UNIT 3

Wireless means transmitting signals using radio waves as the medium instead of wires.
Wireless technologies are used for tasks as simple as switching off the television or as
complex as supplying the sales force with information from an automated enterprise
application while in the field. Now cordless keyboards and mice, PDAs, pagers and digital
and cellular phones have become part of our daily life.

Some of the inherent characteristics of wireless communications systems which make it

attractive for users, are given below −
 Mobility − A wireless communications system allows users to access information
beyond their desk and conduct business from anywhere without having a wire
connectivity.
 Reachability − Wireless communication systems enable people to be stay connected
and be reachable, regardless of the location they are operating from.
 Simplicity − Wireless communication system are easy and fast to deploy in
comparison of cabled network. Initial setup cost could be a bit high but other
advantages overcome that high cost.
 Maintainability − In a wireless system, you do not have to spend too much cost and
time to maintain the network setup.
 Roaming Services − Using a wireless network system, you can provide service any
where any time including train, buses, aeroplanes etc.
 New Services − Wireless communication systems provide various smart services like
SMS and MMS.

Wireless Network Topologies

There are basically three ways to set up a wireless network −

Point-to-point bridge
As you know, a bridge is used to connect two networks. A point-to-point
bridge interconnects two buildings having different networks. For example, a wireless LAN
bridge can interface with an Ethernet network directly to a particular access point (as shown
in the following image).

Point-to-multipoint bridge

This topology is used to connect three or more LANs that may be located on different floors
in a building or across buildings(as shown in the following image).

Mesh or ad hoc network

This network is an independent local area network that is not connected to a wired
infrastructure and in which all stations are connected directly to one another(as shown in the
following image).

Wireless Technologies
Wireless technologies can be classified in different ways depending on their range. Each
wireless technology is designed to serve a specific usage segment. The requirements for
each usage segment are based on a variety of variables, including Bandwidth needs,
Distance needs and Power.

Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)

This network enables you to access the Internet via a wireless wide area network (WWAN)
access card and a PDA or laptop.
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunications technology, and their range is also extensive. Cellular and mobile
networks based on CDMA and GSM are good examples of WWAN.

Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

These networks are very similar to WWAN except their range is very limited.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

This network enables you to access the Internet in localized hotspots via a wireless local
area network (WLAN) access card and a PDA or laptop.
It is a type of local area network that uses high-frequency radio waves rather than wires to
communicate between nodes.
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunications technology, and their range is very limited. Wi-Fi is the most
widespread and popular example of WLAN technology.

Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)

This network enables you to access the Internet and multimedia streaming services via a
wireless region area network (WRAN).
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunication technology as well as other wireless network, and their range is also
extensive.

Issues with Wireless Networks

There are following three major issues with Wireless Networks.

 Quality of Service (QoS) − One of the primary concerns about wireless data delivery
is that, unlike the Internet through wired services, QoS is inadequate. Lost packets
and atmospheric interference are recurring problems of the wireless protocols.
 Security Risk − This is another major issue with a data transfer over a wireless
network. Basic network security mechanisms like the service set identifier (SSID)
and Wireless Equivalency Privacy (WEP); these measures may be adequate for
residences and small businesses, but they are inadequate for the entities that require
stronger security.
  Reachable Range − Normally, wireless network offers a range of about 100 meters
or less. Range is a function of antenna design and power. Now a days the range of
wireless is extended to tens of miles so this should not be an issue any more.

Wireless Broadband Access (WBA)

Broadband wireless is a technology that promises high-speed connection over the air. It uses
radio waves to transmit and receive data directly to and from the potential users whenever
they want it. Technologies such as 3G, Wi-Fi, WiMAX and UWB work together to meet
unique customer needs.
WBA is a point-to-multipoint system which is made up of base station and subscriber
equipment
Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that
allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures
that the communication will continue without user’s sessions or connections being dropped.

(QP30) Demonstrate with a diagram, how a correspondent node sends

and receives IP packets to and from a MN, even it moves to another
foreign network continuously. How does the packet delivery
mechanism in the Mobile IP protocol differ from the traditional IP
protocol?
(QP14) Describe mobile IP. Explain with a diagram, how a
correspondent mobile node on a visit sends and receives IP packets to
and from another MN also on a visit at another foreign network. How
does the packet delivery mechanism in the mobile IP protocol differ
from that in the IP protocol?(10)
Note: combine answer of QP1 &QP3

(QP1) Dramatize the discovery mechanism of Mobile IP by agent?

Give the overlay of Agent advertisement packet which includes
mobility extension.(5)
Defined in RFC (Request for Comments) 2002, mobile IP is an enhancement of the internet
protocol (IP) that adds mechanisms for forwarding internet traffic to mobile devices (known
as mobile nodes) when they are connecting through other than their home network.
The following case shows how a datagram moves from one point to another within the
Mobile IP framework.

o First of all, the internet host sends a datagram to the mobile node using the mobile
node's home address (normal IP routing process).
o If the mobile node (MN) is on its home network, the datagram is delivered through
the normal IP (Internet Protocol) process to the mobile node. Otherwise the home
agent picks up the datagram.
o If the mobile node (MN) is on foreign network, the home agent (HA) forwards the
datagram to the foreign agent.
o The foreign agent (FA) delivers the datagram to the mobile node.
o Datagrams from the MN to the Internet host are sent using normal IP routing
procedures. If the mobile node is on a foreign network, the packets are delivered to
the foreign agent. The FA forwards the datagram to the Internet host.

In the case of wireless communications, the above illustrations depict the use of wireless
transceivers to transmit the datagrams to the mobile node. Also, all datagrams between the
Internet host and the MN use the mobile node's home address regardless of whether the
mobile node is on a home or foreign network. The care-of address (COA) is used only for
communication with mobility agents and is never seen by the Internet host.

(QP3) Brief about Mobile IP and correlate the terminologies to

improve Mobile QoS.(5)
Terminologies:
 Mobile Node (MN):
It is the hand-held communication device that the user caries e.g. Cell phone.
  Home Network:
It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs to as per its assigned IP
address (home address).
 Home Agent (HA):
It is a router in home network to which the mobile node was originally connected
 Home Address:
It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home network).
 Foreign Network:
It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its home
network).
 Foreign Agent (FA):
It is a router in foreign network to which mobile node is currently connected. The
packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers it to the
mobile node.
 Correspondent Node (CN):
It is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.
 Care of Address (COA):
It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving away from its
home network.

Network integration
Agent Advertisement
• HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical
subnets
• MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign
network (standard case for home network)
• MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
Registration (always limited lifetime!)
• MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN
• these actions have to be secured by authentication Advertisement
• HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard
routing information
• routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA responsible
for a MN over a longer period of time)
• packets to the MN are sent to the HA,
• independent of changes in COA/FA

(QP8)Describe the functions of Home and Foreign agents in Mobile

IP?
Process of Mobile IP
1. Agent Discovery
One initial problem of an MN after moving is how to find a foreign agent
How does the MN discover that it has moved?
Mobile IP describes two methods:
Agent advertisement
Agent solicitation
Agent Advertisement
Extends the current ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol – Router Advertisement)
HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets
MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network (standard
case for home network)
MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages

2. Registration
Mobile Node requests registration from Foreign Agent (or directly for co-located COA)
Request is forwarded to Home Agent
Includes CAO + home addresses
Home Agent replies to Foreign Agent
Security
Authentication between all three parties
Mobile-Home auth. is based on shared secret

3. Tunneling & Encapsulation

Communication between an IP node and a Mobile Node
Delivery of data to mobile node’s COA via permanent home address
Tunneling is achieved by encapsulation

Routing/Encapsulation/Tunneling: consists of the delivery of the packets to the mobile node

at its current care of address.

 Sender does not need to know

that the destination is a MN.

 HA intercepts all packets for the MN and passes them along to MN using a tunnel.

 MN communicates directly with the CN.

 Referred to as Triangle Routing

Routing/Encapsulation/Tunneling: consists of the delivery of the packets to the mobile node
at its current care of address.

1. Sender does not need to know that the destination is a MN.

2. HA intercepts all packets for the MN and passes them along to MN using a tunnel.
3. MN communicates directly with the CN.
4. Referred to as Triangle Routing

Three types of encapsulation protocols are specified for Mobile IP:

IP In IP Encapsulation: required to be supported. Full IP header added to the original IP
packet. The new header contains HA address as source and Care of Address as destination.
Minimal Encapsulation: optional. Requires less overhead but requires changes to the
original header. Destination address is changed to Care of Address and Source IP address is
maintained as it is.
Generic Routing Encapsulation : optional. Allows packets of a different protocol suite to
be encapsulated by another protocol suite.
IP IN IP Encapsulation

original IP header original data

new IP header new data

outer header inner header original data

(QP2)Write short noes on multi-hop ad-hoc network.(5)

Cellular and ad hoc wireless networks
Cellular Wireless Networks: infrastructure dependent network
Ad Hoc Networks: multi-hop radio relaying and without support of infrastructure
– Wireless Mesh Networks
– Wireless Sensor Networks
A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network;
A BSS with an AP is called an infrastructure network.

Some of the inherent characteristics of wireless communications systems which make it

attractive for users, are given below −
 Mobility − A wireless communications system allows users to access information
beyond their desk and conduct business from anywhere without having a wire
connectivity.
 Reachability − Wireless communication systems enable people to be stay connected
and be reachable, regardless of the location they are operating from.
 Simplicity − Wireless communication system are easy and fast to deploy in
comparison of cabled network. Initial setup cost could be a bit high but other
advantages overcome that high cost.
 Maintainability − In a wireless system, you do not have to spend too much cost and
time to maintain the network setup.
 Roaming Services − Using a wireless network system, you can provide service any
where any time including train, buses, aeroplanes etc.
 New Services − Wireless communication systems provide various smart services like
SMS and MMS.

(QP5) Give the difference between infrastructure and ad-hoc

networks?
(QP15) List down and explain the various commercial applications of
Ad-hoc sensor network that have a significant impact in commercial
world.(10)
(QP19) Write short notes on Ad-hoc networks and its applications.
(10)
(QP43) Explain the various commercial applications of Ad-hoc
network that have a significant impact in commercial world.(10)
Applications of Adhoc Network
The decentralized nature of wireless ad-hoc networks makes them suitable for a variety of
applications where central nodes can't be relied on and may improve the scalability of
networks compared to wireless managed networks

The presence of dynamic and adaptive routing protocols enables ad hoc networks to be
formed quickly. Wireless ad-hoc networks can be further classified by their applications:

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs)

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously self-configuring, self-organizing,
infrastructure-less network of mobile devices connected without wires. It is sometimes
known as "on-the-fly" networks or "spontaneous networks".
Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs)
VANETs are used for communication between vehicles and roadside equipment. Intelligent
vehicular ad hoc networks (InVANETs) are a kind of artificial intelligence that helps vehicles
to behave in intelligent manners during vehicle-to-vehicle collisions, accidents. Vehicles are
using radio waves to communicate with each other, creating communication networks
instantly on-the-fly while vehicles move along roads.
Smartphone ad hoc networks (SPANs)
A SPAN leverages existing hardware (primarily Wi-Fi and Bluetooth) and software
(protocols) in commercially available smartphones to create peer-to-peer networks without
relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or traditional network
infrastructure. SPANs differ from traditional hub and spoke networks, such as Wi-Fi Direct,
in that they support multi-hop relays and there is no notion of a group leader so peers can join
and leave at will without destroying the network. Most recently, Apple's iPhone with version
8.4 iOS and higher have been enabled with multi-peer ad hoc mesh networking capability, in
iPhones, allowing millions of smart phones to create ad hoc networks without relying on
cellular communications. It has been claimed that this is going to "change the world".
iMANETs
Internet-based mobile ad-hoc networks (iMANETs) are a type of wireless ad hoc
network that supports Internet protocols such as TCP/UDP and IP. The network uses a
network-layer routing protocol to link mobile nodes and establish routes distributedly and
automatically.
Wireless mesh networks
Mesh networks take their name from the topology of the resultant network. In a fully
connected mesh, each node is connected to every other node, forming a "mesh". A partial
mesh, by contrast, has a topology in which some nodes are not connected to others, although
this term is seldom in use. Wireless ad hoc networks can take the form of a mesh networks or
others. A wireless ad hoc network does not have fixed topology, and its connectivity among
nodes is totally dependent on the behavior of the devices, their mobility patterns, distance
with each other, etc. Hence, wireless mesh networks are a particular type of wireless ad hoc
networks, with special emphasis on the resultant network topology. While some wireless
mesh networks (particularly those within a home) have relatively infrequent mobility and
thus infrequent link breaks, other more mobile mesh networks require frequent routing
adjustments to account for lost links. Google Home, Google Wi-Fi, and Google OnHub all
support Wi-Fi mesh (i.e., Wi-Fi ad hoc) networking. Apple's AirPort allows the formation of
wireless mesh networks at home, connecting various Wi-Fi devices together and providing
good wireless coverage and connectivity at home.
Army tactical MANETs
Military or tactical MANETs are used by military units with emphasis on data rate, real-time
requirement, fast re-routing during mobility, data security, radio range, and integration with
existing systems.Common radio waveforms include the US Army's JTRS SRW and
Persistent System's WaveRelay. Ad hoc mobile communications come in well to fulfill this
need, especially its infrastructureless nature, fast deployment and operation. Military
MANETs are used by military units with emphasis on rapid deployment, infrastructureless,
all-wireless networks (no fixed radio towers), robustness (link breaks are no problem),
security, range, and instant operation. MANETs can be used in army "hopping" mines, in
platoons where soldiers communicate in foreign terrains, giving them superiority in the
battlefield. Tactical MANETs can be formed automatically during the mission and the
network "disappears" when the mission is over or decommissioned. It is sometimes called
"on-the-fly" wireless tactical network.
Air Force UAV Ad hoc networks
Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) are composed of unmanned aerial vehicles, allowing great
mobility and providing connectivity to remote areas.
Unmanned aerial vehicle, is an aircraft with no pilot on board. UAVs can be remotely
controlled (i.e., flown by a pilot at a ground control station) or can fly autonomously based on
pre-programmed flight plans. Civilian usage of UAV include modeling 3D terrains, package
delivery (Amazon), etc.
UAVs have also been used by US Air Force for data collection and situation sensing, without
risking the pilot in a foreign unfriendly environment. With wireless ad hoc network
technology embedded into the UAVs, multiple UAVs can communicate with each other and
work as a team, collaboratively to complete a task and mission. If a UAV is destroyed by an
enemy, its data can be quickly offloaded wirelessly to other neighbouring UAVs. The UAV
ad hoc communication network is also sometimes referred to UAV instant sky network.
Navy ad hoc networks
Navy ships traditionally use satellite communications and other maritime radios to
communicate with each other or with ground station back on land. However, such
communications are restricted by delays and limited bandwidth. Wireless ad hoc networks
enable ship-area-networks to be formed while at sea, enabling high speed wireless
communications among ships, enhancing their sharing of imaging and multimedia data, and
better co-ordination in battlefield operations. Some defense companies (such as Rockwell
Collins and Rohde & Schwartz) have produced products that enhance ship-to-ship and ship-
to-shore communications.
Wireless sensor networks
Sensors are useful devices that collect information related to a specific parameter, such as
noise, temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. Sensors are increasingly connected via wireless to
allow large scale collection of sensor data. With a large sample of sensor data, analytics
processing can be used to make sense out of these data. The connectivity of wireless sensor
networks rely on the principles behind wireless ad hoc networks, since sensors can now be
deploy without any fixed radio towers, and they can now form networks on-the-fly. "Smart
Dust" was one of the early projects done at U C Berkeley, where tiny radios were used to
interconnect smart dust. More recently, mobile wireless sensor networks (MWSNs) have also
become an area of academic interest.
Ad hoc home smart lighting
ZigBee is a low power form of wireless ad hoc networks that is now finding their way in
home automation. Its low power consumption, robustness and extended range inherent
in mesh networking can deliver several advantages for smart lighting in homes and in offices.
The control includes adjusting dimmable lights, color lights, and color or scene. The
networks allow a set or subset of lights to be controlled over a smart phone or via a
computer.The home automation market is tipped to exceed $16 billion by 2019.
Ad hoc street light networks
Wireless ad hoc smart street light networks are beginning to evolve. The concept is to use
wireless control of city street lights for better energy efficiency, as part of a smart city
architectural feature. Multiple street lights form a wireless ad hoc network. A single gateway
device can control up to 500 street lights. Using the gateway device, one can turn individual
lights ON, OFF or dim them, as well as find out which individual light is faulty and in need
of maintenance.
Ad hoc network of robots
Robots are mechanical systems that drive automation and perform chores that would seem
difficult for man. Efforts have been made to co-ordinate and control a group of robots to
undertake collaborative work to complete a task. Centralized control is often based on a "star"
approach, where robots take turns to talk to the controller station. However, with wireless ad
hoc networks, robots can form a communication network on-the-fly, i.e., robots can now
"talk" to each other and collaborate in a distributed fashion. With a network of robots, the
robots can communicate among themselves, share local information, and distributively decide
how to resolve a task in the most effective and efficient way.
Disaster rescue ad hoc network
Another civilian use of wireless ad hoc network is public safety. At times of disasters (floods,
storms, earthquakes, fires, etc.), a quick and instant wireless communication network is
necessary. Especially at times of earthquakes when radio towers had collapsed or were
destroyed, wireless ad hoc networks can be formed independently. Firemen and rescue
workers can use ad hoc networks to communicate and rescue those injured. Commercial
radios with such capability are available on the market.
Hospital ad hoc network
Wireless ad hoc networks allow sensors, videos, instruments, and other devices to be
deployed and interconnected wirelessly for clinic and hospital patient monitoring, doctor and
nurses alert notification, and also making senses of such data quickly at fusion points, so that
lives can be saved.

Routing protocols
Dynamic routes are routes learned via routing protocols. Routing protocols are configured on
routers with the purpose of exchanging routing information. There are many benefits of using
routing protocols in your network, such as:

 unlike static routing, you don’t need to manually configure every route on each router
in the network. You just need to configure the networks to be advertised on a router
directly connected to them.
 if a link fails and the network topology changes, routers can advertise that some
routes have failed and pick a new route to that network.

Types of routing protocols

There are two types of routing protocols:

1. Distance vector (RIP, IGRP)
2. Link state (OSPF, IS-IS)

Cisco has created its own routing protocol – EIGRP. EIGRP is considered to be an advanced
distance vector protocol, although some materials erroneously state that EIGRP is a hybrid
routing protocol, a combination of distance vector and link state.

Distance vector protocols

As the name implies, distance vector routing protocols use distance to determine the best path
to a remote network. The distance is something like the number of hops (routers) to the
destination network.

Distance vector protocols usually send the complete routing table to each neighbor (a
neighbor is directly connected router that runs the same routing protocol). They employ some
version of Bellman-Ford algorithm to calculate the best routes. Compared with link state
routing protocols, distance vector protocols are easier to configure and require little
management, but are susceptible to routing loops and converge slower than the link state
routing protocols. Distance vector protocols also use more bandwidth because they send
complete routing table, while the link state procotols send specific updates only when
topology changes occur.

Link state protocols

Link state routing protocols are the second type of routing protocols. They have the same
basic purpose as distance vector protocols, to find a best path to a destination, but use
different methods to do so. Unlike distance vector protocols, link state protocols don’t
advertise the entire routing table. Instead, they advertise information about a network toplogy
(directly connected links, neighboring routers…), so that in the end all routers running a link
state protocol have the same topology database. Link state routing protocols converge much
faster than distance vector routing protocols, support classless routing, send updates using
multicast addresses and use triggered routing updates. They also require more router CPU
and memory usage than distance-vector routing protocols and can be harder to configure.

Each router running a link state routing protocol creates three different tables:

 neighbour table – the table of neighboring routers running the same link state routing
protocol.
 topology table – the table that stores the topology of the entire network.
 routing table – the table that stores the best routes.

Shortest Path First algorithm is used to calculate the best route. OSPF and IS-IS are examples
of link state routing protocols.

(QP12) State the difference between DSR and DSDV routing protocols. Suggest a
routing protocol which is suitable for larger networks

Difference between distance vector and link state routing protocols

The following table summarizes the differences:

(QP20) Discuss the operations and limitations of various routing
algorithms used in ad-hoc networks.
(QP25) Why reactive is called as on-demand based routing and
proactive is table-driven based routing? List few protocols works
based on reactive and proactive protocol. Specify its advantages and
disadvantages.
MANET Routing Protocols
In Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), nodes do not know the topology of their network,
instead they have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc network is
dynamic topology. The basic rules is that a new node whenever enters into an ad-hoc
network, must announce its arrival and presence and should also listen to similar
announcement broadcasts made by other mobile nodes.

1. Pro-active routing protocols:

These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each mobile node maintains a
separate routing table which contains the information of the routes to all the possible
destination mobile nodes.
Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables are updated
periodically as and when the network topology changes. It has a limitation that is doesn’t
work well for the large networks as the entries in the routing table becomes too large since
they need to maintain the route information to all possible nodes.
 1. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV):
It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector
routing protocol of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the Bellman-
ford routing algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-
hoc networks due to count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination
Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) came into picture.
Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table
maintained by each node. A node will include the new update in the table only if the
entry consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher sequence number.
2. Global State Routing (GSR):
It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the link state routing
of the wired networks. It is based on the Dijkstra’s routing algorithm. Link state routing
protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks because in it, each node floods the
link state routing information directly into the whole network i.e. Global flooding which
may lead to the congestion of control packets in the network.
Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Routing Protocol (GSR) came into the
picture. Global state routing doesn’t flood the link state routing packets globally into the
network. In GSR, each of the mobile node maintains one list and three tables namely,
adjacency list, topology table, next hop table and distance table.
2. Reactive routing protocols:
These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is
discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by
flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two major
phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.
1. Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR):
It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is
discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by
flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network.
It consists of two phases:
 Route Discovery:
This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of data packets
between the source and the destination mobile nodes.
 Route Maintenance:
This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the topology in the
mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases of
link breakage resulting in the network failure between the mobile nodes.

2. Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV):

It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. It is an extension of dynamic source routing
protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove the disadvantage of dynamic source routing
protocol. In DSR, after route discovery, when the source mobile node sends the data
packet to the destination mobile node, it also contains the complete path in its header.
Hence, as the network size increases, the length of the complete path also increases and
the data packet’s header size also increases which makes the whole network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The main
difference lies in the way of storing the path, AODV stores the path in the routing table
whereas DSR stores it in the data packet’s header itself. It also operates in two phases in
the similar fashion: Route discovery and Route maintenance.
3. Hybrid Routing protocol:
It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active routing protocols. These
protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone and position of the source
and destination mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone
Routing Protocol (ZRP).
The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source and
destination mobile node is observed. If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in
the same zone, then proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between
them. And if the source and destination mobile nodes are present in different zones, then
reactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them.

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE VECTOR (DSDV) PROTOCOL

The Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) protocol is a table-driven routing

protocol based on the improved version of classical Bellman-Ford routing algorithm. DSDV
is based on the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), explained in Chapter 7. With RIP, a node
holds a routing table containing all the possible destinations within the network and the
number of hops to each destination. DSDV is also based on distance vector routing and thus
uses bidirectional links. A limitation of DSDV is that it provides only one route for a
source/destination pair. Routing Tables The structure of the routing table for this protocol is
simple. Each table entry has a sequence number that is incremented every time a node sends
an updated message. Routing tables are periodically updated when the topology of the
network changes and are propagated throughout the network to keep consistent information
throughout the network. Each DSDV node maintains two routing tables: one for forwarding
packets and one for advertising incremental routing packets. The routing information sent
periodically by a node contains a new sequence number, the destination address, the number
of hops to the destination node, and the sequence number of the destination. When the
topology of a network changes, a detecting node sends an update packet to its neighbouring
nodes. On receipt of an update packet from a neighbouring node, a node extracts the
information from the packet and updates its routing table as follows

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE VECTOR (DSDV) PROTOCOL DSDV Packet

Process Algorithm

1. If the new address has a higher sequence number, the node chooses the route with the
higher sequence number and discards the old sequence number.

2. If the incoming sequence number is identical to the one belonging to the existing route,
a route with the least cost is chosen.
 3. All the metrics chosen from the new routing information are incremented.

4. This process continues until all the nodes are updated. If there are duplicate updated
packets, the node considers keeping the one with the least-cost metric and discards the
rest.

In case of a broken link, a cost of metric with a new sequence number (incremented) is
assigned to it to ensure that the sequence number of that metric is always greater than or
equal to the sequence number of that node. Figure 8.2 shows a routing table for node 2,
whose neighbours are nodes 1, 3, 4, and 8. The dashed lines indicate no communications
between any corresponding pair of nodes. Therefore, node 2 has no information about
node 8.A DSDV routing table The packet overhead of the DSDV protocol increases the
total number of nodes in the ad-hoc network. This fact makes DSDV suitable for small
networks. In large adhoc networks, the mobility rate and therefore the overhead increase,
making the network unstable to the point that updated packets might not reach nodes on
time.

(QP31)
Consider a Mobile node A is connected with Node 1 and another Mobile node B is connected with
Node 15. Now the Node 1 will act as source point and Node 15 will act as destination point as shown
in the below diagram. Construct a table-driven routing information table using Destination
Sequenced Distance-Vector routing protocol (DSDV) based on Bellman-Ford algorithm for Node 1
and suggest a shortest path to reach the destination Node 15.
NOTE: Draw the diagram again and highlight(darken)the shortest path between source and
destination

(QP9)Discuss WRP protocol with the help of suitable diagram in

respect to route advertisement, route table structure, measure
taken in topology changes, route selection criteria. State the
advantages and disadvantages in using WRP?(10)
Each node maintains the following:
• Distance table (DT) containing network view of the neighbours of the node:
– Distance and predecessor node for all destinations as seen by each neighbour.
• Routing table (RT) containing view of the network for all known destinations including
– the shortest distance to destinations;
– the predecessor node;
– the successor node;
– flag indicating the status of the path (correct, loop, null).
• Link cost table (LCT) containing cost-related information including: – number of hops to
reach destination (cost of the broken link is ∞);
– number of update periods passed from the last successful update of the link.
• Message retransmission list (MRL) containing counter for each entry:
– the counter is decremented after every retransmission of the update message.
Routing entries at each node for destination 7:

Routing table in WRP.

Break: detected by number of update periods missed since successful transmission:

• each update message contains a list of updates;

• a node marks each node in RT that has to acknowledge update message it transmitted;

• once the counter of MRL reaches zero:

– entries in update message for which no acknowledgement received are to be retransmitted;

– update message is deleted.

(QP 11) Demonstrate the DSR Routing protocols using RREQ,
RREP, RERR format whenever the source node wants to send the
data to destination note. Justify the reason why route maintenance
protocol does not locally repair itself a broken link.(10)
Dynamic Source Routing : Introduction
 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) comes under the reactive routing protocol category,
as it is capable of discovering the route from source to destination only when required
and needed.
 Dynamic Source Routing protocol uses a process called “Route Discovery
Mechanism” that is capable of discovering the route for data packets from source
node to destination nodes using intermediate nodes.
 As like proactive routing protocols such as Global State Routing an Dynamic
Sequence Distance Vector Routing no separate table is maintained.
 The major change in DSR as compare to GSR and DSDV is, in DSDV after asking a
requirement of route from source to destination, path via intermediate nodes is
checked for its length. Then a “Re-Request” packet is sent back from destination to
source via the smallest route possible in the whole network. The “Re-Request” packet
does contains its unique ID also.
 This process of separately sending a “Re-Request” packet from destination to source
makes it easier for the sender to send the data packets on fixed path rather than
sending it on multiple paths to check for total distance.
 

Dynamic Source Routing Protocol : Working

 Dynamic Source Routing does broadcast the route to its neighbors but does not floods
the information. It only trace the route by calculating the total distance or by
calculating the number of nodes present in between source and destination nodes.
 Consider a network containing 10 nodes where node N1 being the source and node
N10 being the destination nodes. Below mentioned steps will let you know how DSR
protocol works and how Re-Request packet is transmitted through the network.
 

 
 Dynamic Source Routing : Network
 
 Step 1: Start from source node N1 and broadcast the information about it to
its neighbors i.e. in this case the route information is “<1>”, because of its one-to-one
link between node N1 and N2.
 Step 2: Broadcast previous route information to neighbors of node N2 i.e. to node N3,
N4, N5. The new route will remain same “<1,2>” in all the cases.
 Step 3: Take node N3 and broadcast previous route(<1,2>) to next neighboring nodes
i.e. node N6. New route till node N6 will be “<1,2,3>” and same process can be done
for other nodes i.e. Node N4 and N5.
 Step 4 : Further, broadcast the new routes i.e. <1,2,3,6> , <1,2,4> , <1,2,5> to nodes
N8, N7 & N9 respectively.
 Step 5: Repeat the above steps until destination node is reached via all the routes.
 The updated routes will be as:
 

Dynamic Source Routing : Updated Network

 
 After this, “Re-Request” packet will be sent in backward direction i.e. from
destination node “N10” to source node “N1”. It will trace the shortest route by
counting the number of nodes from route discovered in previous steps.
 The three possible routes are :
 o Route 1: <1,2,3,6,8>
o Route 2: <1,2,4,7,8>
o Route 3: <1,2,5,9>
 Route 3 i.e. "<1,2,5,9>” will be chosen as it contains the least number of nodes and
hence it will definitely be the shortest path and then data can be transferred
accordingly.
 The Re-Request Packet route can be located as:
 

Dynamic Source Routing

 

Advantages : Dynamic Source Routing Protocol

 A perfect route is discovered always.
 Highly efficient.
 Low bandwidth Consumption.
Disadvantages : Dynamic Source Routing Protocol
 If the route gets broke, data transmission cannot happen.
 Time taking algorithm-Slow.
 If network is large , then it is impossible for the data packets header to hold whole
information of the routes.
(QP10) Design an ad-hoc network with mobile nodes. Describe in
detail working of the best routing algorithms suitable for the design.
(10)
Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol(AODV) : Introduction
 Another type of reactive routing protocol which does not maintain routes but build the
routes as per requirements is Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol.
 AODV is used to overcome the drawbacks of Dynamic Source Routing Protocol and
Distance Vector Routing Protocol i.e. Dynamic Source Routing is capable of
maintaining information of the routes between source and destination which makes it
slow. If the network is very large containing a number of routes from source to
destination, it is difficult for the data packets header to hold whole information of the
routes.
  In case of Dynamic Source Routing, multiple routes are present for sending a packet
from source to destination but AODV overcomes this disadvantage too.
 In AODV, along with routing tables of every node, two counters including Sequence
Number(SEQ NO) and broadcast ID are maintained also.
 The destination IP is already known to which data is to be transferred from source.
Thus, the destination Sequence Number(SEQ NO) helps to determine an updated path
from source to destination.
 Along with these counters, Route Request(RREQ) and Route
Response(RRESP) packets are used in which RREQ is responsible for discovering of
route from source to destination and RRESP sends back the route information
response to its source.
 

Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol : Working

 In Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing, the source node and destination
nodes IP addresses are already known.
 The goal is to identify, discover and maintain the optimal route between source and
destination node in order to send/receive data packets and informative.
 Each node comprises of a routing table along with below mentioned format of Route
Request(RREQ) packet.
RREQ { Destination IP, Destination Sequence Number, Source IP, Source Sequence
Number, Hop Count}.
 

 Consider a network containing 5 nodes that are “X”, “Y”, “Z”,”T”,”D” present at unit
distance from each other, where “X” being the source node and “D” being the
destination node.
 

Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing : Sample Network

 
  The IP addresses of source node “X” and destination node “D” is already known.
Below mentioned steps will let you know how AODV works and concept of Route
Request(REREQ) and Route Response(RRESP) is used.
o Step 1: Source node “X” will send Route Request i.e. RREQ packet to its
neighbours “Y” and “Z”.
o Step 2: Node “Y” & “Z” will check for route and will respond using RRESP
packet back to source “X”. Here in this case “Z” is the last node but the
destination. It will send the RREQ packet to “X” stating “Route Not Found”.
But node “Y” will send RRESP packet stating “Route Found” and it will
further broadcast the RRESP to node “T”.
o Step 3: Now the field of net hop in the RREQ format will be updated, Node
“T” will send back the “Route Found” message to Node “Y” and will update
the next hop field further.
o Step 4: Then Node “T” will broadcast and RREQ packet to Node “D”, which
is the destination and the next hop field is further updated. Then it will send
RRES packet to “T” which will further be sent back to the source node “X”
via node “Y” and Node “T” resulting in generation of an optimal path. The
updated network would be:
 

Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing : Network

 

Advantages : Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol

 Dynamic networks can be handled easily.
 No loop generation.
 

Disadvantages : Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol

 A delayed protocol because of its route discovery process.
 High bandwidth requirement.
(QP21) Compare the operational differences between destination
sequence distance vector which is used in mobile network and the
standard distance vector algorithm which is used in computer
networks? Why is this extension needed?(10)
Distance vector protocols

As the name implies, distance vector routing protocols use distance to determine the best path
to a remote network. The distance is something like the number of hops (routers) to the
destination network.

Distance vector protocols usually send the complete routing table to each neighbor (a
neighbor is directly connected router that runs the same routing protocol). They employ some
version of Bellman-Ford algorithm to calculate the best routes. Compared with link state
routing protocols, distance vector protocols are easier to configure and require little
management, but are susceptible to routing loops and converge slower than the link state
routing protocols. Distance vector protocols also use more bandwidth because they send
complete routing table, while the link state procotols send specific updates only when
topology changes occur.

Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV):

It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector routing
protocol of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the Bellman-ford routing
algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks due to
count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination Sequenced Distance Vector
Routing Protocol (DSDV) came into picture.
Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table
maintained by each node. A node will include the new update in the table only if the entry
consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher sequence number.

Note : for diagram refer class note