. 9-11, 17, 29, 32-33;
social and political life. It turns man in Die gute Sache . . . op. cit., cap. 11.

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 57

gards himself as representing the au collapse," could not accept the thesis
thentic principles of this consciousness, that religion is the sole criterion for
it is not difficult to understand that his all processes taking place in society and
struggle takes on the form of an escha in the state. It was against this back
tological struggle for the redemption of ground that he responded in totally
the world and the human race from the negative fashion to any concept which
chains of alienation. Bauer believed that awarded religion an ideo-genetic status,
his theory could restore to man his au even if it proved to be of imminent
thentic self-consciousness, help him un atheistic content (like the Bauerian con
derstand what goes on around him, and
cept). It is not surprising, therefore, that
clarify the essence of the struggle of "the in all his polemical articles against
critique" (as he termed his concept) as Bauer, Marx thought it necessary to em

a cosmic problem, the purpose of which phasize to the maximum

the principle
is to put an end to alienation forever.13 that religion is an important factor,
What was Marx' attitude towards but that its existence is conditional upon
the Bauerian theory of alienation? In social, economic and political factors. So
order to understand his approach it is as to refute Bauer's assertion regarding

necessary to note that Marx cut him the decisive significance of religion (and
self off, at the end of 1842, from Bauer of Bauerian atheism which replaces it by
and the group of the "Organization of free consciousness), Marx was even will
the free" in Berlin (whose patron Bauer ing to conduct excursions into Bauer's

was) because of differences of opinion recent past, when the latter served as

based on attitudes towards politics and lecturer in theology and editor of a

religion. Marx believed that criticism theological speculative journal.
of religion should be absorbed in criti Marx was no less violent in his at
cism of political orders and not vice tack against another Bauerian thesis—

versa, i.e., where the problem of the re that self-knowledge is the demiurge of
lations between religion and politics is while lacks
reality objectivity indepen
concerned, political critique is of pri dent status and actually belongs to the

mary importance. Those close to Bauer, attributes of this consciousness. "The

on the other hand, preferred to criticize

'critique'—i.e., the Bauerian concept—be
religion and to present religion as stand comes a transcendental entity .... This

ing alone in its own right. When he was critique becomes enmeshed in pitiful
editor of the Rheinische Zeitung, Marx spiritualism. Consciousness or self-con

refused to publish anti-religious articles sciousness are conceived as the sole hu

which did not have a definite political man quality .... Down with the ob
Marx, who, at this time, ar Since Bauer conceives of self
purpose.14 ject."15
rived that "religion
at the conclusion consciousness as a cosmic problem, his
is nurtured, not by heaven, but by earth, eschatological aspirations have no roots
and when the inverted reality, as whose in reality. The problem of freedom for
theory it serves, is eliminated, it too will man, according to Marx, becomes a mere

epistemological problem.16
13. Synoptiker . . . Vol. II, op. cit., pp. 311
318; Die gute Sache . . . op. cit., pp. 199, 202 15. K. Marx-F. Engels, Werke, Vol. XXVII,
203. pp. 427.
14. MEGA 1/2, p. 286. 16. In similar, if not identical fashion, Marx

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 58 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

It is clear that there were additional books and essays. Anyone comparing
differences of opinion between Marx and Bauer's concept of religion, as expressed
Bauer, such as the question of the elite in Kritik der Evangelischen Geschichte
and the masses, and many others, but des Johannes, and the Kritik der evan
these can be dismissed as irrelevant to gelischen Geschichte der Synoptiker,
our subject. with Marx' doctoral thesis, is astonished
And what about the Bauerian in at the ideological affinity between the
fluences noted above? They are to be two at the time. Thisfact cannot be ig
felt in several fields and they should nored by scholars acquainted—however
so it seems be classified as follows: a) minimally—with Bauer's works, but they
Religious alienation, b) The identifica prefer, in the end, to attribute the ideas
tion of Christianity (and the alienation of both Marx and Bauer to a common

typical of this religion) with the civil source: Feuerbach. Thus, for
example,
society and the bourgeois-democratic Bockmiihl regards the philosophy of
state, c) The division of human history self-consciousness, which Marx sup
into two periods: alienation as the pre ported until 1842, as the utilization of
historic era, and the elimination of ali the Feuerbachian method, cloaked in
enation as the stage in which man real Bauerian terminology.17 It is hard to

izes his authentic life. accept this diagnosis, if we take into

consideration the fact that there is no

a) Religious Alienation factual evidence to support it. This view

of the development of events would ap
There is a deeply-rooted belief
pear to emanate from a certain
scholars that Marx inherited exag
among
geration of Feuerbach's influence. One
Feuerbach's concept of religion with cer
can deduce from Bauer's
tain modifications, and that his concept unequivocally
letters that he was opposed, from the
of religious alienation is similar to that
very first, to Feuerbach's of ali
which characterized the Feuerbachian concept
enation, and in particular to the anthro
method. This routine statement does not

fit in with the facts. Before Marx was

pological and naturalistic elements and
to its subordination of the individual
acquainted with the "Essence of Chris
to the human race.18 As for Marx, one
tianity" at the end of 1841 or the be
certainly cannot ignore the fact that
ginning of 1842, he had already studied
Feuerbach made an impression on him.
Bauer's ideas closely and formulated his
But here too there is a certain exag
own views on religion on the basis of
the rich material to be found in Bauer's geration, mainly resulting from lack of
acquaintance for decades with most of
also negates the concepts of freedom of Hegel Marx' earlier writings. Since Feurbach
and Feuerbach, as based on
illusory aboli
the is mentioned several times favourably
tion of alienation, in the sphere of conscious
in The Holy Family, a legend grew up
ness alone, the real alienation remaining un

changed. It may be stated with a certain degree

of certainty that the Hegel criticized by Marx 17. Klaus Bockmühl: Leiblichkeit und Ge
is not the authentic Hegel but the figure he sellschaft. Studien zur
Religionskritik und An

glimpsed through the Bauerian prism. Marx tropologie im Frühwerk von Ludwig Feuerbach
presents the Hegelian theory as solely subjec und Karl Marx.
Gottingen 1961, pp. 125-130.
tivistic and as similar, in all respects, to that 18. Characteristik Ludwig Feuerbachs. Wig
of Bauer. ands Viertel jahresschrift, 1845, pp. 86-146.

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 59

regarding Marx' "Feuerbachian per divinity.20 This, the Bauerian concept

iod," which purportedly ended with the regarding self-consciousness which plays
writing of the Theses on Feuerbach a central role in the life of the indi
(published by Engels after Marx's death). vidual and society and creates the il
This legend was based, to a great extent lusory world of religion and divinity,
on the evidence of Engels in Ludwig took root in Marx' thought. He ac

Feuerbach und der Untergang der cepted this concept without too many
Klassischen deutschen
Philosophie in hesitations and utilized it for the defi
which he describes Feuerbach's influence nition of his philosophical credo. Marx
over radical intellectual circles in Ger was also influenced by Bauer in viewing
many, after the publication of his book alienation as a projection of non-human
Das Wesen des Christentums: "There qualities,21 and he specifically disagrees
was general enthusiasm: we all immedi with Feuerbach's view that in religion
ately became Feuerbachians." (p. 10) the scholar is involved in the transplan
Engel's enthusiasm is understandable tation of human qualities beyond the es
since Feuerbach, that is to say his posi sence of man. For Marx religion is not
tivism and materialistic-simplistic ele the objectivization of the essence of man,
ments, had a much greater effect over but of negative phenomena, such as the
his than over the formulation of Marx' sense of dependence, fear, dismember
views—and in actual fact Engels was em ment of personality, etc. According to

phasizing his own evolution towards this concept, the idea of divinity is the
Feuerbachism in that essay. At the same expression of the concentration of all

time Engels points to The Holy Family man's failings, a list of all men's faults
(1845) to verify his statement. But de and flaws, a kind of distorted mirror of
spite Marx' great admiration for Feuer human qualities. Thus, for example, self
bach, he was employing Feuerbach's respect and the feeling of sovereignty
terminology alone during his stay in belong among man's attachment to hea

Paris, and this was reflected in the ideas ven. Thus it attributes animal qualities
he raised in the Family. Marx' attitude to man. Therefore Marx declares totem

towards praxis and the unity of theory ism to be a religion which is absolutely
and praxis was aimed not only against true to itself, and claims that the time

Bauer but also against Feuerbach's con be when the

may approaching expression

templative concept. This is also true as

"religious zoology" will replace "relig
Marx' postulate concerning the ious There is no room
regards anthropology."22

employment of a historical approach to for doubt: the Marxian

idea of religion
social phenomena.19 as total dehumanization, as a phenom
Bauer's influence over Marx in his enon based on the negation of the hu
theory of religious alienation is evident man character of man is taken from

on several planes. In his dissertation Bauer, who argued many times that re
Marx emphasized that philosophy is ligious alienation is actually the total
opposed to all heavenly and earthly negation of man, and that under the
gods and all those who do not recognize influence of religion men forget their
human self-knowledge as the supreme
20. Ibid., 1,1 p. 10.
21. Ibid., pp. 114, 191, 236, 272.
19. MEGA 1, 3, pp. 190, 273, 294. 22- Ibid., pp. 114, 191, 272, I. 2 pp. 270-271.

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60 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

human nature, their obligations towards that for Bauer, religion is always hostile
humanity, as well as morality, freedom to man, robbing him of his consciousness
and reason.23 and emptying him of his innerness, and
engaged in the study of Marx
Those that it is always regarded as a true "ca
are justified in their puzzlement at the tastrophe." Bauer also preceded Marx

character of his critique of religion: how in viewing religion "opium." as an

could Marx, who often recommended Thus, for example, he wrote in 1841
the dialectical method, and utilized it that "in the true Christian state the
for social-economic and historical analy ology is awarded a status which ensures
ses, regard religion in general as opium, it of absolute power, i.e., it can, through
and all religions together at all periods influence similar to that of opium,
as ideologies hindering progress, which create a situation in which not a spark
under all historical conditions always of opposition can be found and all hu
fulfill a reactionary role.24 How did it man tendencies slumber." A year later

come about that Marx makes no men Bauer noted that after religion "has de
tion of the fact, which is well-known to stroyed everything noble and good, it
scholars, that in various periods religion speaks out of the opium induced intoxi
has served as a factor integrating dif cation of destructive lust of the future

ferent strata and whole nations, and to come, in which everything will be re
even as the symbol of various revolu newed, or to be more exact—in which
tionary movements Anabaptists, (the everything will be new, and there will
Tabborites and
Socinians)? A typical be created nature which is not nature,

example of the essence of his approach is humanity which is not humanity, i.e.,
his evaluation of Christianity, where its which is ruled by the nothingness into
social principles are regarded as which all reality has cast itself."26
serving
the interests of the ruling class, and this It is interesting to stress that it is
precept appears to him valid for all not only Marx' concept of religion as

historical periods, from ancient times opium which is very close to Bauer's at
to his own day.25 titude, but also whole phrases which ap
This trend, to present religion as the pear in this context in The Critique of
opium of the masses, making them pas Hegel's Philosophy of law—Introduction,
sive and depicting for them an illusory are a repetition of Bauer's words, such

better future, and the view of religion as the famous phrase—"flowers from the

as a reactionary ideology in all histori chain."27 Following on Bauer, Marx also

cal periods, i.e., the total negation of bitingly and angrily criticized religion
religion, appears to be based on Bauer's (whose destructive tendency is its dis
influence over Marx. This can be dis tinguishing feature), regarded religion
cerned by a comparison of Marxian and first and foremost as man's alienation

Bauerian texts. It has already been noted from his own, and strove for the total

eradication of religion, so as to restore

23.See: Theologische Schamlosigkeiten, op. to man his alienated essence.
cit., pp. 44, 47-48; Synoptiker . . . Vol. Ill,
op. cit. p. 314. 26. Die gute Sache der Freiheit . . . Feld
24. Writings of the Young Mark . . . op. cit., ziige der Kritik, op. cit., p. 130. "Der christliche
p. 250. Staat . . . ," op. cit., p. 9.
25. K. Marx and F. Engels, On Religion, 27. Writings of the Young Marx . . . op. cit.,
Moscow, 1957, pp. 82-83. p, 250.

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 61

Marx never concealed his opinion is the case with man in the field of re
that the concept of religious alienation ligion, where the products of his own
lies at the basis of the concept of alien thought dominate him, so in capitalistic
ation as a whole, i.e., he arrived at his product, his own products rule him."30

view of alienation in society, economics, Marx' attitude, as he formulated it

and labour, through his view of relig in the above three important works, and
ion as the concept of the subordination which is extremely similar to that of
of the human essence to a foreign es Bauer, testifies to the utilization of meth
sence; this serves as the starting point odological instruments created during
and basis for his theory. He clarified the process of consolidation of his con
this point in The Critique of Hegel's cept of religion, in accordance with
Philosophy of Law—Introduction when Bauer's statements and conclusions.

he wrote: "For Germany the criticism Marx adapted Bauer's basic assumptions
of religion has been
essentially com of critique of religious alienation, when
pleted, and criticism of religion is the working on his dissertation, and while
premise of all criticism. The profane ex he was serving as editor of the Rhein
istence of error is compromised when ische Zeitung. He never parted from
its heaveny oration pro aris et focis has these basic assumptions. In time he did
been refuted. Man, who has found only begin to regard religious alienation as of
the reflection of himself in the fantastic secondary importance and economic

reality of heaven sought a where he social alienation as of greater impor

supernatural being, will no longer be in tance, and he accordingly engaged in
clined to find the semblance of himself, economic and sociological analyses of
only the non-human being, where he labour (areas from which Bauer was
seeks and must seek his true reality."28
far removed), and sharply criticized
train of thought can be
A similar the subjectivistic concepts of Bauer

found in the Economic and Philosophic (eventually forgetting entirely). him

Manuscripts in the chapter on alienated But, at the same time he did not, from
labour: "All these follow the point of view of principles, abandon
consequences
from the fact that the worker is related the line he had adopted as a result of
to the of his labour as to an his acquaintance with Bauer and under
product
alien object. For it is clear according to his influence.
this premise: the more the worker exerts

himself, the more powerful becomes the b) Identification of Christianity (and

alien objective world which he fashions the ALIENATION characteristic OF

the CIVIL society

against himself, the poorer he and his
THIS RELIGION) WITH

inner world become, the less there is and WITH the BOURGEOIS-DEMOCRATIC

that belongs to him. It is the same in STATE

religion. The more man attributes to In his essay On the Jewish Question
God, the less he retains in himself."29 It Marx attacks Bauer's views on emanci
is interesting to note that many years
pation from religion as human emanci
later Marx continued to hold on to the
pation. According to Marx the expulsion
same belief, noting in Das Kapital: "As
of religion from the state to the private
28. Ibid., p. 259.
29. Ibid., pp. 289-290. 30. Das Kapital, Berlin, 1951, p. 653.

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62 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

sphere (i.e., separation of the state and from the egoism of trade but re

religion) cannot solve the basic problems ceived freedom to trade.31

of civil society (i.e., the bourgeoisie), Only human emancipation can put
such as selfishness, the accumulation of an end to the dismemberment and split
capital at the expense of others, social ting of man who lives a double life with
and economic oppression, etc. Marx' ob in the framework of bourgeois society:
jections refer to two points: (a) the lack as a citizen of the state and as a member
of separation between religion and the of civil society (on this point Marx is
state is only one of the components of
imprisoned in the Feuerbachian con
the democratic
political revolution struction, regarding the conflict between
which put an end to the feudal struc man's individual-sensuous existence and
ture (or the vestiges of feudalism) and his existence as a creature, one of a

to absolutism. The democratic changes kind). It can do this through the elimin
include many far-reaching alterations: ation of private property and the rule of
the eradication of corporations, guilds selfishness and self-advantage.
and feudal privileges and of the su The
polemical aspects of On the
perior status of a certain religion as the Jewish Question are obvious. But there
state religion, the expansion of voting is an additional trend in this essay,
rights, recognition of the rights of the which has as yet remained unremarked:
man and citizen, (b) At the same time Marx had need of the Bauerian ideas of
all these changes cannot solve the prob alienation so as to develop his theory
lems of political and social alienation, regarding the existence of alienation
anchored in the selfishness of men, in and its exacerbation within the frame
self-advantage, in oppression and exploi work of bourgeois society. This is sur
tation Marx' conclusion on this prob in the of circumstances and
prising light
lem is expressed in the following timing, because in this essay, in particu
words: lar, Marx conducts a violent campaign

against Bauer with the intention of

proving that Bauer was disregarding the
Feudal was dissolved into
society truth in his approach to the Jewish
its foundation, into man. But into
question and his general historiosophical
man as he actually was the founda
approach. It is possible that this is the
tion of that society, into egoistical
reason for the failure to discern the
man. This man, the member of
clearly Bauerian motifs in the essay.
civil society, is now the basis and Bauer identified the Christian state
presupposition of the political state.
with the feudal-absolutist state. The
He is recognized as such by the
latter is based on the negation of free
state in the rights of man. But the
dom of expression and conscience. It
freedom of egoistic man and the
of this freedom is enjoys longevity, thanks to the granting
recognition of legitimation to the status of Chris
rather the recognition of the un
tianity as the ruling religion, cooperates
bridled movement
of the spiritual
with it, man, and does not
oppresses
and material elements forming the
content of his life. Thus man was permit him to be free and to live a hu
not freed from religion; he received 31. Writings the Marx . . . op.
of Young
religious freedom. He was not freed cit., p. 240.

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 63

man life. Christian alienation—as has al Regarding the state which recog
ready been noted—was much stronger nizes the Christian religion as the state
than any kind of alienation which pre religion and grants it special rights, Marx
ceded it in history, because it penetrated employs the term "the so-called Chris
into all spheres of life and totally domi tian state." (der sogenannte christliche
nated man. Marx takes over the Bauer
Staat), but the term "Christian state" is
ian argumentation, but—wonder of won attributed to a state of a totally different
ders!—that which in the Bauerian con type. We can safely say that this term—
cept was one of the distinguishing fea which is of such great importance in
tures of Christianity and the clerical Bauer's concept—undergoes a process of
monarchical regime, is attributed by transplantation in Marx, which is quite
Marx to the democratic-bourgeois state, astounding. Marx explains to the as
which has proclaimed the representa tonished reader that, of all states, it is
tional-parliamentary regime, civil equal that which proclaims freedom of relig
ity and other democratic freedoms, and ion and conscience and separates itself
separation of religion and state. from religious institutions, which is the
Marx does not regard the Christian complete Christian state: "Indeed, the
state as an earthly state, human in its perfected Christian state is not the so
reality as a state, but as a chimerical called Christian state acknowledging
state, in which the state is negated by Christianity as its foundation in the
religion, which stands above it and de state religion and excluding all others.
sires to rule in its stead. At the very It is rather the atheistic state, the demo
best cooperation grows up between the cratic state, the state that re
relegates
two for the perpetuation of Christianity ligion to the level of other elements of
and the rule of the Christian monarch, civil society."33 In accordance with this

emphasis being placed not on the mon view, the so-called Christian state, i.e.,
arch but on the Christian aspect, or, as the imperfect state, treats religion po
Marx puts it: litically and politics religiously. In con
The so-called Christian state is a trast, the democratic state can ignore
Christian denial of the state, not in considerations emanating from the in
any way the political actualization terests of Christianity as a church organi
of Christianity. The state that still zation and an establishment, but it has
professes Christianity in the form of need of religion as an ideological seal,
religion does not profess it in po even if this be religion in its private and
litical form because it still behaves non-state form. But what is more im

religiously towards religion—that is, portant: the Bauerian concept of the

it is not the actual expression of the alienation of Christianity thus under
human basis of religion since it still goes an additional transformation and
deals with the unreality and imag takes on the form of the bourgeois so
form of this human core. The
inary ciety with all its contradictions and ten
so-called Christian state is an im sions. After Marx identifies true Chris
perfect one, which treats Christian tianity with the democratic
state, he
ity as the supplement and sanctifica identifies this state, to a great extent,
tion of its imperfection.32 with the relations prevailing in the civil

32. Ibid., p. 228. 33. Ibid.

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64 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

society of his times. In this matter he beliefs of this Judaism the principle of
relies both on the Bauerism thesis that takes first There
self-advantage place.35

Judaism and Christianity are religions can be no doubt that Marx, who was

of dismemberment and and on Bauer's close friend at that time, read

egoism

Hegel's interpretations of the structure this esay and utilized the Bauerism
of civil society in The Philosophy of system for his own purposes. The
Law. In this context Marx writes: story that Feuerbach was the
accepted
The members of the political state first to lay down the foundations of
are religious by virtue of the dual the concept of Judaism as the religion
ism between individual life and spe of practice and the worship of money
cies life, between the life of civil and that he thus influenced Marx

society and political life. They are decisively has nothing to support it,
religious inasmuch as man regards if we take into consideration the fact
as his true political life
life the that Feuerbach's book The Essence of
remote from his actual individual Christianity was published in 1841, two
ity, inasmuch as religion is here the years after the publication of Bauer's

spirit of civil society expressing the essay. Only lack of acquaintance with
and withdrawal of man Bauer's work can explain the view that
separation
from man. democracy is
Political Feuerbach was the source of Marx'

Christian in that it regards man views on the subject.

not merely one but every man—as Marx also follows Bauer in his view
sovereign and supreme. But this of the additional qualities of Judaism:
means man in his uncivilized and hostility towards theory, art, science and
unsocial aspect, in his fortuitous
progress in the history of society. It is
existence and just as he is, corrupted interesting to note that Die Judenfrage,
by the entire organization of our the book against which Marx is arguing
society, lost and alienated from him in his essay, is entirely devoted to a
self oppressed by inhuman relations
pseudo-historiosophical analysis of the
and elements—in a word, man who situation of the Jews in the world, in
is not yet an actual species-being.34 the light of their opposition to the prog
Man, in his uncivilized and unsocial ress of science, the arts and human so

aspect as an egotist, who regards himself ciety.

as the sovereign and others as the source Marx transplants the qualities of
of his income and his life (a motif de Judaism to the sphere of Christianity so
veloped in Economic and Philosophical as to prove that it is Christianity which
Manuscripts) is the true Christian man. is suited to serve as the religion of a
So as to explain his views of this subject, bourgeois society based on commercial
Marx first attributes to the Jew and to ization, egotism and self-advantage. To
Judaism certain qualities which fit in his mind, Judaism was not capable of
with Bauer's concept of Judaism. In an building a new world since its princi
article on the Jews, written in 1839, were too abstract, and it was
ples obliged
Bauer described Judaism as selfish, avar to wait for the creation of a society
icious for money and property and de
manding payment for every deed. In the 35. Bruno Bauer: Herr Dr. Hengstenberg.
Kritische Briefe über den Gegensatz des Geset
34. Ibid., p. 231. zes und des Evangelium. Berlin, 1839.

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 65

which would enable it to realize its es self and from nature, and the need to
sence. When this society was created conduct an analysis of alienated labour.
there was no longer any need for Juda
ism, and its place was taken by Chris c) Alienation and its elimination as

tianity, which accepts the views of Ju the Criterion for Periodization of

daism but differs from it from the point Human History

of view of its universality and cosmo

According to Bauer, alienation, in
politism and its formal attitude towards
its Christian image, causes total dehu
God. There exists an inter-relation be
manization of man, who is entirely un
tween Christianity, which is but a con
der the domination of external forces,
tinuation of Judaism, and the civil
over which he has no control whatsoever.
(bourgeois) society, the common de
Furthermore, alienation becomes total,
nominator being the disintegration of
penetrates into all spheres of behaviour
the society into individual atoms, i.e.,
and mainly into his thought and con
individuals on the one hand, and the
sciousness. This
totality of alienation
concept of them as egoistical creatures
constitutes the basic assumption for the
by their very nature on the other.
total illumination of alienation in all its
The artificial construction of both
manifestations, or as Bauer writes: Al
Judiasm and Christianity enables Marx ienation should have been so universal
to describe alienation as a basic quality
that the liberation of mankind from all
of bourgeois society. At first he argues, its limitations would be basic and
and Bauer's word for
repeats phrase final."39 "It was the role of this profound
word, that what is valid in the so-called and horrific alienation to prepare and
Christian state is not man but aliena
sanctify the eternal liberty which man
tion; and he then notes that alienation kind will enjoy for evermore."40 In other
reaches perfection in the Christian
words: total alienation opens up oppor
world, that is, the world.36
capitalist tunities for its total elimination. As
These are already typical echoes of the
long as it was—within the framework of
motif of the Economic and Philosophic
the naturalreligions—fragmented and
Manuscripts, as Marx writes that Chris
incomplete, it was impossible to antici
tianity (read: capitalism) "had com
pate its total abolition. It was only Chris
pleted the alienation of man from him
tianity which laid the foundations for
self and from nature."37 And, further
man's self-realization in accordance with
more, Marx also notes that "money is
the qualities of the free self-conscious
the alienated essence of man's labour
ness, and this, of course, in accordance
and life, and this alien essence domi with the of the antithesis.
principle
nates him and he worships it."38 These
Within the framework of this purely
conclusions are clearly a springboard to
theological concept, Protestantism, as
the view of bourgeois society as the the purest and most perfect form of
height of alienation of man from him
Christianity, prepared the ground for
the rise of the free man on the platform
of history. Bauer stresses that when man
Writings of the Young
36. Marx . . . op. cit.,
pp. 231, 238-240.
37. Ibid., p. 247. 39. Synoptiker . . . Vol. Ill, op. cit., p. 309.
38. Ibid., p. 246. 40. Ibid,., Vol. II, op. cit., p. 312.

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66 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

finds the courage to face up to alienation example, he wrote: "we are not referring
as a whole, to lack of liberty, the strug to the bestowing of philosophy on man
gle for freedom will end in such a way kind in place of religion, but to the fact
that there will be no further need for that mankind will be everything."44
such struggles.41 "Critique knows no dogmatism. Its slo
According to this view of history, it gan is: mankind or no mankind, death
is divided into two periods: past and or life, everything or nothing."45
future. The past was lived under the The alienation which lies at the core
shadow of the self-alienation and aliena of human periodization, the division of
tion of man. This situation continues in history into the era of alienation and the
the present, but a firm basis has already era of lack of alienation and of liberty,
been created for a fundamental change the problem of philosophy as aimed at
of values and far-reaching transforma bringing redemption to mankind—all
tion, with alienation being replaced by these ideas of Bauer's left a deep impres
a new type of mankind, free of submis sion on the development of Marx'

sion to external forces, which stand out thought. This is a result of the intellec
side and above man. This transforma tual climate of Germany in the early
tion cannot come about without certain forties, the suppression of free thought,
shocks—the opposite is true: there is need the intensification of censorship and the
for a crisis and a spiritual and cultural employment of means of terror by the

revolution in order to bring about the authorities.45 It then appeared that the

longed-for change. As Bauer says: "Phi extreme actions of the authorities would

must out a revolution to engender the extreme reaction of the

losophy carry
be directed against everything and opposition and that this would develop
against history as well."42 In one of his into a frontal confrontation between

letters to Marx, Bauer remarks that "the the forces of reaction and of progress.

catastrophe will be horrifying and will In this atmosphere Marx could not draw

reach tremendous proportions. It will be direct inspiration from Hegel. If we

greater than the which oc the that the truth
catastrophe accept assumption
curred when Christianity entered the regarding the ideological and political
world."43 significance of Hegel's method lies some
There is a clearly eschatological note where in between the attitude of Haym,
in these statements by Bauer. And this who regarded Hegel as an opportunistic
is not surprising since he was convinced conformist, and that of Ritter, who tends

that his meditative activity symbolized to regard him as the proponent of revo
the last stage in the struggle against lutionary ideas, then there can be no
alienation and for the removal of all the doubt that this method constitutes the
restrictions on man's free activity. This compromise of philosophy with the state
is the tone of all Bauer's writings be and with the Christian religion.47 There
tween the years 1840-1843. Thus, for
44. "Die gute Sache . . op. cit., p. 202.
45. Ibid., p. 204.
41. Die Fàhigkeit . . . op. cit., p. 64. 46. See: Reinhart Friedrich
Seegar, Engels,
42. Die Posaune des jüngsten Gerichts Halle, pp. 103-106.
1935,
über Hegel den Atheisten und Antichristen, 47. On the conciliatory character of Hegel's
Leipzig, 1841, p. 167. method see Lowith, Von Hegel zu Nietzsche,
43. MEGA 1, w, p. 241. op. cit., pp. 59-65.

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 MARX' CONCEPT OF ALIENATION 67

was need to confront it and to prevail of human history, and the need for a
over it, and Marx' views were consoli radical change of reality, meaning the re
dated to no small extent as a result of moval of alienation and the opening of
his struggle against the abstract and a new human era, take first place.49

speculative elements of this concept. Marx does not hide the teleological aim
There appears to have been several ele of his historical view: alienated man can
ments in Bauer's view which—at least comprehend the riddle of past events
temporarily—attracted Marx' attention, only in the light of the realization of his
and it is logical to assume that Marx was true essence in the future, i.e., through
influenced by them. These included the taking his destiny into his own hands he
eschatological desire to ensure the happi will be capable of understanding that
ness of the human race through the rea his past did not, in fact, belong to him.
lization of philosophy and the abolition Thus—in accordance with Bauer's con
of alienation, and the view of human cept—all history is conceived as a history
history as the preparatory stage for the of preparation (Vorbereitungsgeschi
implementation of this task. In the In chte) and direction, for the preparation
troduction to the Critique of Hegel's of freedom and abolition of the aliena
Philosophy of Law, Marx' belief in the tion with which man is afflicted.50 His
need to implement the demand for the tory takes on significance because of its
realization of the postulate of human final aim. Marx sees in the existing
happiness through the abolition of re forms of life clear expression of the de
ligion—in the spirit of Bauer—is clearly humanization of mankind, and he de
evident, when he points to the need to mands the humanization of life through
put an end to religion as an illusory joy, the elimination of alienation. The idea
so as to provide real happiness. Accord of emancipation from alienation consti
ing to Marx the immediate task of phi tutes the central idea of the Manuscripts,

losophy is to remove the shadow of alien and it is not surprising, therefore, that
ation from over the heads of mankind. eschatological philosophy takes first
In the term 'alienation' he includes place and that the trend has
empirical
both its religious and its secular forms. not yet found its path. The historiosoph
The abolition of alienation marks the ical aspect generally becomes obscured

beginning of a new era in which men the more the problem is connected di
will be free, molders of their own des rectly with the idea of emancipation.
tiny and their own masters.48 Marx re The reason is clear: Marx is still en
turns to these motifs in Economic and slaved by the Bauerian construction, and,

Philosophic Manuscripts, with certain therefore, communism and the abolition

serious changes, his main ideas appear of private property serve an a priori aim,
ing in the form of economic categories, which is basically eschatological, while
such as private property and its eradica the empirical analysis—which is so char
tion, production, etc. But here too, as acteristic of Marx in his later historical
Tucker rightly noted, the economic an
alysis is still secondary, while the view 49. Robert C. Tucker, Philosophy and Myth
of alienation as lying at the foundation in Karl Marx, Cambridge University Press, p.
127.
48. Writings of the Young Marx . . . op. cit., 50. Writings of the Young Marx . . . op.

pp. 249-251, 257-259. cit., pp. 304-305, 311-312.

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68 SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE

works—is aimed at proving the justice If the author's statements are correct,
of the aim. This, incidentally, is also the then the Bauerian concept took root in
reason for Marx' view on the relations Marx' system of beliefs, at least in the

between alienated labour

private and early forties when it was undergoing
property, where private property is not consolidation. It would appear that the
regarded as the cause of alienation of problem of atheism as theoretical hu
labour, but rather the contrary: it is the manism, the negative character of alien
consequence of alienation, since, as has ation, the totality of alienation and the
already been stated, alienation takes first periodization of human history in the
place both as regards general significance early writings of Marx can be accredited
and historical significance. to a great extent to Bauer.

Since this point has so far been un- This conclusion is in no way a nega
clear, there have been many attempts— tion of other influences on Marx, for

resulting from a retrospective view of example, that of Hegel, or to a lesser ex

the facts—to attribute to Marx his eco- tent, Feuerbach, but it can add to
depth
nomic and
sociological method from a the image of the Marxian concept of
later period. All those closely acquainted alienation. This was the writer's inten
with Marxological literature must surely tion.
have taken note of the non-convincing
nature of these attempts.

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