Human Resource Management

in the events context

Madeleine Pillwatsch
Northumbria University
MA Cultural Events Management
Human Resource Management is generally concerned with planning and forecasting the requirement
for human labour, organizing and structuring tasks and allocating them to various departments and
positions, establishing appropriate communication channels and coordination, and directing and
controlling work performance. More specifically, Human Resource Management engages in the
operational functions of recruiting and selecting employees, providing them with initial and ongoing
training and development, appraising and compensating their efforts, and exercising leadership in
order to motivate and retain employees. (Durai, 2010, pp. 6-9)

Due to some particularities of the events industry, this environment poses a challenging and dynamic
context for Human Resource Management. It would be beyond the scope of this paper to present a
comprehensive analysis of all human resource issues in the events industry. Therefore only selected
aspects that acknowledge the characteristics and peculiarities of this special context are introduced.
First, this essay will explore the event-specific conditions that account for the distinct approach on
Human Resource Management as compared to other business operations. Subsequently, the
different, but often complementary, alternatives of staffing an event are introduced. This includes
the engagement of contractors, various types of paid staff and volunteers. Due to the significance of
volunteers, this essay provides a more in-depth analysis about their motives and expectations as well
as some considerations on how to create favourable conditions that ensure continuous commitment.
Next, the role of event staff in producing service quality and customer satisfaction is emphasized,
followed by a discussion on leadership. Concluding, it is suggested that transformational leadership is
appropriate to produce the committed workforce that is necessary to deliver a memorable, positive
and meaningful event experience to visitors.

Due to the dynamics of the event industry, Human Resource Management requires special attention
and consideration in the event context.
Firstly, events, as opposed to other more permanent and stable business operations, can be
classified as projects. (Bladen et al., 2012, p. 23) Projects are defined as unique, temporary
endeavours (Schwalbe, 2009, p.4) with specific objectives that are to be completed within a limited
time and budget frame, requiring the coordination of different functional areas (Kloppenborg, 2012,
p. 4). Thus, every event is handled and managed as a distinct and separate entity. This definition also
holds true for professional event organizations, which continuously plan and deliver numerous
events as part of their day-to-day business processes, as well as for events which are re-occurring in
timely intervals or in other locations. Even though some events might share several similar features,
every event forms a unique project due to event-specific requirements and differing external

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environments and influences. This uniqueness and distinctiveness of every event poses a special
challenge for Human Resource Management, since every individual event has different staffing
requirements regarding numbers and qualifications.

Secondly, not only staffing requirements differ from event to event, they are also volatile and
dynamic within each event project: During the planning and conceptualization phase of an event the
need for human labour might be very small. However, as the event comes near and is executed the
number of collaborators might swell significantly only to dwindle again to the original event team
after the event was delivered, resulting in a so-called pulsating organization. (Goldblatt, 2011, p. 134)

The challenges posed by the project characteristics of events and the short-term requirement for
(specialised) event personnel in order to deliver the event, can be approached by recruiting
volunteers, hiring temporary or agency staff or contracting out services. (Van der Wagen, 2007, p.
11) As a matter of fact, in some extreme cases like the mega-event of the Olympic Games in Sydney,
traditional employees only account for two per cent of the total event staff, whereas contractors
(51%) and volunteers (47%) build the huge majority of the workforce. (Van der Wagen, 2007, p. 76)
In the following the different (but often also complementary) options of staffing an event will be
introduced.

Contractors
Most events are run – at least to some extent – with the support of third-party contractors who
deliver certain event services such as catering, security, staging, cleaning, etc. For the event
organization this has certain advantages: Firstly, the respective service is carried out by experienced
professionals in this field, who possess the required expertise and licenses. (Van der Wagen, 2007, p.
11) Secondly, it allows for greater cost accuracy and facilitates budget forecasts since the required
expenses for a certain service are laid out explicitly in the outsourcing contract. Finally, it enables the
event team to be lean and focus on their core activities and competencies. (Bowdin et al., 2011, p.
201) On the other hand, the use of outside contractors might raise concerns about issues such as
control, quality and reliability (Shone, Parry, 2004, p. 201). Moreover, contracting numerous service
providers might hamper the development of an integrated event “team” (Bowdin et al., 2011, p.201).
Since contractors are separate legal entities that are connected with the event organization only by a
transactional agreement to provide the required service, contractor management is usually not the
responsibility of the Human Resource department. However, as contractors are part of the human
resources that actually execute and deliver the event, they also require particular attention in this
context. (Van der Wagen, 2007, p. 81) In order to offset some of the concerns associated with

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outsourcing, Van der Wagen (2007) recommends a more collaborative and integrative approach. She
stresses the importance of involving contractors and their employees in event training together with
paid staff and volunteers. During induction and orientation sessions the purpose and values of the
event as well as some general inputs about the programme, venue and structure of the event can be
communicated to contractors. The dissemination of a shared vision and practical information seems
crucial since these contracted service providers also represent the event organization at the event.
Visitors might not even be aware of the presence of external personnel and might approach every
worker on site with questions and queries. Thus, induction sessions for contractors can improve the
seamlessness and quality of customer service. Moreover, collective training can also lead to a better
connected, integrated and more cohesive workforce.

Paid staff
The fluctuating demand for human labour in the events industry will often make it necessary to
recruit additional personnel. This could be in the form of temporary employees, casual workers or
agency staff.
Temporary employees usually have a regular employment relationship but are only assigned for a
limited duration of time for a specific task (like volunteer coordination, fundraising, etc.) Casual
workers, on the other hand, are paid on an hourly basis usually with a higher hourly rate which
compensates for the lack of sick leave and other benefits. (Van der Wagen, 2007, p. 109) Due to the
unstable and less protected employment relation of casual workers, it might sometimes be difficult
to attract sufficient suitably qualified applicants for these short-term positions. It is thus advisable to
source casual employees from university and colleges for several reasons: First, students often favour
the flexible nature of these working arrangements (Shone, Parry, 2004, p. 204). Second, by recruiting
students from hospitality or event courses adequate professional behaviour and knowledge can be
assumed (Goldblatt, 2001, p. 143). Third, building relationships with industry-related educational
institutions and students allows the event organization to develop a pool of applicants for future
employment (McCabe, 2012, p. 127).
In addition, staffing agencies, which might be specialized in various types of personnel, can be
contracted to supply the required human resources. (Shone, Parry, 2004, p. 204) Strictly speaking,
agency staff is not employed by the event organization but by their respective agency. However, for
the duration of their assignment they take orders from their agency’s clients and generally behave
like regular employees. (Van der Wagen, 2007, p. 109) This arrangement also has the advantage of
making Human Resource Administration more predictable and less complicated for the event
organization.

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Volunteers
For the majority of events volunteers are a very important part of the workforce; Goldblatt (2011, p.
141) even calls them the lifeblood of many events without which these events could not be
delivered. Volunteers commit their time, skills and effort to the benefit of an event without financial
compensation. In order to effectively recruit, reward and retain volunteers it is thus crucial to know
why they are volunteering and what they expect from it (Shone, Parry, 2004, p. 195).

Monga (2006) developed a model with the following five dimensions of motivation to volunteer and
tested it in different types of special events:

 Affiliatory motivations: This set of motives relates to the event and its content as such.
Volunteers feel affiliated and attached to the event’s activity and purpose and want to contribute
to its success.
 Altruistic motivations: Altruism is the benevolent desire to help others, to give back to the
community and to contribute to a better society.
 Instrumentalist motivations: Reasons for volunteering are connected to the expectations of
personal benefits. This could be in the form of career and skills enhancement, building of
networks for professional purposes and acquire work-related experiences. Other personal
rewards also include souvenirs and free entry to the event.
 Egoistic motivations: These motives are also self-centred, yet more intrinsic and intangible in
their nature. Volunteering gives people a good feeling about themselves and makes them feel
needed. Moreover, they can derive enhanced self-esteem and expect a fulfilling experience.
 Solidary motivations: People with solidary motives to volunteer are stimulated by opportunities
for social interaction and to foster interpersonal relationships and community cohesion. However,
this set of motives also includes issues of group status and group values such as family traditions,
society expectations, etc.

Even though every volunteer might have multiple and varying motives, Monga’s study (2006) claimed
that affiliatory motives were the most important reason to volunteer across all special event types.
He argues that this attachment to the respective event and its content and purpose serves as an
initial attractor or “trigger factor” (Monga, 2006, p. 59). Egoistic and altruistic motivations ranked
second and third, respectively. However, it is difficult to make a clear distinction between those two
dimensions, since altruistic motivations will presumably also lead to the egoistic goals of feeling
needed and good about oneself, which is why there might be some overlap between those two sets

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of motives. Instrumentalist and solidary motivations ranked fourth and last, respectively in Monga’s
study.

The research undertaken by Hallmann and Harms (2012) who studied the motives of volunteers at
sports events, confirmed these findings to some extent. Their study also highlighted the prominence
of altruistic and egoistic factors in determining motivation and the intrinsic rewards derived from
volunteering. Similarly, extrinsic benefits such as career enhancement and other rewards as well as
sociability scored low. Conversely though, in their study, affiliation to the content and purpose of the
event did not have a significant influence on the participants’ decision to volunteer.

These results are in sharp contrast to the findings of the qualitative study conducted by Barron and
Rihova (2011). The participants in their study revealed a prevalence of utilitarian motives, which
relates to Monga’s (2006) instrumentalist dimension and the expectations of personal benefits. The
motivation of these volunteers was mainly driven by the possibility to gain work experience, to
develop their skills and to create professional networks. The results of this study might be somehow
biased as the sample was made up of students and graduates of industry-related fields, which
explains the strong focus on career-enhancing motivations among this group of volunteers. However,
since students of event-related disciplines form a very valuable part of the volunteer workforce, it is
also important to consider these group-specific motives to volunteer.

In a quite different vein, Elstad’s study (2003) of volunteers at a Jazz festival did not even incorporate
the factor of career enhancement, but stated that personal interest and attachment to the festival
content as well as opportunities to socialize were the most important determinants of volunteers’
motivation.

From the discussion above it becomes clear that the academic discourse is quite multifaceted on this
topic and that there is no one way to define volunteers’ motivation. Nonetheless, every event
organization should reflect upon the motives and expectations of their (future) volunteers. Since
volunteers do not receive a financial compensation, but still greatly contribute to an event’s success,
it is all the more important to provide them with a fulfilling, rewarding experience and to ensure
their continuous commitment.

In order to recruit and retain a quality volunteer workforce it is crucial to know their motives for
volunteering. Some of the discussed motives are more robust, whereas others are more dependent
on the actual event and how it is organised and executed. Unsurprisingly, volunteers who are

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devoted to the event purpose or driven by altruism are much more likely to be continuously
committed to their voluntary activity. (Elstad, 2003, p. 105) On the other hand, volunteers with other
motives require specific conditions to have their expectations fulfilled and are thus more subject to
disappointment and a drop in enthusiasm. For example, persons who choose to volunteer in order to
enhance their career, but the event does not provide sufficient opportunities to build on and develop
relevant skills, will naturally be dissatisfied with the volunteer experience and might be less inclined
to give their best performance.

In any case, in order to ensure continuous commitment and satisfaction among all volunteers, it is
crucial that the event organization provides a favourable working environment. According to Elstad
(2003) the most important contextual factor is (positive) feedback and appreciation from the event
management team. Giving frequent recognition for their voluntary efforts will heavily contribute to a
loyal and committed volunteer team (Goldblatt, 2011, p. 142). Moreover, volunteers at the Olympics
reported that they derived a satisfying volunteer experience thanks to the opportunities to learn and
discover something new and to build on their social and intercultural skills (Kemp, 2002). It is thus
crucial to assign them challenging and diversified, but still manageable tasks, since inappropriate
workload is the most prominent reason to quit as a volunteer (Elstad, 2003, p. 106). Another
important factor that influences volunteer satisfaction is the collaboration and social interaction with
others during the event. By providing them with a sense of community and the opportunity to build a
cohesive team, volunteers will feel more integrated and committed to the event. (Elstad, 2003;
Costa, Chalip, Green, 2006) Finally, event volunteers also consider the effectiveness of volunteer
management when assessing their experience. It contributes to their satisfaction and commitment
when their efforts are coordinated smoothly and their needs (food, travel, uniforms, breaks) are
catered for. However, consistent with Herzberg’s Two-Factor-Theory (Herzberg, Mausner,
Snyderman, 1959), the sufficient provision of appropriate organisational conditions are only apt to
avoid dissatisfaction (Bowdin et al., 2011, p.353), whereas recognition, challenging tasks, personal
growth and social interactions with others form the real experience from which volunteers derive
satisfaction. (Kemp, 2002, p. 115) Concluding it can be said that the event industry, which is so
heavily dependent on the support of volunteers, must make every effort to provide volunteers with a
valuable, satisfactory experience in order to ensure continuance commitment and ongoing support.

Considering the above discussed staffing types, it becomes clear that the event workforce might be
quite fractional and diverse: There is the core event team, which has been familiar with and
committed to the event for quite a while, but there might be also many temporary collaborators with
different interests and reasons to contribute to the event: Contractors and their employees who are

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naturally more concerned about their particular service than about the bigger picture of the event;
hired temporary and agency staff who just want to do their job and earn some money; volunteers
who might participate for various reasons, ranging from pure altruism or enthusiasm about the event
as such, over career considerations to free admission to the event. Moreover, as stated earlier,
events can be classified as unique projects and temporary endeavours. Hence, as opposed to
permanent organizations, workers do not have an induction phase in which they get acquainted with
the company’s values and culture, learn about policies and procedures, socialize with co-workers and
become an integrated part of the organization. (Van der Wagen, 2007, p. 11) Managing and
motivating such a fragmented and temporary workforce in such a dynamic environment is a major
leadership challenge. However, this aspect requires careful attention since it is these people who
deliver the meaningful, memorable and positive experiences to audiences, which also includes
excellent customer service (Goldblatt, 2011, p.140).

Despite the fact that core elements of an event programme contribute the most to attendants’
satisfaction, service quality is a supporting factor that should not be neglected (Getz, 2007, p. 228).
The widely cited model SERVQUAL (Parasuraman, Berry, Zeithaml, 1991) identified the following five
dimensions that customers consider in their assessment of service quality:

 Reliability – promised service is performed accurately and dependently

 Responsiveness – willingness to help customers and provide prompt service
 Tangibles – appearance of physical facilities, equipments, personnel, communication materials
 Assurance – competence, knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to convey trust
and security
 Empathy – customer receives caring and individualized attention

It becomes clear from the above that staff plays an important role in each of those five dimensions:
They are responsible for delivering the promised service and are expected to demonstrate
helpfulness and a commitment to produce a smooth event experience for visitors. Moreover, front-
line staff is also part of the physical landscape of an event and is included in the visual impressions
that attendants gather throughout the event. Thus, workers, including their uniforms, physical
appearance and facial expressions, also represent and embody the event and the event organization
(Nickson, Warhurst, Dutton, 2005). Furthermore, visitors expect event staff to provide accurate
information and qualified support and assistance, while also handling work processes in a skilful and
professional way. Due to safety concerns and risks at an event, the dimension of “assurance” is
especially crucial; event personnel should evoke feelings of trust and security so that patrons are
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convinced to be in good hands. This also involves responding to incidents in a competent, calm and
effective manner. Finally, front-line staff is the human link between the audience and the event
organization through which visitors can experience personalized consideration and attention.
Thus, the people who literary stage and execute the event – and their competence, behaviour and
appearance – greatly contribute to visitors’ experience of the event (Bladen et al., 2012, p. 114) and
their perception of service quality (Drummond, Anderson, 2004, p. 88).

Given the above, it becomes clear that Human Resource Management in the event context is not
only about recruiting the required numbers of volunteers or contracting out services to the cheapest
bidder. While staffing an event with paid personnel, volunteers and contractors, providing them with
effective training and coordinating and monitoring their efforts are all very important management
tasks, it requires leadership to align, motivate and inspire all collaborators to work towards a
common goal. (Kotter, 1990) Even though it requires further research to determine which leadership
style is most appropriate and effective depending on the type, scale and workforce composition of an
event (Getz, 2007, p. 259), it is argued that transformational rather than transactional leadership
style is more suitable in the event context.

Whereas transactional leadership places the focus on the exchange of work performance and
compliance against remuneration or other rewards, transformational leadership engages in a more
meaningful relationship between leaders and followers. (Bass, Riggio, 2008) A transformational
leader establishes a compelling and inspiring vision that fosters motivation and guides direction.
Given the above discussed fragmented nature of staff and their short-term affiliation to the event, it
is all the more important that an event leader highlights their common goal: to deliver a safe,
successful, memorable and meaningful event. This shared vision should be communicated to all
persons who contribute to the success of the event in order to provide them with a unifying purpose
and to raise enthusiasm to work towards a common goal (Getz, 2007, p. 259).
Apart from establishing a rousing vision, a transformational leader demonstrates a high level of
integrity and acts as a role model which followers admire and want to emulate. This leadership
behaviour as a means of positively influencing staff is especially important in the event context since
a big part of an event’s human resources might not be employed by the event organization
(contractors, volunteers, agency staff). Therefore, an event leader lacks some sources of power as
compared to traditional employment relations (Van der Wagen, 2007, pp.218f). Legitimate power,
which stems from the formal hierarchy of an organization, is thus not available at all in this context,
whereas reward and coercive power (the ability to inflict positive or negative consequences) is only
applicable to a certain extent. However, a leader can also exert influence through expert power,

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which is related to expertise and knowledge, or through referent power, which is ascribed to people
that are respected, valued and admired. (French, Raven, 1959) Hence, apparently the bases of power
and influence that are prevailing in the event context are associated with transformational leadership
traits and behaviour.
Other features of transformational leadership include the fact that creativity and engagement are
encouraged and – where possible – collaborative decision making is promoted (Goldblatt, 2011, p.
132-134). This approach of empowering staff will not only lead to improved customer service, but
will also allow personnel to take ownership for their job which results in increased motivation and
higher commitment. (Bowen, Lawler, 1992) Four different and often complementary forms of
empowerment can be initiated (Lashley, 1996): Empowerment through participation allows staff to
exercise more discretion and decision making authority. This also enables front-line staff to respond
quickly and confidently to customer needs (Bowen, Lawler, 1992, p. 33). Empowerment through
involvement provides personnel with opportunities to share their experience and give their opinion.
Thereby management can gain valuable insights from workers, as they are much easier able to detect
deviations from quality standards or give suggestions for improvement. (Drummond, Anderson,
2004, p. 87) Furthermore, front-line staff works close to visitors, which allows them to gather some
impressions about the visitors’ experience and collect informal feedback. In addition, staff who
experience greater involvement will feel more integrated in the event organization and are thus
more committed and satisfied, which also holds true for volunteers. (Costa, Chalip, Green, 2006)
Empowerment through commitment aims at encouraging workers to accept responsibility for the
service encounter. In the above discussion on perceived service quality, it has become evident that
the workforce plays a crucial role in creating customer satisfaction. Hence, staff that was made aware
about their important contribution to the visitors’ experience, will presumably derive more sense
and meaning from their job. Finally, empowerment through delayering reduces organizational
hierarchies and thus gives greater autonomy to teams and units.
Which form of empowerment is appropriate will depend on the specific situation, yet generally it can
be said that especially in service industries, empowered workers are more capable and motivated to
react to customers’ needs and produce superior service quality (Lashley, 1999, pp. 188f), while at the
same time feeling more engaged and committed to the organization (Avolio et al., 2004).

For all these reasons, it is suggested that transformational leadership is to be favoured over
transactional leadership in the event context. Due to the lack of remuneration it seems quite natural
that a transactional leadership style is less appropriate for volunteers anyway. However, it is true
that some other collaborators, like for example contractors, are involved in the event due to plain
transactional agreements and contractual exchanges. Nonetheless, it can be assumed that higher

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levels of motivation can be addressed thanks to a deeper and more meaningful transformational
relationship between the event organization and all its collaborators. Thus, also workers that are
initially connected to the event by a transactional exchange can be inspired to perform above their
contractual obligations. Having a dedicated and enthusiastic workforce is invaluable when
considering their importance in delivering a seamless and positive event experience as well as
superior service quality.
In sum, a transformational leadership style seems suitable in the event context since a
transformational event leader can unify and inspire staff with a shared vision of the event; exert
influence through integrity and expertise; and foster motivation and commitment through
empowerment.

Concluding it should be stressed once again that Human Resource Management in the events
industry deserves careful attention due to the special and challenging context. As a result of the
fluctuating and pulsating demand for human labour, most events are staffed with short-term
personnel in peculiar work arrangements. Even though some might not be directly employed by the
event organization (agency staff and contractors) and some might not even be employed and
remunerated at all (volunteers), it is the responsibility of Human Resource Management to align all
these people behind the common goal of delivering a successful event. Thus, it is argued that an
event leader should employ a transformational leadership style, which seems appropriate for
unifying, inspiring and motivating such a diverse workforce. This is especially crucial since all workers
considerably contribute to visitors’ experience of the event and their assessment of service quality.
Moreover, a transformational leadership approach does not only strengthen commitment and
engagement, but also redounds to job satisfaction and staff retention. In the light of the prevalence
of volunteer workforce in the events industry, this aspect requires particular consideration. Since
volunteers are not financially compensated for their time and effort, it is all the more important to
know their motives and expectations in order to be able to provide them with a rewarding and
satisfying experience. Thereby their continuous commitment and ongoing support can be ensured,
which is immensely vital for the events industry.

Finally, it should be mentioned that Human Resource Management in the event context is an
important and challenging, yet under-researched, issue. Many of the theoretical considerations
regarding this topic stem from practical handbooks and hands-on experience from professionals,
while the academic discourse is mainly concerned with research on event volunteers.

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This paper intended to provide a more comprehensive academic discussion of the subject by
combining Human Resource Management literature, event management theories and academic
research from other service industries.

However, event-specific research on managerial aspects such as team building, work organization,
service delivery, staff motivation, job satisfaction and leadership would be necessary. Further
research should also place emphasis on the perspective and experiences of the event workforce.
Topics for consideration could include psychological effects, emotional reactions, behavioural
intentions or coping strategies regarding industry-specific features like stress and pressure,
interaction with visitors, peculiar work arrangements or event success/failure.

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