GRAMMAR BOOK

NIVEL 1
"BE" PRESENT: AFFIRMATIVE

USE:
To connect the subject with the rest of the sentence.

FORM:
am, is, are (in the Present Tense)
[SUBJECT + BE + REST OF SENTENCE]

I am
You are
He is
She is
It is

We are
You are
They are

EXAMPLES:
"My name is Maurice."
"I am your waiter."
"We are hungry."

"BE" PRESENT: CONTRACTIONS

USE:
To join the subject and the form of "BE" and make them one word. Used in
conversation.

FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE FORMS

Regular Form Contracted Form

I am I'm
You are You're
He is He's
She is She's
It is It's

We are We're
You are You're
They are They're
 "BE" PRESENT: NEGATIVE

USE:
To make a sentence negative.

FORM:
Add "not" after the verb "BE".
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + REST OF SENTENCE]

I am not
You are not
She is not
He is not
It is not

We are not
You are not
They are not

EXAMPLES:
"This dress is not my size."
"They are not happy."

"BE" PRESENT: WH-QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions that begin with these question words:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.

FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + REST]

NOTE: The subject and the verb change places.

They are at work.

Are they at work?
Where are they? (Wh-Question)

EXAMPLES:
"Who is she?"
"Where are they?"
"When are they leaving?"
"What is your cat's name?"
"Why is Carol smiling?"

"BE" PRESENT: YES/NO QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no".

FORM:
The subject and the verb change places.

Affirmative: They are at work.

Yes/No Question: Are they at work?

Affirmative: That store is expensive.

Yes/No Question: Is that store expensive?

EXAMPLES:
"Are you angry?"
"Is Bob in France?"

"BE" PRESENT: SHORT ANSWERS

USE:
To answer a yes/no question.

FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT + BE]
(never with contractions)

[NO + SUBJECT + BE + NOT]

(often with contractions)

AFFIRMATIVE
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he is.
Yes, she is.
Yes, it is.

Yes, we are.
Yes, you are.
Yes, they are.

PRESENT SIMPLE: STATEMENTS

USE:
To talk about actions, states or events which happen at any time, repeatedly, or all the
time.
 AFFIRMATIVE

FORM:
Verbs take an -s ending in third person singular.

[SUBJECT + VERB(s) + REST OF SENTENCE]

I/You/We/They work in a bank.

He/She/It has brown eyes.

SPELLING

Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o take -esin third person

singular: kisses,matches, goes, watches

For verbs ending in consonant + y,drop the y and add -

ies: carry/carries,try/tries, copy/copies

NOTE: The Present Simple is often used with adverbs and adverb phrases: Always,
Never, Often, Sometimes, Usually, Every day/week, On Sundays, Twice a month, year,
etc.

EXAMPLES:
"I often go to basketball games."
"He never watches TV."
"My brother goes to the health club twice a week."
"I always have coffee for breakfast."
NEGATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT+ DO NOT/DON'T+ VERB+ REST OF SENTENCE]

I/You/We/They don't drive in the city.

He/She/It doesn't have brown eyes.

EXAMPLE:
"Bill calls Mary, but he doesn't call me."

PRESENT SIMPLE: YES/NO QUESTIONS

QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions about actions in general time that need an answer of "yes" or "no".

FORM:
Put DO or DOES in front of the subject.

[DO/DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]

Does he/she/it like milk?

 Do I know him?

AFFIRMATIVE: She likes milk.

YES/NO QUESTION: Does she like milk?
ANSWERS

USE:
To answer a yes/no question.

FORM:
[YES, SUBJECT + DO/DOES]
Yes, I/you/we/they do.
Yes, he/she/it does.
[NO, SUBJECT + DON'T/DOESN'T]
No, I/you/we/they don't.
No, he/she/it doesn't.

EXAMPLES:
"Do you work on Saturdays?"
"Yes, I do."

"Does he work on Saturdays?"

PRESENT SIMPLE: Wh Questions

USE:
To ask questions about actions in general time that begin with these questions words:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.

FORM:
Questions about the SUBJECT:

[WHO-WHAT + VERB + REST]

Who lives here?

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]

When do you go home?
Where does he live?

EXAMPLES:
"Who lives in that house?"
"The Porters."

"What does Jack want to do?"

"Go to the movies.

"Where do they work?"

"At the bank."
 THIS/THAT THESE/THOSE

USE:
To indicate specific nouns.

FORM:
"This"/"That"
used with singular nouns

"These"/"Those"
used with plural nouns

"This"/"These"
for nouns near the speaker

"That"/"Those"
for nouns not near the speaker

EXAMPLES:
"Is this your hat?"
(A specific hat that is near the speaker.)

"No, that is my hat."

(A specific hat that is further away.)

"Are these your gloves?"

(Specific gloves nearby.)

"No, those are my gloves."

(Specific gloves further away.)

"I'm going to visit friends this Friday."

(The specific Friday, nearest in time.)

NOUNS: SINGULAR/PLURAL

USE:
To indicate two or more of the same object.

FORM:
Add an "s" to the noun.
a dollar two dollars
a guitar many guitars

Many nouns have spelling changes in their plural forms.

When a noun ends in "s", "ss", "x", "sh", or "ch", add "es".
a watch watches

NOTE: "es" is pronounced "ez"

When a noun ends in a consonant + "y" change the "y" to "i" and add "es".
a baby babies

When a noun ends in "o", sometimes add "es".

a potato potatoes

BUT
a radio radios

When a noun ends in "f" or "fe", change the "f" to "v" and add "es" or "s".
a shelf shelves

Sometimes the noun plural looks completely different:

a foot / feet
a woman / women
a man / men
a mouse / mice
a person / people
a child / children

ARTICLES

USE:
"a" or "an" is used with all singular nouns that can be counted.

"the" is used to refer to a specific noun, singular or plural.

FORM:
Words that begin with a consonant take "a". Words that begin with a vowel take "an".

EXAMPLES:
"Give me a sandwich please."
(Sandwich is singular and can be counted.)

"This is a dog."
(Dog begins with "d", a consonant.)

"This is an orange."
(Orange begins with "o", a vowel.)

"I want the English book."

"I want the English books."
("the" is used with both singular and plural nouns.)

"I want water, please."

"I want the water, please."
(Water cannot be counted so only "the" can be used and not "a".)

THERE IS / THERE ARE

USE:
To state that something exists or is present.

FORM:
Singular: [THERE IS + REST OF SENTENCE]

Plural: [THERE ARE + REST OF SENTENCE]

Questions: [IS/ARE THERE + REST OF SENTENCE?]

EXAMPLES:
"Are there any cookies left?"
"There is one more left."

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: AFFIRMATIVE

USE:
To describe actions that are happening now or in the future.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + VERBing + REST OF SENTENCE]

I am waiting for you.

You are eating my cake.
He/She/It is sleeping now.

We are going tomorrow.

You are walking too fast.
They are studying English this year.

EXAMPLES:
"I am trying to study."
"He is eating an apple."
"Our secretary is eating lunch."
"We are meeting them tonight."
 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: NEGATIVE

USE:
To describe an action that isn't happening now or in the future.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + VERB+ing (+ REST)]
I am not driving.
You are not listening.
She is not working.
He is not working.
It is not working.

We are not studying.

You are not waiting.
They are not talking.

EXAMPLES:
"It is not raining anymore."
"I am not going to the party tonight."

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: WH-QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions that begin with the following question words: WHAT, WHEN, WHERE,
WHO, WHY, HOW

FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + VERBing + REST]

NOTE:
The subject and the form of "BE" change places.

They are working at home now.

Are they working at home now?
Where are they working now? (Wh-Question)

EXAMPLE:
"What are you doing now?"
"I'm watching a movie on TV."

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: YES-NO QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no".

FORM:
The subject and the form of "BE" change places.

Statement: He is sleeping.
Yes/No Question: Is he sleeping?

Statement: They are working now.

Yes/No Question: Are they working now?

EXAMPLES:
"Are you listening to me?"
"Is your sister moving to New York?"

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: SHORT ANSWERS

USE:
To answer a yes/no question.

FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT + BE] (never used with contractions)
[NO + SUBJECT + BE + NOT] (often used with contractions)
AFFIRMATIVE
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he is.
Yes, she is.
Yes, it is.

Yes, we are.
Yes, you are.
Yes, they are.
NEGATIVE

No, I'm not.

No, you're not. No, you aren't.
No, he's not. No, he isn't.
No, it's not. No, it isn't.

No, we're not. No, we aren't.

No, you're not. No, you aren't.
No, they're not. No, they aren't.

EXAMPLES:
"Marie, are you enjoying the party?"
"Yes, I am."
"Are we leaving now?"
"No, we aren't."

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: CONTRACTIONS

USE:
To join the subject and the form of "BE" and make them one word. Used in
conversation.

FORM:
 AFFIRMATIVE FORMS

Regular Form Contracted Form

I am going. I'm going.
You are going. You're going.
He is going. He's going.
She is going. She's going.
It is going. It's going.
We are going. We're going.
You are going. You're going.
They are going. They're going.

EXAMPLES:
He is taking the bus.
He's taking the bus.
NEGATIVE FORMS

I'm not working.

You're not working. You aren't working.
He's not working. He isn't working.
She's not working. She isn't working.
It's not working It isn't working.

We're not working. We aren't working.

You're not working. You aren't working.
They're not working. They aren't working.

EXAMPLES:
"Frank is not driving to work today."
"Frank isn't driving to work today."
"Frank's not driving to work today."

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: SPELLING CHANGES

USE:
The spelling of some verbs changes when "ing" is added.

FORM:
For most verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant, double the last letter:
stop - stopping

For verbs that end in "e", drop the "e" before adding "ing":
have - having
give - giving

EXAMPLES:
"I'm having a great time in Paris."
"The bus driver is stopping the bus."
 NOUNS: POSSESSIVE

USE:
To show who/what a thing belongs to.

FORM:
Add " 's " to the name of the person, place or thing that the noun belongs to. For plural
nouns, put the
" ' " after the "s".

EXAMPLES:
"The boy's pizza."
(The pizza belongs to the boy.)

"The boys' pizza."

(The pizza belongs to the boys.)

PRONOUNS: OBJECT

USE:
To refer to the object of a sentence instead of using a proper name.

FORM:
To refer to people: me, you, him, her, us, them

To refer to things: it, them

EXAMPLES:
"Do you know him?"
"No, but I know her; she's my boss!"

PRONOUNS: SUBJECT

USE:
To refer to the subject of a sentence instead of using proper names.

FORM:
To refer to people: I, you, he, she, we, they
To refer to things: it, they

EXAMPLE:
"I am Mack."
"She is Matilda."
"He is little Spike."
"We are your new neighbors."

PRONOUNS: POSSESSIVE

USE:
To show belonging without using the name of the owner.
FORM:
ADJECTIVE
Always followed by the noun it describes: my, your, his,
her, its, our, their
NOUN
Used without the noun it describes: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs

EXAMPLES:
"Is it your turn?"
"No, it's his."
"It's not my turn, it's hers."

NIVEL 2
BE PAST: STATEMENTS

USE:
To connect the subject with the rest of the sentence and talk about the past.
AFFIRMATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + REST]

I/She/He/It was in the kitchen.

You/We/They were late.
NEGATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + REST]
WASN'T/WEREN'T
I/She/He/It was not angry.
I/She/He/It wasn't here.

You/We/They were not early.

You/We/They weren't on time.

EXAMPLES:
"Diana was at home yesterday."
"She wasn't at school."

"They were late to work."

"They weren't early."
 BE PAST: QUESTIONS

YES/NO QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no".

FORM:
The subject and the verb change places.

Affirmative: They were at home.

Yes/No Question: Were they at home?

Negative: He wasn't at school.

Yes/No Question: Wasn't he at school? (Always use contractions.)

Answers: Yes, I was.

No, I wasn't.

WH-QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions that begin with these question words:WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO,
WHY, HOW.

FORM:
Questions about the SUBJECT:

[WH-WORD + BE PAST + REST OF SENTENCE]

Affirmative: Juan was at home.
Wh-Question: Who was at home?

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + BE PAST + SUBJECT + REST OF SENTENCE]

Affirmative: He was in Philadelphia.
Wh-Question: Where was he?

Affirmative: He was there in 1990.

Wh-Question: When was he there?

EXAMPLES:
Police: "Where were you last nightat 9:30?"
Man: "I was at home all night."
Police: "Was Big Bob with you?"
Man: "No, he wasn't. I was alone."
 NOUNS and QUANTIFIERS:
COUNT/NON-COUNT NOUNS

USE:
Quantifiers are words or phrases which show the number or amount of some object.
Some quantifiers are used with both count and non-count nouns. Some other
quantifiers are only used with count or non-count nouns, but not with both.

USED WITH BOTH COUNT AND NON-COUNT NOUNS:

some (statements):
"There are some books on the shelf." (COUNT)
"There is some fruit on the table." (NON-COUNT)

any (questions and negative sentences):

"Are there any girls in your class?" (COUNT)
"There aren't any onions in the salad." (COUNT)
"Is there any butter?" (NON-COUNT)
"There isn't any homework today." (NON-COUNT)

a lot of
"There are a lot of red apples." (COUNT)
"There is a lot of noise in here." (NON-COUNT)

USED WITH COUNT NOUNS ONLY:

many
"I haven't got many friends."
"How many chairs are in that classroom?"

a few
"He has a few books."

USED WITH NON-COUNT NOUNS ONLY:

much
"I haven't got much time."
"How much milk do you want?"

a little
"I only want a little juice."

NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS:

COUNT NOUNS and QUANTIFIERS

USE:
Quantifiers are words or phrases which show the number or amount of an object.
Some quantifiers are used with both count and non-count nouns. Some other
quantifiers are used only with either non-count nouns or count nouns, but not with
both.

some (statements):
"There are some books on the shelf."

any (questions and negative sentences):

"Are there any girls in your class?"
"There aren't any onions in the salad."

a lot of
"There are a lot of red apples."

many
"I haven't got many friends."
"How many chairs are in that classroom?"

a few
"He has a few books."

EXAMPLE:
"Are there any small nails down there, Harry?"
"Sorry, there aren't any, but I have some big nails.
Is that OK?"

NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS:

NON-COUNT NOUNS and QUANTIFIERS

USE:
Quantifiers are words or phrases which show the number or amount of an object.
Some quantifiers are used with both count and non-count nouns. Some other
quantifiers are used only with either non-count nouns or count nouns, but not with
both.

REMEMBER: Non-count nouns take only the singular form of the verb!

some (statements):
"There is some water in your glass."

any (questions and negative sentences):

"Is there any money in the handbag?"
"There isn't any time left."

a lot of
"There is a lot of butter on your bread."

much
"I haven't got much money."
"How much milk do you want?"

a little
"I only want a little juice."
 COMPARISON: COMPARATIVES

USE:
To compare one or more people/things to other people/things.

FORM:
[COMPARATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE + THAN]

John is older than Bart.

Betty is more beautiful than Barbara.

Most adjectives take -er:

long/longer, old/older, tall/taller

Adjectives ending in -e take -r:

nice/nicer, late/later

Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant

double the consonant:
fat/fatter, big/bigger, hot/hotter

With adjectives ending in y, drop the y; add -ier:

happy/happier, easy/easier

With most two-syllable adjectives and longer adjectives form the comparative with
more:
intelligent - more intelligent
beautiful - more beautiful

The adjectives "good" and "bad" have anirregular comparative form:

good - better
bad - worse

EXAMPLES:
Todd: "Samurai Sam is winning. He's stronger than Viking Vick."
Ron: "Yes, and he's more popular, too!"

COMPARISON: SUPERLATIVES

USE:
To compare one or more person or thing with a whole group.

FORM:
[THE + SUPERLATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE]
John is the tallest boy in the class.
They are the most beautiful shoes in the store.
Most adjectives take -est: long/longest, old/oldest

Adjectives ending in -e take -st: nice/nicest, late/latest

Adjectives ending in a vowel + consonant double the consonant: fat/fattest,

big/biggest, hot/hottest

With adjectives ending in y, drop the y; add -iest: happy/happiest, easy/easiest

With most two-syllable adjectives and longer

adjectives form the superlative with most:
honest - most honest
beautiful - most beautiful

The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular superlative form:

good - best
bad - worst

EXAMPLES:
"Come to Mad Mo's. We have the cheapest,
the biggest, the most terrific store in New York! We are the best!"

COMPARISON: EQUALITY

USE:
To compare two persons or things that are alike.

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE:
[AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]

Bob is as tall as Marty.

NEGATIVE:
[NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]

Her hair is not as long as mine.

PAST SIMPLE: STATEMENTS

USE:
To talk about past events and actions.
AFFIRMATIVE

FORM:
Regular verbs in the Past Simple end in -ed.
[SUBJECT + VERB+ed + REST]

EXAMPLES:
 "Joe walked home alone last night."
"We played football last week."
SPELLING

Verbs ending in -e, take only -d: live/ lived.

With verbs ending in consonant+y, change the y to i:

carry / carried try/ tried

NOTE: Past Simple is often used with adverbs: Yesterday, Last week/month/year, A...
ago.
NEGATIVE

FORM:
Put did not (didn't) in front of the verb.
[SUBJECT+ DID NOT+ VERB+ REST OF SENTENCE]
/DIDN'T
They did not call me last week.
Ruth didn't study last night.

EXAMPLES:
"He didn't work at all last week."
"I didn't like the movie last night."

PAST SIMPLE: IRREGULAR VERBS

FORM:
Some verbs have irregular forms in the Past Simple.You will have to learn them by
heart.

Here is a list of some of the most frequent verbs:

come - came put - put

do - did read - read
drink - drank say - said
eat - ate sell - sold
find - found sit - sat
get - got sleep - slept
drive - drove speak - spoke
go - went take - took
have - had tell - told
hear - heard think - thought
know - knew understand - understood
leave - left wear - wore
make - made write - wrote
meet - met
 PAST SIMPLE: QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions about past actions/events that need an answer of "yes" or "no".

FORM:
Put DID / DIDN'T in front of the subject.
[DID / DIDN'T + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]

Did you walk yesterday?

Didn't they buy the book last week?
WH-QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask questions about the past that begin with these question words: WHAT, WHEN,
WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.

FORM:
Questions about the SUBJECT:
[WHO/WHAT + PAST VERB + REST]
Who told him?
What made that noise?

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + DID + VERB...]
When did you leave school?
Where did they buy that?

EXAMPLES:
John: "Did you ask the boss about money?"
Rose: "Yes, I did."
John: "Well, what did she say?"
Rose: "She said no."

PRESENT SIMPLE: TAG QUESTIONS

USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already expected.

FORM:
Add a short, two-word question-tag to the end of the statement.

If "yes" is expected:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + DON'T/DOESN'T + SUBJECT]

You drive, don't you?

Carl paints, doesn't he?

If "no" is expected:
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + DO/DOES + SUBJECT]
 You don't smoke, do you?
Mary doesn't drive, does she?

EXAMPLES:
"You like coffee, don't you?"
"Yes, I do." (Expect the answer to be "yes".)

"She doesn't work here, does she?"

"No, she doesn't."(Expect the answer to be "no".)

MODALS and SEMI-MODALS: CAN

USE:
The Modal CAN is used with verbs and adds a special meaning. Like most Modals, CAN
has more than one meaning.

MEANING:
"Joe can speak French." (ABILITY)
"You can leave early." (PERMISSION)
"It can be hot here." (POSSIBILITY)

FORM:
Like other Modals, CAN goes before the verb and only has one form.
AFFIRMATIVE
[CAN + VERB]
John can swim quickly.
You can go to the movies with your friends.
NEGATIVE
[CAN + NOT + VERB]
Diane can't swim.
Beth cannot meet us tonight.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[CAN + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Can you help me?
Can I leave now?
Answers:
Yes, you can.
No, you cannot/can't.
WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + CAN... VERB...]
When can you help me?

EXAMPLES:
Danny: "Can you open it?"
Keith: "No, I can't. I can't open it."
Danny: "Let's ask Butch. He can do it."
 MODALS and SEMI-MODALS: MAY

USE:
The Modal MAY is used with verbs and adds a special meaning. Like most Modals, MAY
has more than one meaning.

MEANING:
"You may leave early."(PERMISSION)
"They may buy a new house." (POSSIBILITY)

FORM:
Like other Modals, MAY goes before the verb and only has one form.
AFFIRMATIVE
[MAY + VERB]
John may go with you.
They may visit us later.
NEGATIVE
[MAY + NOT + VERB]
You may not leave the table.
We may not go to the party later.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[MAY + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
May we leave now?
May I help me?
Answers:
Yes, you may.
No, you may not.
WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + MAY... VERB...]
When may we leave?

EXAMPLES:
Girl: "Mom, may I have a cookie?"
"Okay, but only one. Your brother may
Mother: want one, too."

MODALS and SEMI-MODALS: HAVE TO

USE:
The Semi-modal HAVE TO is used with verbs and adds a special meaning.

MEANING:
"He has to leave early." (OBLIGATION).

FORM:
Like other Modals and Semi-modals, HAVE TO goes before the verb. It has the same
form as regular verbs.
AFFIRMATIVE:
[HAVE TO + VERB + REST]
He has to leave early.
They have to do their homework.
 NEGATIVE:
[DO/DOES (NOT) + SEMI-MODAL + VERB + REST]
The boys don't have to work today.
YES/NO QUESTIONS:
[DO/DOES(NOT) + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB + REST]
Do I have to leave now?
Doesn't she have to study for her test?

Answers:
Yes, I do.
No, she doesn't.
WH-QUESTIONS:
[WH-WORD + (DO/DOES + SUBJECT) + HAVE TO + VERB + REST]
Who has to leave?
When do you have to call your parents?

EXAMPLES:
Mother: "It's time for bed, Michael."
Rick: "Aw, Mom. Do I have to go to bed now?"
Mother: "Yes, you do. It's late and you have to goto school tomorrow."

NIVEL 3
GERUNDS: AS OBJECTS

USE:
The object of the verb is normally a noun or a pronoun. The objects of some verbs,
however, can be GERUNDS. These verbs include: ENJOY, ALLOW, LIKE, FINISH, HATE,
LOVE, and PREFER.

EXAMPLES:
"Eric loves collecting comic books."
"Sandy prefers buying only fresh meat and vegetables."
"She enjoys meeting new people."
"John dislikes going to big parties."
"We do not allow smoking in our office."
"I hate getting lost in foreign cities."

GERUNDS: AFTER PREPOSITIONS

USE:
A preposition is normally followed by a noun or a pronoun. If it is followed by a verb,
the verb is a GERUND.

EXAMPLES:
"Mary left without saying goodbye."
"James had an accident after drinking too much."
"Always lock the door before going to bed."
"He read the newspaper while having breakfast."
 MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): BE ABLE TO

AFFIRMATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about ability in the present, future, and past. It is very similar in meaning
to the Modals CAN and COULD.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE(present/past/future) + ABLE TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"He worked hard and was able to pass the exam."
"Mary broke her leg just two months ago but she's already able to walk again."
"She needs time to decide, but she'll be able to give you an answer tomorrow."
NEGATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about inability or failure to do something in the past, present, or future.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE (present/past/future)
+ NOT + ABLE TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"The store was closed, so I wasn't able to buy the book."
"Sorry, we won't be able to fix your car until next week."
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

USE:
Used to ask questions about ability in the present, past, and future.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

FORM:
[Q: BE (all tenses) + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
[A: Yes, + SUBJECT + BE.
No, + SUBJECT + BE NOT.]

EXAMPLES:
"Were you able to buy that book for me?"
"Yes I was. Here it is!"
WH-QUESTIONS

FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence
[WH-WORD + BE ABLE TO+ VERB...?]

About the REST of the sentence

[WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]

EXAMPLES:
"Who was able to finish their homework on time?"

"When will you be able to pay back the loan?"

"We'll be able to pay you next month."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): HAD TO

AFFIRMATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about necessity, obligation, and duty in the past. HAD TO is the past form
of both HAVE TO and MUST.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"I had to stay up all night to write this paper!"
"We had to run to catch the train."
NEGATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about something that was not necessary or not obligatory in the past.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + DID NOT (DIDN'T) + HAVE TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"Monday was a holiday, so I didn't have to go to work."
"I didn't have to study Latin in high school."
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

USE:
Used to ask questions about duties and obligations in the past.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

[Q: DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DID.
No, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DIDN'T]

EXAMPLE:
"Did you have to borrow money to buy the car?"

"Yes, we did."
 WH-QUESTIONS

About the SUBJECT of the sentence:

[WH-WORD + HAS/HAD/HAD TO+ VERB...?]

About the REST of the sentence:

[WH-WORD + DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]

EXAMPLES:
"Who had to wash the car this week?"

"What did you have to do to get the loan?"

"I had to fill out a form for the bank."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS):

MUST NOT/DON'T HAVE TO

USE:
While MUST and HAVE TO have similar meanings in the affirmative, they cannot be
used interchangeably in the negative.

MUST NOT (MUSTN'T) is used to show that something is prohibited or forbidden.

DON'T HAVE TO means "it's not necessary to do something".

EXAMPLES:
"You mustn't run in here; this is a hospital."
"You don't have to run; the bus is waiting for you."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): MUST

USE:
Used to talk about a strong necessity, obligation, or duty to do something. There is
often very little difference between MUST and HAVE TO. In formal, written English,
MUST is used for public notices about official rules and regulations. MUST can also be
used to express a strong opinion about a situation based on existing facts or
circumstances.
AFFIRMATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT + MUST + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"I have a terrible toothache; I must go to the dentist."
"We must try to help Nicky; she's our oldest friend."
"All workers must wear safety helmets in work areas!"
"Jack must be on his way. There was no one home when I called his apartment."
 NEGATIVE

USE:
In both formal and informal English we use the negative form MUST NOT (often
shortened to MUSTN'T) to talk about something which is wrong or forbidden. Note that
this is not the same as the negative form of HAVE TO, which only means that
something is not necessary.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + MUST + NOT (MUSTN'T) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"You mustn't pull the dog's tail, dear; he'll bite you."
"We mustn't forget to pay back that loan."
"Workers must not smoke in work areas!"

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

USE:
Used to ask whether something is necessary or obligatory. The interrogative form of
HAVE TO has the same meaning and is more common.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

FORM:

[Q: MUST + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT + MUST
No, + SUBJECT + NEEDN'T]

EXAMPLE:
"Must I go to school today, Mom?"
"Yes, you must."
WH-QUESTIONS

FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence:
[Wh-Word + MUST + VERB...?]

ABOUT REST OF SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + MUST + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

EXAMPLES:
"What must happen before we can leave?"

"When must you take the test?"

"Next Friday."
 MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): SHOULD
AFFIRMATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about a duty or obligation which is much weaker than MUST or HAVE TO.
It is also used to give somebody advice.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + SHOULD + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"You should study for your test tonight instead of watching TV." (duty)

"I'm terribly tired."

"You should work less!" (advice)
NEGATIVE

USE:
We can use SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) as a weaker form of MUSTN'T, to warn people
or advise them not to do something.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"You shouldn't eat so much candy. It'll make you fat!"

"You shouldn't throw candy wrappers on the street. Put them in the trash can instead."
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

USE:
Used to ask whether something is necessary, right, or useful, or to ask people for
advice.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

FORM:

[Q: Should + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT + SHOULD
No, + SUBJECT + SHOULDN'T]

EXAMPLE:
"Should I answer Peter's letter?"
"Yes, you should!"
WH-QUESTIONS

FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence
[WH-WORD + SHOULD + VERB...?]

About the REST of the sentence

[WH-WORD + SHOULD + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Who should bring the drinks?"

"Where should we go to buy the local pottery?"

"Well, don't go to the big tourist shops. You should go to the small shops in the
villages."
INFINITIVES: AFTER VERBS

USE:
When two verbs in the same clause have the same subject, the second acts as the
object of the first. Depending on the first verb, the second may be in the infinitive
form.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB 1 + (NOT) + Infinitive...]

EXAMPLE:
"Tina decided to study Russian."

There are two main groups of verbs which can be followed by an Infinitive:

SUBJECT'S ATTITUDE: Agree, Choose, Decide, Hope, Offer, Promise, Refuse, etc.

EXAMPLES:
"Patrick agreed to cook dinner."
"Jane chose to stay at home."
"We decided not to buy a new house."
"I hope to win first prize next year."

SUBJECT'S ABILITY: Attempt, Fail, Learn, Manage, Try, Be able to, etc.

EXAMPLES:
"Ben attempted to start the car."
"Anne failed to finish her paper on time."
"We learned to ski when we were on vacation."

GERUNDS: AFTER VERBS

USE:
GERUNDS are used as the object of most transitive verbs, instead of a noun or
pronoun. In some cases an object-verb takes the infinitive form, but normally it is a
Gerund. Note that a Gerund can also follow "BE".

FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + GERUND]

EXAMPLES:
"Smith admitted stealing the jewels, but denied killing the security guard."
"I avoid arguing with my boss."
"Frank enjoys watching horror movies."
"We must finish painting this wall today."
"I can't imagine eating snails."
"Cats don't like swimming."
"Do you mind waiting for me?"
"Sam remembers meeting you last year."

PAST PROGRESSIVE: STATEMENTS

AFFIRMATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + VERB + ing...]
He was waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
They were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.

EXAMPLES:
"She was eating when I arrived."
"We were sleeping at 3:OO a.m."
NEGATIVE

[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + VERB + ing...]

I was not (wasn't) waiting for the bus.
They were not (weren't) waiting for the bus.

EXAMPLES:
"He wasn't sleeping when the phone rang."
"They weren't watching TV when the news was on."

PAST PROGRESSIVE: QUESTIONS and ANSWERS

YES/NO QUESTIONS and ANSWERS

FORM:
[Q: WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + VERB + ing...]
Was she waiting for the train?
Were you waiting for the train?

[A: YES/NO + SUBJECT + BE(NOT)]

Yes, it was.
No, she wasn't.

Yes, we were.
No, you weren't.

EXAMPLES:
"Were the children playing in the garden when you came in?"
"Yes, they were."

"Were you working in Tokyo in1991?"

"No, I wasn't."
 WH-QUESTIONS

Questions about the SUBJECT of the sentence.

FORM:
[WHO/WHAT + WAS/WERE + VERB + ing...]

EXAMPLES:
"Who was watching the baby last night?"
"What was playing at the Cineplex last night?"

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + VERB + ing...]

EXAMPLES:
"What were you doing at 10 o'clock?"
"I was walking the dog."

"Who was Pat looking at?"

"She was looking at Kim."

PAST PROGRESSIVE - vs. PAST SIMPLE

USE:
We use the Past Simple to talk about a completed action in the past. We use the Past
Progressive to talk about an action that continued over a period of time in the past.

We can also use the Past Simple and the Past Progressive together in the same
sentence, to show that one short action or event happened during a longer action or
event. If we mention the shorter action first, we usually join the two parts of the
sentence together with WHILE.

EXAMPLES:
"Tom arrived while we were talking about him."
"She came in while I was doing my homework."

If we mention the longer action first, we usually join the two parts of the sentence
together with WHEN.

EXAMPLES:
"We were talking about Tom when he arrived."
"I was doing my homework when she came in."
 FUTURE: WILL and GOING TO

USE:
WILL is used to express a subjective opinion, or to express a decision, a promise,a
belief, or a threat, etc. about the future. This is why WILL often follows expressions
like "I hope...", "Do you think...", etc.

EXAMPLE:
"Do you think she will like these flowers?"

FORM:
Affirmative: [SUBJECT + WILL + VERB...]

NOTE: We often shorten WILL to "-'ll" and pronounce it together with the subject.

EXAMPLE:
"I think he will (he'll) fix the car tomorrow."

Negative: [SUBJECT + WILL + NOT + VERB...]

NOTE: We often shorten WILL NOT to "WON'T".

EXAMPLE:
"I'm afraid we won't finish the job today."

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

YES/NO QUESTIONS

USE:
In the interrogative form, WILL often introduces a request.

FORM:
[Q: WILL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
[A: Yes, + SUBJECT + WILL
No, + SUBJECT + WILL NOT(WON'T).]

EXAMPLES:
"Will you open the window, please?"
"Yes, of course I will."

"Will you buy me an ice cream, please?"

"No, I won't!"
WH-QUESTIONS

FORM:
Questions about the subject of the sentence:
[Q: WHO/WHAT + WILL + VERB...?]

EXAMPLE:
"Who'll be there tonight?"
"Liz will go for sure. And maybe Tom will be there too."

Questions about the rest of the sentence:

[Q: Wh-word + WILL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

EXAMPLE:
"When will we get home tonight?"
"I think we'll get home at around 10."
GOING TO

USE:
GOING TO is used to talk about definite, objective facts and plans in the future.

EXAMPLE:
"Look at those clouds! It's going to rain!"

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + BE + GOING TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"I'm going to study Chinese History next semester."
"Look out! That car's going to hit us!"
NEGATIVE

[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + GOING TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"We aren't going to make a profit this year."
"I know I'm not going to pass this exam!"
QUESTIONS and ANSWERS

YES/NO QUESTIONS

[Q: BE + SUBJECT + GOING TO + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + BE.]
or:
[No, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + BE + NOT.]

EXAMPLE:
"Is this train going to arrive on time?"
"No, it isn't. It's going to be late."
WH-QUESTIONS

Questions about the subject of the sentence:

[Q: WHO/WHAT + BE + GOING TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLE:
"Who's going to finish this?"
"I am."
Questions about the rest of the sentence:
[Q: WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + GOING TO + VERB...?]
[A: Affirmative sentence with GOING TO.]

EXAMPLE:
"Who are you going to vote for?"
"I'm going to vote for Tom Baxter."

NOTE: We often find both WILL and GOING TO in the same conversation.In the
following dialogue, the patient wants a definite answer to his question,but the nurse
replies with only a promise:

"Is this injection going to hurt?"

"Don't worry, it will only hurt a little and it won't take long!"

FUTURE: PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

USE:
We often use the Present Progressive (see Basic 1) to talk about plans and decisions
for the near future. It is most commonly used with verbs expressing movement (e.g.
arrive, come, go, leave, sail, visit, etc.)

EXAMPLES:
"I'm leaving early today; I have a headache."
"Are you visiting your mother tonight?"
"I'm not waiting any longer; he's half an hour late already!"

FUTURE: SIMPLE PRESENT

USE:
We sometimes use the Simple Present (see Basic 2) to talk about 'definite' future
actions and events that are already fixed or arranged on an official timetable.

EXAMPLES:
"The President leaves for Japan on Monday."
"When does the next bus arrive?"

ADVERBS: FORMATION

Most adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" to the end of an adjective:

clear/clearly,
wonderful/wonderfully,
clever/cleverly,
stupid/stupidly,
interesting/interestingly,
close/closely,
dangerous/dangerously,
 bad/badly.

If an adjective already ends in "-ly" (e.g. FRIENDLY, LONELY) it cannot be made into
an adverb. In this case, we have to make an adverbial phrase.

EXAMPLES:
"She spoke to me in a friendly way."
"He sat there looking lonely."

In a few cases, the adverb is exactly the same as its corresponding adjective: EARLY,
LATE, FAST, HARD, LEFT, RIGHT, WRONG, HIGH, LONG.

EXAMPLES:
"I'm afraid the train will leave late."
"He runs very fast."
"Why do you work so hard?"
"Turn right at the next corner!"

The adverb form of the adjective GOOD is WELL.

"Michael is a very good cook. He makes cakes particularly well."

INFINITIVES: AFTER VERB + OBJECT

USE:
When there are two verbs with different subjects in the same clause, the second is
sometimes an Infinitive. This structure is often used to talk about the first subject's
attitude towards or influence on the second subject.

FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB 1 + SUBJECT 2 + Infinitive]

EXAMPLES:
"I told Maggie to write that letter last week."
"The teacher allowed the students to go home early."
"Fred asked me to lend him some money."
"I expected them to answer my letter immediately."
"They invited Sarah to go on vacation with them."
"We'd like you to work with us."
"I need you to sign this paper, please."
"The general ordered his men to retreat."
"Janet paid the mechanic to fix her car."
"David reminded her to feed the cat."
"Mary teaches people to read."
"The boss told me to work harder."
"Angela wants Paul to marry her."
 GERUNDS: AS SUBJECTS

USE:
A GERUND can act as the subject of any verb, instead of a noun or pronoun. We often
use Gerunds in this way to make generalizations. The Gerund can stand alone, be
followed by a complement (i.e. an object or an adverbial) or by an adverbial clause.

FORM:
[GERUND + (Complement/Adverb Clause) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"Smoking is dangerous."
"Eating always makes me sleepy."
"Smoking cigars is very dangerous." (with Complement)
"Playing football makes me thirsty." (with Complement)
"Smoking when you are in a crowded room is inconsiderate." (with Adverbial Clause)
"Not brushing your teeth before you go to bed is bad for your teeth." (with Adverbial
Clause)

INFINITIVES: AFTER ADJECTIVES

USE:
Used to say how somebody thinks or feels about an action or event.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE + TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"Mike was very surprised to see Ted with Laura."
"We were delighted to see Fred at the party."

GERUNDS: GERUND OR INFINITIVE

USE:
Several verbs can be followed by either GERUNDS or INFINITIVES. In some cases,
such as REMEMBER, FORGET, STOP, and USE, this changes the meaning of the
sentence completely.

FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + GERUND - memories of the past]

EXAMPLES:
"I remember seeing the Beatles in 1970."
"I'll never forget meeting you in Rome last year."
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + INFINITIVE - actions in the future]

EXAMPLES:
"I'll remember to give him the message tomorrow."
"Don't forget to feed the chickens this evening!"

FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + GERUND - to finish or abandon an action]

EXAMPLE:
"We stopped dancing because we were tired."

FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + INFINITIVE - to start a new action]

EXAMPLE:
"I stopped to tie my shoelace."

FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + GERUND - to experiment; to perform an action to see what the result will be.]

EXAMPLE:
"If you want to make perfect tea, try heating the pot with some boiling water before
putting in the tea."

FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + INFINITIVE - to attempt something; to find out whether it is possible]

EXAMPLE:
"I tried to stroke the cat, but she ran away before I could touch her."

FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + GERUND - to enjoy something]

EXAMPLES:
"I like eating chocolate."
"I like reading novels."

FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + INFINITIVE - to think that something is wise, right, or enjoyable]

EXAMPLES:
"I like to brush my teeth after meals."
"I like to answer business letters immediately."

Note the difference between USE TO + INFINITIVE and BE/GET USED TO + GERUND:

FORM + MEANING:
[USED TO (past) + INFINITIVE - refers to a past habit or state which has now stopped
or changed]
EXAMPLES:
"I used to smoke 50 cigarettes a day, before I stopped."
"We used to live in Washington; now we live in Montreal."
"My father used to have brown hair, but now he is bald."

FORM + MEANING:
[BE or GET USED TO + GERUND - means to consider something normal or become
accustomed to something]

EXAMPLES:
"I'm used to driving on the left now, but when I first came to Britain it felt very
strange!"

"I can't get used to being a grandmother; I feel so old!"

"Don't worry; you'll get used to having grandchildren."

With some verbs (e.g. START, BEGIN, CONTINUE), it makes very little difference
whether they are followed by GERUND or an INFINITIVE, although one form may be
slightly more common than the other. In the following examples the more common
form comes first.

EXAMPLES:
"We started traveling/to travel at 6 o'clock."
"Pat began swimming/to swim when she was six."
"Joe continued writing/to write to me for years."

IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS

USE:
These are used to talk about time, place, weather, and other conditions in expressions
where the verb "BE" has no real subject.

FORM:
[IT + BE + Time expression/adjective + REST]

EXAMPLES:
"It's 1 o'clock in Miami when it's 7 o'clock in Rome."
"It's warm and sunny today in Washington."
"It's too late to get tickets for the 4 o'clock show."
"It's time to start cooking dinner."
"Come and swim; it's lovely in the water!"
"It's very dusty up in our attic."
 ADVERBS: ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

USE:
Used to talk about how often or how rarely something happens. The most important
adverbs of frequency are ALWAYS, GENERALLY, NORMALLY, USUALLY, FREQUENTLY,
OFTEN, SOMETIMES, EVER,
OCCASIONALLY, SELDOM, RARELY, and NEVER.

FORM:
Adverbs of frequency normally come immediately before the verb in affirmative
sentences, but after the verb "BE". In negative sentences, adverbs of frequency
normally come immediately after the word NOT. In questions, adverbs of frequency
normally come immediately after the subject.
AFFIRMATIVE
[ADVERB + VERB]

EXAMPLE:
"I always drink champagne with my supper."
[BE + ADVERB]

EXAMPLE:
"Peter is sometimes late for lessons."
NEGATIVE
[NOT + ADVERB]

EXAMPLES:
"We don't often go to the theater."
"My sister isn't usually so quiet."
QUESTIONS
[SUBJECT + ADVERB]

EXAMPLES:
"What do you usually have for breakfast?"
"Do you always eat a sandwich for lunch?"
"Are you ever going to finish that book?"
"We sometimes take the car and sometimes walk."
"Bill is rarely late."
"Jessica doesn't ever call me at work."
"Why don't Pam and Jim ever speak to Michael?"

NIVEL 4
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE:
STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS and ANSWERS

USE:
To talk about actions or states which began in the past and are still relevant in the
present. The Present Perfect is often used with expressions starting with FOR and
SINCE, to talk about actions or states which began in the past and are true up until the
present time. It is also used with the adverbs JUST, ALREADY, and YET to talk about
actions or events which took place at an indefinite time in the past. The Present Perfect
is also used to talk about recent actions or events ("news").
FORM:
The Present Perfect is made up of HAVE/HAS and the Past Participle (the third form of
the verb [V3]).

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (just/already) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]... (for/since...)]

EXAMPLES:
"I've lived here for two years."
"You've already lost one key. I can't believe you can't find the second."
"Whose package is this? It's been here since 4 p.m."
"We've already met them."
"They're not hungry. They've just eaten their dinner."

NOTE: In positive sentences, JUST and ALREADY usually go immediately before the
past participle. Phrases with FOR and SINCE go at the end of the sentence.

NEGATIVE

[SUBJECT + HAVE NOT/HAVEN'T + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..] HAS NOT/HASN'T

EXAMPLES:
"I haven't met her yet."
"It hasn't begun to rain yet."
"We haven't had lunch yet."
"You haven't said a word for 2 hours."
"They haven't finished their breakfast."

NOTE: In negative sentences, YET and phrases with FOR and SINCE usually go at the
end of the sentence.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES:
"Have you already finished your work?"
"Has she finished painting the room?"

WH-QUESTIONS

WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECT

[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLE:
"Who has just eaten the candy?"

WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE REST OF THE SENTENCE

[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE (V3)]

EXAMPLES:
"Where has he put my coat?"
"What have you done with the money?"

NOTE: In questions, JUST and ALREADY usually go before the Past Participle [V3]; YET
and phrases with FOR and SINCE usually go at the end of the sentence.

CONTRAST WITH OTHER TENSES

USE:
We use the Present Perfect to talk about actions or events that happened during a
period which in some way includes or is connected to the present, when the exact time
is not given.

EXAMPLE:
"Peter Parker has written five books."

The "period" in this sentence is Parker's life. By using the Present Perfect, we show
that he is still alive and still writing books.

BUT -
"John Craig wrote five books."

In this case, the Past Simple is used, showing that the "period" is finished, probably
because Craig is dead.

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about recent actions or events which are
"news" to the listener, often with the adverbs JUST and ALREADY and YET in negative
sentences and questions.

EXAMPLES:
"The results have just come in; and here they are..."
"I don't want to go to that movie: I've already seen it."
"Have you typed that letter yet?"

NOTE: In American English, the simple past form is often used:

"The election results just came in: here they are..."
"I don't want to go to that movie; I already saw it."
"Did you type that letter yet?"

We often use the Present Perfect with certain expressions:

FOR or SINCE
We can use FOR or SINCE at the beginning of the time expression. If we say how long
the action or state lasted, we use FOR:
"...for ten minutes."
"...for twenty years."
"...for two centuries."
"...for a very long time." etc.

If we say when the action or state began, we use SINCE, followed by the time or
another expression which indicates the time:
"...since 2 o'clock."
"...since last Monday."
"...since 1975."
"...since the end of the war."
"...since I was a baby." etc.

HOW LONG
We start a question to ask about the duration of an activity or state with HOW LONG:

EXAMPLES:
"How long have you had that sweater?"
"About six months."

"How long have you been an actor?"

"Since I left school."

EVER
If we want to know if something has happened, but not when, we often put the adverb
EVER before the verb in the question.

EXAMPLES:
"Have you ever eaten octopus?"
"Yes, I have."

"Have you ever been in an accident?"

"No, I haven't."

JUST, ALREADY or YET

JUST (=a short time ago), ALREADY (=before now) and YET (=before/until now) are
used in Present Perfect sentences that talk about recent actions or events ("news").
JUST and ALREADY usually go immediately before the third form of the verb and YET is
often used at the end of a negative sentence or question.

EXAMPLES:
"I have already seen that movie. Let's stay home!"
"But I haven't seen it yet!"

"Here we are at the Indy 500 with Mike Rhodes. Mike, have you ever driven in an Indy
race?"
"No, I haven't. But I've been a race driver in Europe for ten years."
"Well, Good Luck to you!"
 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
USE:
It is used to refer to a continuous or repeated action that started and continues into
the present, or finished a short time ago and still has an effect. We do not usually use
the Present Progressive in perfect forms for states (TO HAVE RED HAIR TO BE
APPY/ILL/TIRED, TO KNOW THE ANSWER, etc.).
EXAMPLES:
"Betty and Joe have been working all night: they're exhausted!"
"Ted, I've been telling you to make your bed for two hours!"

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUJETO + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + VERBO+ing ]

EXAMPLES:
"I've been sitting here for an hour."
"She's been hiding in the garage."

NEGATIVE

[SUJETO + HAS/HAVE + NOT + BEEN + VERBO+ing...]

HASN'T/HAVEN'T
EXAMPLES:
"You have not (haven't) been working all week."
"He has not (hasn't) been living here very long."
NOTE: las expresiones FOR y SINCE se utilizan con el presente perfecto progresivo
igual que con el presente perfecto simple.
EXAMPLES:
"They have been studying French for three years."
"She has been living here since 1987."

PASSIVE VOICE

USE:
It is used to refer to actions or facts in which the agent, or the “active agent” of an
action, is obvious, unknown, not important or when we want to focus on its outcome or
receiver. It is also used to stress the process or fact.

FORM:
["BE" + Past Participle [V3]]
NOTA: the verb "BE" varíes according to the tense of the action. It can follow any
form, including the progressive.
EXAMPLES:

"The castle was built in 1543."

"It has been rebuilt twice since then."
(The agent unknown/unimportant)
"English is spoken here."
(Agent is obvious or understood)
"The game is played until there are no more players on the field."
(The process is stressed)
NOTE: In a passive voice sentence, the agent can come after the verb after the
preposition BY.

EXAMPLES:

"My lunch was stolen by a gorilla from the circus!"

"The new hospital is going to be opened by the Queen herself."

AFFIRMATIVE/NEGATIVE
PRESENT/PAST SIMPLE

[OBJECT + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)...]

EXAMPLES:
"English is spoken here."
"These socks weren't made in Japan."

PRESENT/PAST PROGRESSIVE

[OBJETO + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by

SUBJECT)]
EXAMPLES:
"The house is being painted (by John)."
"Our car wasn't being used yesterday."

PRESENT PERFECT

[OBJECT + HAVE (NOT)/HAS (NOT) + BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)]
EJEMPLOS:
"The house has been rented (by Bob Tell)."
"We haven't been invited to the party."

YES/NO QUESTIONS

[BE/HAVE + SUBJECT (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EJEMPLOS:
"Was the letter sent?" (SIMPLE)
"Is it being ordered?" (PROGRESSIVE)
"Have they been asked?" (PERFECT)

WH QUESTIONS

[WH-WORD + BE/HAVE + (SUBJECT) (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...]

EJEMPLOS:

"Who was told about this?"

"When was John invited to the wedding?"
"Where was it being shown?"
"Why has Bill been fired?
OTHER EXAMPLES:

"The car wasn't being repaired when we arrived."

"The election results have just been announced."
"George has been caught by the police."
"Are we going to be invited to Joe's party?"
"Why has Betty been arrested?"
"Who was that movie made by?
"It was made by DeMille, I think."

RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH A SUBJECT

Use:
When the subject of the relative clause is the same from the noun we are talking
about.

FORM:
These relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun:

WHO (for people),

WHICH (for animals or objects),
THAT(for people, animals or objects; for words like EVERYTHING, NOTHING,
SOMETHING o ANYTHING).
[...SUSTANTIVO + PRONOMBRE RELATIVO + VERBO...]

EXAMPLES:

"He's the man who/that wrote this book."

"Let's see the movie which/that won the prize."
"I've forgotten everything that happened."
"Bill's the man who called me last night."
"Where is the factory that makes those chairs?"

Relative clauses always carry a verb.

RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH AN OBJECT:

USE:
When the subject of the relative clause is different from the subject we are talking
about.

FORM:
These relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun:

WHO (for people),

WHOM (in English is very formal)
WHICH (for animals or objects),
THAT (for people, animals or objects and for words like EVERYTHING, NOTHING,
SOMETHING o ANYTHING).
We can omit the relative pronoun if the subject is not the subject of the verb of the
relative clause, except when the relative clause begins with a preposition, or if it
follows a comma.

[...SUSTANTIVO + (PRONOMBRE RELATIVO) + ORACION...]

EXAMPLES:

"Frederick is the man (who/that/whom) I work with."

"Here's the book (which/that) you lent me."
"Tell me everything (that) you remember."

If there is a preposition at the beginning of a relative clause, we have to use the

relative pronouns WHOM o WHICH unless we use that preposition at the end of the
clause.

EXAMPLES:
"The lady with whom you were dancing is my wife."
OR
"The lady (that) you were dancing with is my wife."
"The company for which you work is responsible for your pension."
OR
"The company (that) you work for is responsible for your pension."
We can also use it to substitute IN WHICH, AT WHICH y ON WHICH by WHERE or
WHEN.
EXAMPLES:
"That's the house where Shakespeare lived."
"1492 was the year when Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic."

RELATIVE CLAUSES:
WITH OR WITHOUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS

We can omit the relative pronoun if it is not the subject of the verb of the relative
clause, except when the relative clause begins with a preposition (formal), or if it
follows a comma.

EXAMPLES:
That's the man I spoke to.
BUT
That's the man to whom I spoke.

PASIVE VOICE:
MODALS

USE:
It is used to express certain degrees of possibility, probability and obligation in the
passive voice. We can use all the modal verbs WILL, MUST, HAVE TO, CAN, COULD,
MAY, MIGHT, NEED, SHOULD with BE and the past participle of the original verb.
 AFIRMATIVE/NEGATIVE

[OBJECT + MODAL (NOT) + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]... (by SUBJECT)]

EXAMPLES:
"The project can't be finished on time."
"We will be met at 8 p.m. (by Mr. Sills)."

YES/NO QUESTIONS

[MODAL + SUBJECT + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...]

EXAMPLES:
"Should Tina be invited to the party?"
"Must it be done by 7 p.m.?"
WH QUESTIONS

[WH-WORD + MODAL + (SUBJECT) + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES:
"Where can it be seen?"
"When will she be told about her brother?"
"What may be eaten?"

OTHER EXAMPLES:

OBLIGATION / NECESSITY

"The doctor's instructions must be followed exactly."

"The police have sealed that door; it mustn't

be opened ."

"The bridge was badly damaged , so it had to be repaired ."

"I can fix your watch for you; it needn't be taken to the watchmaker."

"Private cars shouldn't be allowed to enter the city center."

POSSIBILITY / PROBABILITY

"On a clear day, the mountains can be seen from the top of this building."
"Ten years ago, objects like this could be bought for a few dollars."
"Mike's taking a big risk: he could be sent to prison if someone checks that signature."
"Smith has been a very unsuccessful mayor; he may not be re-elected next year."

MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES: WITH WHOSE and WHERE

USE:
WHOSE is a relative pronoun that shows possession. It can be referred to people or
things.
FORM:
WHOSE se utiliza con sustantivos de la misma forma que HIS, HERS, etc.
[SUSTANTIVO + WHOSE + SUJETO + VERBO...]
EXAMPLE:
"My Uncle Jack, whose house burned down last week, is living with us now."
WHERE

USE:
Las oraciones de relativo que describen un lugar pueden comenzar por WHERE.

FORM:
[SUSTANTIVO + WHERE + SUJETO + VERBO...]
EXAMPLE:
"This is a photograph of my first school, where I studied until I was twelve."

NOUN CLAUSES
EXAMPLES:
"I have no idea where the castle is."
"I wonder who that girl is."
"I'm sure that Klaus is Austrian."

SUPPLYING INFORMATION
If the speaker offers information, he will use expressions like: 'I know...', I'm sure...',
'I think...', 'I expect...' and the conjunction THAT or other question words.

EXAMPLES:

"I know that he loves me."

"I am not sure where Mary went."
The conjunction 'that' is often omitted.

"I'm sure (that) Mike will arrive later."

Question words do not follow the usual interrogative pattern.
"I know when he is going to arrive."

REQUESTING INFORMATION – WITH IF and WHETHER

If we know the information we request we use expressions such as: 'I don't know...',
'I've no idea...', 'I can't imagine...', 'I wonder...' together with IF o WHETHER.
EXAMPLES:

"Do you know if John is at home?"

"No, I don't know whether he is at home or at work."
"I wonder if Bill has cleaned the kitchen."

REQUESTING INFORMATION- WITH WH QUESTIONS

If the speaker wants to find out specific information, he will frequently use expressions
such as: 'Do you know...' , 'Can you tell me...' o 'I wonder...', etc. followed by the
appropriate question word. The noun clause does not follow the typical question.

EXAMPLES:

"Excuse me, can you tell me what time it is?"

"Can you tell me which bus goes to Maine?"
"Do you know whose book this is?"
"I wonder where my new sweater is."

OFFERING INFORMATION – WITH WH WORDS

If the information is an answer to a wh question, the suitable WH word becomes a

conjunction: when, where, why, how, who, what, which, whose, how much and how
many. The noun clause does not follow the typical question pattern.
EXAMPLES:
"I have no idea when the letter will arrive."
"I can't imagine where Mary's husband is."
"I don't know why Pat said that to you."
"I've no idea how we can solve this problem."

CLAUSES
USE:
When a phrase has more than one conjugated verb (that is to say, subject + verb), it
is divided into two CLAUSES. Each one has a subject and a verb. The FIRST, in
general, is the main clause, the others are SUBORDINATED clauses. There two types of
subordinated clauses: NOUN and ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.

EXAMPLES:

"I think that your new dress is beautiful."

"Why don't you call when you're late?"
"I have to go home after I finish work."

NOUN CLAUSES

USE:
A NOUN CLAUSE, in general, provides info about a person or an object that has been
introduced by the main clause.

EXAMPLES:

"I think that your sister is lovely!"

"I don't know who she is."
Notice that the Wh-Question words are not followed by the normal question form.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

USE:
An ADVERBIAL, in general, has information about the verb of the main clause. It often
explains the main clause or it refers to the moment it occurred.
EXAMPLES:

"He drank water because he was thirsty."

"She spoke slowly so that I could understand."
"I always worry when my kids come home late."

NIVEL 5
REAL CONDITIONALS:

USE:
They are used to talk about real possibilities in "general time" and about doubtful facts
that can be possible in the future.

FORM:
The conditional clause begins with IF/IF...NOT (or sometimes UNLESS). The verb
usually is in present.

The result clause often has a verb in the present (to refer to possibilities “in general
time") or in the future and modals such as CAN, MAY, MUST o SHOULD (to refer to
unsure facts in the future).

You can begin either by usin a conditional or a result clause.

POSSIBILITIES IN GENERAL TIME

(The verb in the result clause takes the present.)

EXAMPLES:

CONDICIONAL RESULT
Unless you give
plants enough water, they die."
If it isn't coldenough, it doesn't snow."

RESULT CONDItIONAL
"It's time to eat unless you are not hungry."
"Talk to your plants if you want them to grow."

UNCERTAIN EVENTS IN THE FUTURE

(The result takes a verb in the future or a modal.)
EXAMPLES:

CONDITIONAL RESULT
"If you say that again, I'm going to hit you!"
"If it rains, I'll take an umbrella."
"If she doesn't study, she may fail the exam."

RESULTADO CONDITIONAL
They will come to the
"party if they find a baby-sitter."
I'm going to buy a new
"dress if I get paid today."
"He won't wash the car unless you pat him."

PAST PERFECT: SIMPLE

USE:
It is used to emphasize an event that occurred before another one (connected through
conjunctions such as WHEN and BEFORE) or in an indirect way, when an "informing
verb" is in the past and the statement is in the past, or the "original" idea was in the
past or present perfect.
We also use past perfect to interrupt a report (in the past) and to refer to a previous
moment (before we start the report):

EXAMPLES:
"I went home. I was very tired and I wanted my supper. But when I arrived I couldn't
get into my house because I had left the key in my office!"

FORM:

AFIRMATIVO

[SUJETO + HAD... + Past Participle.[V3]..] HAD NOT/HADN'T

EXAMPLES:

"She had just arrived when he came in."

"We had already eaten by the time she arrived."
"The opera had just begun when we arrived."
"I had never been in love until I met you!"

PAST PERFECT: PROGRESSIVE

USE:
It is used to refer to actions or continuous states that still occurred until certain
moments in the past.
FORM:

[SUJETO + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERBO+ING...](HADN'T)

EXAMPLES:

"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled in."
"He hadn't been studying much until he failed his first exam."
Describing two events:

"They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus finally arrived."

USE OF FOR and SINCE

If we want to express how much time an action or a state lasted, we generally use FOR
at the beginning of the "time expression":

"...for ten minutes."

"...for twenty years."
"...for two centuries."
"...for a very long time." etc.

If we want to express when an action or state started, we use SINCE, followed by the
time or the other expression that indicates time:
"...since two o'clock."
"...since last Monday."
"...since 1975."
"...since the end of the War."
"...since I was a baby." etc.

EXAMPLE:

The two scientists had been working for fifty years (since 1945) when they finally
discovered the Youth Drug.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES: UNREAL POSSIBILITES

USO:
They are used to refer to an unreal hypothesis, impossible to occur in the present or
future.
The conditional clause begins with IF/IF...NOT(or sometimes UNLESS).

The verb can follow the past form o BE, the simple past/progressive (to refer to a
hypothetical situation) or the modal COULD (to refer to a hypothetical capacity).

NOTE:

If we use the modal "BE" as the main verb in the past progressive, we use WERE
instead of WAS.
The verb of he result clause always carry a modal, normally WOULD/'D (to express
certainty), MIGHT (to express a possibility) or COULD (to express capacity).
We can begin the clause with either a conditional or with a result clause.
CONDICIONAL
"If I had a new car,
"If she weren't so tired,
"If he asked him nicely,
"If we could meet tomorrow,
"If I had enough money,
RESULT
I'd be very happy."
she'd go to the party."
he might agree."
we could finish the project."
I wouldn't be working."

RESULT
"I might pass English
"They'd tell me
"He'd answer the phone
"We might go swimming
CONDICIONAL
if I studied more."
if they knew."
if he were at home."
if we weren't studying."

MORE CONDITIONALS: PAST CONDITIONALS

USE:
Past conditionals are used to describe conditions that will never be fulfilled because the
time in which they could have happened had already finished.

FORM:

The conditional clause begins with IF/IF...NOT (or, sometimes, UNLESS). The verb in
the conditional clause is in the past perfect or perfecto or in the perfect progressive.
[IF + SUBJECT + HAD (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERB + ING)...]
The verb in the result phrase (main) is in conditional past:

[SUBJECT + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + (NOT) HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERB

+ ING)...]
You can use either a conditional or a result clause at the beginning.

CONDICIONAL CLAUSES / CLAUSES OF RESULT

If I had seen him, (CONDITIONAL)

I would have told him the news. (RESULT)
If the girl had been listening, (CONDITIONAL)
she would have known the answer. (RESULT)

CLAUSES OF RESULT (MAIN CLAUSE) / CONDITIONAL CLAUSE

I would have been swimming (RESULT)
if it hadn't rained. (CONDITIONAL)
They couldn't have succeeded (RESULT)
if they hadn't been trying. (CONDITIONAL)

The questions are usually placed in the result clause:

EXAMPLES:

"What would you have eaten if she hadn't brought home dinner?"
"Where could he have gone if you had been out?"
"What might have happened if they had lost the war?
 MODALES and SEMI-MODALS:
CAN

USE:
CAN is used with verbs and adds a special meaning. Like other modals, CAN has more
than one meaning.

MEANING:
"Joe can speak French." (ABILITY)
"You can leave early." (PERMISION)
"It can be hot here." (POSSIBILITY)

FORM:
Like other modals, CAN is placed before the verb and has only one form.

AFFIRMATIVE

[CAN + VERB]
John can swim quickly.
You can go to the movies with your friends.
NEGATIVE

[CAN + NOT + VERB]

Diane can't swim.
Beth cannot meet us tonight.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

[CAN + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF CLAUSE]

Can you help me?
Can Ileave now?
Answers:
Yes, you can.
No, you cannot/can't.
WH – QUESTIONS

[WH WORD + CAN... VERB...]

EXAMPLES:

When can you help me?

Danny: "Can you open it?"

Keith: "No, I can't. I can't open it."
Danny: "Let's ask Butch. He can do it."
NIVEL 6
Past Form of Modals: Should/Could Have

FORMAS DE PASADO DE MODALES:

SHOULD HAVE and COULD HAVE
SHOULD HAVE

USO:
Utilizamos SHOULD HAVE para hablar sobre una expectativa, un supuesto o una
obligación no cumplida en el pasado. Esto puede referirse a algo que no se hizo,
aunque era necesario, o a algo que se hizo aunque fuera incorrecto o lamentado.
FORMA

AFIRMATIVO y NEGATIVO

[SUBJECT + SHOULD (+ NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EJEMPLOS:
"Our exam results should have arrived by now. Let's check the mailbox."
"I should have thanked Mary for her help, but I completely forgot."
"We shouldn't have invited James to the party; he behaved very badly."

QUESTIONS
FORM:
[Wh- word) + SHOULD(N'T) + SUBJECT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"Shouldn't the bride have arrived by now? It's very late."
"Should we have waited for the next train?"
"What should I have done when the fire started?"
"Why shouldn't I have read that letter?"
NOTE: Las preguntas anteriores implican que, en realidad, sucedió lo contrario: el
paquete no ha llegado todavía, no esperamos el siguiente tren, yo no hice nada (o hice
algo incorrecto) cuando comenzó el incendio, y leí la carta.

COULD HAVE
USE:
Utilizamos COULD HAVE para hablar sobre una acción o hecho que era posible pero
que no sucedió, o que no era posible (forma negativa) en el pasado. A menudo
empleamos COULD HAVE en la oración de resultado de los condicionales pasado
irreales.
FORM:
AFIRMATIVO y NEGATIVO

[SUJETO + COULD (+NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..]

EJEMPLOS:
"I could have done well on the test, but I was too lazy to study."
"That couldn't have been Sarah you saw at the party. She's out of town."
"If I'd known your address, I could have written to you."
PREGUNTAS

FORMA:
[(Palabra-Wh )+ COULD + SUJETO + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EJEMPLOS:
"Couldn't he have arrived earlier?"
"What could we have done to prevent the disaster?"
"How could she have known the way?"
FORMAS DE PASADO DE MODALES:
MIGHT/MAY HAVE y MUST HAVE
MIGHT/MAY HAVE

USO:
Utilizamos MIGHT/MAY HAVE para especular o expresar opiniones sobre hechos
posibles en el pasado. MAY da a entender una probabilidad mayor que MIGHT.
FORMA:
AFIRMATIVO y NEGATIVO

[SUJETO + MAY/MIGHT (+ NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..]

EJEMPLOS:
"She might have been the thief, but I don't think she was."
"I may have met him before, or I may have seen his photograph; I really can't
remember."
"They might not have gone without us."
MUST HAVE

USO:
Utilizamos MUST HAVE para expresar deducciones sobre acciones o hechos pasados
cuando el hablante emplea la lógica para decidir qué sucedió.
FORMA:
AFIRMATIVO y NEGATIVO

[SUJETO + MUST (NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EJEMPLOS:
"The roads are all wet this morning; it must have rained last night."
"The office is empty; everybody must have gone home."
"The papers are still here; he must not have finished the report."
Dado que MUST HAVE expresa una deducción lógica, casi nunca se utiliza en
preguntas.

6Past Form Conditionals 6.5 Vocabulary related to the unit

CONDITIONALS

USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time," possible events in the future,
unreal/impossible situations and results in the present or future.

FORM:
Statements and questions of this type often have two parts: a "condition" (the
hypothesis), usually a subordinate clause beginning with IF, and a "result," described
in the main clause of a sentence.

We can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.

[IF (Condition) Clause, + RESULT CLAUSE] or
[RESULT CLAUSE + IF (Condition) Clause]

EXAMPLES:
"What would you do if you won a million dollars?"
"If I won that much money, I'd stop working tomorrow."

REAL CONDITIONALS

USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time" and uncertain but possible events in
the future.

FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS). The verb is in
the Present.

The result clause usually contains Present Tense verbs (to talk about possibilities in
"general time") or Future Tense verbs and Modals such as CAN, MAY, MUST, or
SHOULD (to talk about uncertain events in the future).

You can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.

POSSIBILITIES IN GENERAL TIME

(Verb in result clause is in the Present.)

EXAMPLES:

CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

"If it's two in New York it's nine o'clock in Paris."
"If it isn't cold enough it doesn't snow."

RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

"It's time to eat unless you are not hungry."
"Talk to your plants if you want them to grow."

UNCERTAIN EVENTS IN THE FUTURE

(The result clause has Future verb or Modal.)

EXAMPLES:

CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

"If you say that again, I'm going to hit you!"
"If she doesn't study, she may fail the exam."

RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

"They will come to the party if they find a baby-sitter."
"I'm going to buy a dress if I get paid today."

UNREAL CONDITIONALS

USE:
To talk about unreal, impossible, or very improbable hypotheses in the present and
future.

The CONDITION CLAUSE begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).

The verb can take the Past of "BE", the Past Simple/Past Progressive (to talk about a
hypothetical fact), or the Modal COULD (to talk about a hypothetical ability).

NOTE: If we use the verb "BE" as the main verb, or in the past progressive form, we
use WERE instead of WAS. The verb in the result clause always has a Modal, usually
WOULD/'D (to express a certainty), MIGHT (to express a possibility), or COULD (to
express ability).

CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

"If I had a new car, I'd be very happy."
"If he weren't so tired, he'd go to the party."

RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

"I might pass English if I studied more."
"They'd tell me if they knew."

MORE CONDICIONALES

USO:
Hay tiempos condicionales que hacen referencia a condiciones que existían o podían
haber existido en el pasado. Estos son los pretéritos condicionales y los condicionales
de tiempo combinado. Los pretéritos condicionales se utilizan para describir situaciones
que nunca se cumplirán porque el tiempo en el cual hubieran ocurrido ha concluido.
Los condicionales de tiempo combinado se utilizan para hablar sobre el resultado
actual de condiciones del pasado.
FORM:
La oración condicional comienza con IF/IF...NOT (o, a veces, UNLESS). El verbo de la
oración condicional está en pretérito perfecto o en pretérito perfecto progresivo.
[IF + SUJETO + HAD (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERBO + ING)...]
El verbo de la oración de resultado (principal) está en pretérito condicional.
[SUJETO + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + (NOT) HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERBO
+ ING)...]
EXAMPLES:
"If I had known you were sick, I would have made you some soup."
"If Laura had been taller, she could have been a model."
"If I hadn't broken my leg last week, I would be dancing in the competition tonight."
"If she had dressed warmly lastnight, she wouldn't be sick today."
 MORE NON RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES

USE:
Proporcionan información "adicional" sobre el SUSTANTIVO que no se necesita para
definirlo. Se utilizan a menudo para combinar dos afirmaciones en una sola oración.
EXAMPLES:
(1) "My mother is a doctor. "
(2) "My mother works in Paris."
(1+2) "My mother, who is a doctor, works in Paris."
FORM:
LAS ORACIONES DE RELATIVO NO RESTRICTIVAS se forman del mismo modo que las
ORACIONES DE RELATIVO RESTRICTIVAS (Consulta el Indice Lingüístico 4), pero
siempre contienen un pronombre relativo, y siempre están separadas del resto de la
frase mediante comas.

Cuando el pronombre es el sujeto del verbo de la oración de relativo, utilizamos los

pronombres WHO para personas y WHICH para animales, cosas o para toda la idea.
FORM:

[SUSTANTIVO, + WHO/WHICH + VERBO...]

EXAMPLES:
"My father, who lives in England, is an artist."
"The Empire State Building, which used to be the tallest skyscraper in the world, is in
New York."
"I threw away all my History notes, which I regret now."
MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES

USE:
Algunas oraciones de relativo se utilizan para proporcionar información acerca de
alguno de los sustantivos de una oración (consulta el Indice Lingüístico 4 sobre las
ORACIONES DE RELATIVO).
Cuando la oración de relativo contiene información sobre posesión y lugar, se utilizan
los pronombres relativos WHOSE y WHERE.
Cuando el SUSTANTIVO es EVERYTHING THAT, EVERYBODY THAT o ANYTHING THAT,
podemos sustituirlos por WHATEVER o WHOEVER
EXAMPLES:
"Here comes Mr. Chang. He's the teacher whose car was stolen from the school
parking lot."
"Look, kids! There's the house where your father grew up."
"Whatever you decide, I will support you."
"Please tell whoever it is you are speaking to that you will call back later."
Las ORACIONES DE RELATIVO NO RESTRICTIVAS contienen información que no se
necesita para identificar el sustantivo. Aparecen separadas del resto de la oración por
comas o entre una coma y el período y el fin de la oración.
EXAMPLES:
"My brother, who is a writer, hates using computers."
Las ORACIONES DE RELATIVO NO RESTRICTIVAS con WHICH pueden contener
información adicional sobre un sustantivo de la oración, o hacer referencia a toda la
idea que se expresa en la oración.
EXAMPLES:
"The company, which was formed three years ago, develops computer programs."
"John believes that computers will replace books, which
I think is impossible."