Cambridge Physics PhD Tutor IB DSE IGCSE SAT

UC Math MA, HKU Chemist hinwahk@gmail.com

HKU 1st Hons Engineer 93197825 AP MCAT GCE

5.2 Power Series

In this section, we discuss how to use a power series to represent a function.

Binomial Theorem

Factorial Notation : n! = n(n 1)(n 2)321

Example 3! = 321 ; 9! = 987654321

Properties: (1) 0! = 1

(2) n! = n(n 1)!

(n  1)!
(3) n! =
n 1
Pascal Triangle :

n=0 1

n=1 1 1

n=2 1 2 1

n=3 1 3 3 1

n=4 1 4 6 4 1

C 0n C1n    C n 1
n
n=n C nn

Binomial Theorem for positive integer n : (1 + x)n = C0  C1 x  C2 x ... Cn x .

n n n 2 n n
1.

n
2. The term C r xr is called the general term.

3. C rn is called the binomial coefficients.

(1  x)n = C0  C1 x  C2 x ... ( 1) Cn x

n n n 2 n n n
4.

Binomial Series
  n
Sometimes we use the symbol   for the binomial coefficient Cr .
n

 r

1 1
Recall : For r < 1 , = 1 + r + r2 + r3 + r4 + ... and = 1  r + r2  r3 + r4  ...
1 r 1 r
For a real number x with | x | < 1 and a rational number n,


 n  n n( n  1)( n  2) ( n  r  1)
=  x ,  
r
(1+x)n where
r 0  r   r r!
n (n  1) 2 n (n  1)(n  2)  (n  r  1) r
i.e. (1  x ) n  1  nx  x  x 
2! r!

Some examples of binomial series:

1
(a) (1  x) 1   1  x  x 2  x 3  x 4  x 5  ...
1 x

It is an infinite sum of a geometric series with the first term being 1 and common ratio being –x.

1
(b) (1  x) 1   1  x  x 2  x 3  x 4  x 5  ...
1 x

It is as an infinite sum of a geometric series with the first term being 1 and common ratio being x.

(2)(3) 2 (2)(3)(4) 3
(1  x) 2  1  (2) x  x  x  ...
(c) 2! 3!
 1  2 x  3x 2  4 x 3  ...

(2)(3) (2)(3)(4)
(1  x) 2  1  (2)( x)  ( x) 2  ( x) 3  ...
(d) 2! 3!
 1  2 x  3x 2  4 x 3  ...

Alternatively, you can differentiate (a) & (b) to get (c) & (d).
 Cambridge Physics PhD Tutor IB DSE IGCSE SAT
UC Math MA, HKU Chemist hinwahk@gmail.com
HKU 1st Hons Engineer 93197825 AP MCAT GCE

1
Example 1: Expand ( x  ) 5 in descending power of x.
x
Solution:
1
( x  ) 5  x -5 (x 2  1)5
x
 x ( x10  5x 8  10x 6  10x 4  5x 2  1)
-5

 x 5  5x 3  10x  10x -1  5x -3  x -5

Taylor Series & Maclaurin Series


f n ( x)
Definition: If f ( x)   cn ( x  a) n has a power series representation, then cn  n!
and
n 0

f n ( x) f (a) f (a) f n (a)
f ( x)   n!
( x  a) n  f (a)  f (a)( x  a) 
2!
( x  a) 2 
3!
( x  a) 3   
n!
( x  a) n  
n 0

which is called a Taylor series at x = a.

If a = 0, then

f n ( x) n f (0) 2 f (0) 3 f n (0) n
f ( x)   x  f (0)  f (0) x  x  x  x 
n 0 n! 2! 3! n!

is the Maclaurin series of f centered at x = 0.

Some Common Maclaurin Series

Series Interval of Convergence

1
  x n  1  x  x 2  x3  x 4   1  x  1
1  x n 0

xn x x 2 x3 x 4
ex    1        x  
n 0 n ! 1! 2 ! 3 ! 4 !

x 2n1 x3 x5 x7
sin x   (1) n (2n  1)!
 x  
3! 5 ! 7 !
   x  
n 0

x 2n x 2 x 4 x8
cos x   (1) n (2n)!
 1  
2! 6! 8!
   x  
n 0

x 2n1 x3 x5 x7
tan 1 x   (1) n 2n  1
 x
3

5

7
 1  x  1
n 0
Example 2: Use a known Maclaurin series to find the Maclaurin series of the given function
f ( x)  xe 2 x .
Solution:

(2 x) n
xe 2 x  x 
n 0 n!
 2 x 4 x 2 8 x 3 16 x 4 
 x1         x  
 1! 2 ! 3! 4! 
2 3 4 5
2x 4 x 8 x 16 x
 x    
1! 2! 3! 4!

Example 3: Use a known Maclaurin series to find the Maclaurin series of the given function
f ( x)  sin x 4 .
Solution:

( x 4 ) 2 n1
sin x   (1)
4 n

n 0 (2n  1)!

x 8n4
  (1) n

n 0 (2n  1)!
x12 x 20 x 28
x 
4
  
3! 5! 7 !
 Cambridge Physics PhD Tutor IB DSE IGCSE SAT
UC Math MA, HKU Chemist hinwahk@gmail.com
HKU 1st Hons Engineer 93197825 AP MCAT GCE

Sample HKDSE Question:

1. Expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x4 :
(a) e-2x,

(1 x) 5
(b)
e 2x
(4 marks)
Solution:
(a)

(2 x) n
e 2 x

n 0 n!
2 x 4 x 2 8 x 3 16 x 4
 1       x  
1! 2 ! 3! 4!
4 2
 1  2x  2x 2  x3  x 4 
3 3

(b)

(1  x) 5
 e -2x (1  x) 5
e 2x
4 2
 (1  2 x  2 x 2  x 3  x 4  )(1  5x  10 x 2  10x 3  5x 4  x 5 )
3 3
 1  5x  10 x  10 x  5x 4  ...
2 3

 2x  10x 2  20 x 3  20 x 4  ...
 2x 2  10 x 3  20 x 4  ...
4 20
 x 3  x 4  ...
3 3
2
 x 4  ...
3
4
 1  3x  2x 2  x 3  39 x 4  ...
3
HKDSE M2 Sample Question:
1
(a) Expand ( x  ) 4 in descending power of x.
x
(b) Express (e ax  e  ax ) 4 in ascending power of x up to the term in x5.
(c) Suppose the coefficient of x3 in the result of (b) is 1. Find all the possible values of a.
(5 marks)
Solution:
(a)
1
( x  ) 4  x -4 (x 2  1)4
x
 x ( x 8  4x 6  6x 4  4x 2  1)
-4

 x 4  4 x 2  6  4 x -2  x -4
(b)

(e ax  e  ax ) 4
 (e ax ) 4  4(e ax ) 2  6  4(e ax ) -2  (e ax ) -4
 e 4 ax  4e 2 ax  6  4e 2 ax  e 4 ax

(4ax) n 
(2ax) n 
(2ax) n  (4ax) n
  4  6  4 
n 0 n! n 0 n! n 0 n! n 0 n!
2 2
 1  4  6  4  1  0 x  (4 2  4  2 2 )a 2 x 2  0 x 3  (4 4  4  2 4 )a 4 x 4  0 x 5  ...
2! 4!
 0  0 x  0 x  0 x  16a x  0 x  ...
2 3 4 4 5

 16a 4 x 4  0 x 5  ...

=16a4 x4 + higher even power terms.

Please notice that e ax  e  ax is an odd function. ( e ax  e  ax )4 is an even function.
The power series of ( e ax  e  ax )4 should contain only even powers of x.
(c)
16a4=1
a4=1/16
a=±1/2
 Cambridge Physics PhD Tutor IB DSE IGCSE SAT
UC Math MA, HKU Chemist hinwahk@gmail.com
HKU 1st Hons Engineer 93197825 AP MCAT GCE

 sin x
4
Example 4: Use a series to estimate dx to 3 decimal places.
0

Solution: From the previous exercise, we saw that


x 8n 4
 sin x dx    (1)
4 n
dx
n 0 (2n  1)!
.

(1) n x 8 n5
 C
n 0 ( 2n  1) ! (8n  5)

Then
x 1
(1) n x 8n5

1

 sin x dx4
 
0 n 0 ( 2n  1) ! (8n  5) x 0

(1) n (1) 8n5
  0
n 0 ( 2n  1) ! (8n  5)

(1) n

n 0 ( 2n  1) ! (8n  5)
1 1 1 1
    
5 3 !  13 5 !  21 7 !  29
Since it is an alternating series with decreasing terms, we would like the value of the sequence term n
1
where bn   0.0001. Thus, n ≤ 2.
(2n  1) ! (8n  5)
1
1 1 1 1
 sin x dx     
4

0
5 3 ! 13 5 !  21 7 !  29
1 1 1
  
5 3 ! 13 5 !  21
 0.187576...
 0.188 (3 decimal places)