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CHAPTER – 17
Boiler Protection and Interlocks
1. Safety Controls on a Boiler.
Safety controls generally are those that limit energy input and thus shut down the
equipment when unsafe conditions develop.
They are:
(1) Pressure-limit or Temperature-limit Switches,
(2) Low-water Fuel Cutoffs,
(3) Flame-failure Safety Supervisory Systems (FSSS),
(4) Automatic Ignition Controls,
(5) Oil and Gas Fuel Shutoff Valve Controls,
(6) Air and Fuel Pressure Interlock Controls,
(7) Feed Water Regulating Controls and
(8) Safety Valves (or Relief Valves) are the most important safety device. While not
considered a control in the usual sense, it is the last measure against a serious
explosion.
The Safety Controls guard against the following:
(a) Overpressure leading to explosions from the waterside or steam side,
(b) Overheating of metal parts, possibly also leading to explosion in a fired
boiler (mainly due to low water or poor circulation) and
(c) Fireside explosions (furnace explosions) due to uncontrolled combustible
mixtures on the firing side.
These types of accidents are considered major and may lead to loss of life and serious
property damage. Other potential sources of accidents are cracking, bulging from
local overheating because of scale deforming such as tubes bowing, thinning of vital
pressure parts, which can lead to cracking or localized rupture, and expansion and
contraction failures causing cracking or rupturing of metal parts.
Manufactures and state laws are trying to prevent, with safety control equipment, the
three major types of accidents of overpressures, dry firing, and furnace explosions.
While the other types of failures are controlled somewhat by automatic controls,
prevention is mostly by legal inspection requirements and by proper operation and
maintenance practices expected from the owner-user of a boiler. Include are good
feed-water treatment and testing of controls at periodic intervals, including safety
relief valves.
1.1 Distinctive differences between Operating Controls and Safety Controls:
See Figure 1. Operating controls regulate the boiler so it operates under certain set
conditions involving load, feedwater, and combustion. The aim is to obtain the most
efficient output from the boiler for each pound of fuel burned. Operating controls can
be viewed as governing controls that make adjustments of feedwater, fuel, air, flue
gas, and steam flow as demanded by the load. The controls are often interlocked with
such auxiliaries to the boiler as feedwater pump, draft fans (depending on the size of
the boiler), and the programming controls set up for the unit.

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Boiler

Operating Controls Interlocks Safety Controls

Pressure Limits
Heat input – Working medium – Heat output -
Combustion Feedwater control Load
Controls
Temperature
Limits
Flow Flow
Fuel – air flow

Hi – Low
Pressure Pressure Water
Fuel – air Pressure

Temperature Temperature Ignition

Proving
Fuel – air temperature
Purity

Flue gas flow Combustion

Proving

Flue gas pressure Interlocks

and temperature
Fuel
Air
Ignition
Water

Steam
Burning
Flue gas

Fig. 1
Safety controls provide the upper or lower limits set for the safe operation of the
boiler. If the variable conditions involving the boiler go beyond a certain safe limit, an
alarm warns that corrective actions must be taken or the boiler is shut down. The
larger and more complex the boiler, the more safety controls may be needed.
1.2 Importance of Instruments for Properly Operating a Boiler:
Use of instruments and knowledge of such factors as normal operating pressures,
temperatures, flows, draft, CO2 content, Btu/ kCal/ kJ heat input, and permissible
variations in the readings observed are the most important responsibilities of any
operator or owner of a boiler. Instruments indicate conditions in the boiler. Thus any
variations from design or stipulated conditions serve as warnings of impending danger
or inefficient operation.
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1.3 The Two General Types of Instrumentation Found on Boilers:
Boilers have two types of Instruments namely, (i) Recording and (ii) indicating.
Recording Instruments provide a permanent record or readings of process parameters.
Indicating Instruments though provide only for the visual observation of Process
Parameter readings, they act as the eyes of the Operator through which he able is keep
keen watch on all-important parameters of the boiler and is able to ensure safety and
efficiency. Boiler Recording Instruments generally cover Steam Pressure, Steam
Flow, Airflow, Flue-gas Temperature, Feed Water Temperatures, etc. Any installation
will be improved by the use of instruments when trained operating personnel are in
attendance and make intelligent use of the data provided. Instrumentation of larger
packaged boilers should include an Orsat apparatus for obtaining flue-gas analysis
and determining combustion efficiency. Modern large sized boilers are, however,
equipped with Electronic Gas Analysers.
Some basic instruments needed for large power boilers, as a minimum, per
recommendations of the ASME Boiler Code are the following:
(1) Steam Pressure gage,
(2) Feed Water Pressure Gage,
(3) Furnace Draft Gage,
(4) An outlet pressure gage on the F.D. Fan and an inlet pressure gage on the I.D.
Fan,
(5) Steam Flow Recorder for checking boiler output,
(6) CO2 recorded to check on combustion,
(7) Superheater Inlet and Outlet Temperature Recorder,
(8) Inlet and Outlet Temperature Recorders for Air Heaters,
(9) Thermometers indicating Inlet and Outlet Steam Temperatures for Boiler
Reheaters,
(10) Feed Water Temperature Recorders for checking degree of deaeration and
economizer operation,
(11) Pressure Gauges on Pulverizers to check differential pressure for fuel-air
mixtures to burners,
(12) Pressure Gauges for oil-fired boilers on Oil Lines to Burners and temperature
gages before and after any Oil Preheaters,
(13) Pressure Gauges for gas-fired boilers on the main gas line to burners and on
individual burners.
1.3.1 Pressure Gages and principle of their function:
1.3.1.1 Description of Pressure Gauge:
The two main types of pressure gages are the Bourdon tube and the Diaphragm type.
In single-tube Bourdon gauge the pressure is applied to inside of a bent tube of oval
cross section which is closed at one end and connected at the other to boiler pressure.
The closed end is attached, by links and pins, to a toothed quadrant, which is turn
meshes with a small pinion on the central spindle. As pressure builds up inside the
over tube, it attempts to assume a circular cross section, thus tending to straighten out
lengthwise. This action turns the spindle by the links and gearing, causing the needle
to move and register the pressure on a graduated dial.
1.3.1.2 Siphon required in steam pressure-gage lines:

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The siphon is simply a pigtail or drop leg in the tubing to the gage for condensing
steam, thus protecting the spring and other delicate parts from high temperatures.
Three forms of Siphons are used. If there is danger of freezing during long periods of
shutdown, the siphon should be removed or drained.
1.3.1.3 Methods of testing of Steam Gauges:
Pressure Gauges are tested in the following three ways:
1. By comparison on the boiler with a good factory-tested gage.
Here the test gage is attached to the boiler and the two gages are compared as
boiler pressure rises or falls.
2. With a screw plunger pump (fig. 2 a).
The test gage and gage to be tested are attached to a screw plunger tester. To
operate, unscrew the top cover, fill the cylinder with water or light oil, screw on
the top cover and force the plunger downward by turning the handle on the
threaded rod. This puts equal pressure on both gages.
3. With a deadweight plunger pump (fig. 2 b).
The plunger, working in a cylinder, floats on oil and is loaded by weights.

Fig. 2

1.3.1.4 The Code requirements for pressure gages on a steam boiler.

The boiler must have at least one pressure gage so located and of such size that it is
easily readable and which at all times indicates the boiler pressure. A valve or cock
must be placed in the gage connection adjacent to the gage so it can be removed for
repairs. The gage must be connected to the steam space or to the water column or its
steam connection. For a steam boiler the gage or its connection must have siphon for
maintaining a water seal to prevent steam from entering the gage tube. The connection
of a pressure gage must be a minimum of ¼ in. ID.
For temperatures over 4060F, no brass or copper tubing should be used. The pressure
gage dial should be graduated to twice the SV setting, but in no case less than 11/2
times this setting. A valve connection of at least ¼-in. pipe size must be installed on
the boiler for exclusive purpose of attaching a test gage, when the boiler is operating,
for checking the accuracy of the boiler pressure gage. This connection is known as the
inspector’s connection.

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The pressure gage must be illuminated, free from objectionable glare or reflection that
can in any way obstruct an operator’s view while nothing the setting on the gage. The
pointer on the gage must be in a near-vertical position when indicating the normal
operating pressure. This is also true of other pressure gages in the boiler room that are
used on auxiliaries. Pressure gages must not be tilted forward more than 30 0 from
vertical, and then only when it is necessary for proper viewing of the dial graduations.
1.3.2 The common or primary measurements used in controlling boilers:
Although manufacturers differ in approach, the following factors must be considered
in any control used on a boiler: (1) steam pressure and flow, (2) furnace pressure and
draft, (30 air pressure and flow, (4) feedwater pressure and flow (including low
water), (5) flue-gas flow and composition, and (6) proper ignition and burner0flame
control.
1.3.3 Common components in an automatic control loop used on boilers:
A control loop, whether pneumatic or electric or electronic, is usually made up of the
following basic components:
1. Primary Measurement Elements as enumerated in an earlier question.
2. An Error Detector or Comparator that compares the measurement with
prefixed set points and makes adjustment signals to get the measured value to the
preset points (or efficiency point in comparator application). This is actually the
controller.
3. An Actuator that responds to the controller signals showing deviation from
set points.
4. The Final Control Element such as a valve, damper, or variable-speed
motor that makes adjustments as signaled from the controlled and actuator so as to
bring the variable within preset limits.

2. Control Theory
2.1 Modes of control:
Mode of control means the manner in which the automatic controller acts and reacts
to store a variable quantity on a boiler, such as pressure, flow, or temperature, to a
designed control or desired value.
2.2 Types of Controller Systems used to control a boiler:
There are three types of Controller Systems used in boilers. These are the following:
(1) Pneumatic,
(2) Electric, and
(3) Electronic.
2.3 Some common modes of control:
Assume that a human operator has to regulate the turbine stop value as load demand
increase. He can instantly open the valve wide, open it slowly at constant speed as
demand increase, open it more when demand rises, rapidly, or open it a constant
amount for each unit of demand change. Similarly, a pneumatic or electric controller
can follow any of the following five principal modes, either singly or in combination:
1. Two-position, or On-Off.
2. Fixed-position floating. This drives the final control element at a fixed
speed between its limit-switch contacts.

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3. Proportional position. Here the controller changes the final control
element’s position in proportion to the measured variable’s deviation, shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 3. But since proportional control must sense a change in
deviation (in this case, pressure drop) so as to produce a new valve position, it
provides exact correction for only one load condition; at all other loads some
deviation must remain. This error is called ‘offset’ or ‘droop’. Thus in Fig. 3, a 10
percent pressure error remains even after the valve has some to rest in its new
position. The only correction is to manually reset the controller’s set point, thus
compensating for its inherent offset characteristic.

Fig. 3

4. Variable-speed floating mode. Here the position of the final control

element is changed at a rate, which is proportional to the measured variable’s
deviation. The greater the deviation, the faster the valve moves. But as long as
deviation continues, so does the correction to valve position. Thus the controller
continues to operate until an exact correction has been made for any load change.
And since valve position varies as an integral of deviation and time, variable-
speed floating is often referred to as integral mode. It is usually applied in
combination with proportional control to produce the proportional-plus-integral
mode shown in Fig. 4.

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Fig. 4
5. Derivation, or rate control (Fig. 5). This positions the valve in proportion
to the rate of change of deviation. It is sensitive to direction. Thus if pressure is
rising, the controller tends to close the valve and has a great stabilizing effect. But
since it cannot sense a datum, it must be combined with some other control mode,
as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 5

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Fig. 6

2.4 Application of On-Off Combustion Controls and principle of their operation:

On-off controls are limited to fire tube and small water tube boilers. As the name
implies, a drop is pressure actuates a ‘pressurestat’ or mercury switch to start the
stoker or burner and open the air damper, or to reverse the process when pressure rises
again. Since control is limited to varying the lengths of on-and off-periods,
combustions efficiency is low. Shown in the Figure 7 is a typical on-off combustion-
control and pressure control switches hooked up in electric series. Thus if either
control opens, the current to the burner motor is interrupted. The primary control
consists of an electromagnetic relay that is energized by the thermostat.
On demand for heat in a steam system, the thermostat will actuate (by means of low
voltage) the clapper in the relay. As the clapper is pulled in, it transfers current from
the No. 1 to the No. 3 terminal on the primary control (see the sketch in Fig. 7). The
burner motor and ignition will then come on, operating the unit. Either one of two
controls determines the sequence of normal operation of the system. These are the
thermostat is satisfied by a rise in room temperature, it will break its contact and de-
energize the relay, thus interrupting the flow of current from the No. 1 terminal to the
No. 3, and thereby stopping the burner. But if a longer period of time is required to
bring up enough heat to satisfy the thermostat, the pressure (limit) control setting may
be reached. This control will then shut off the current to the No. 1 terminal on the
primary control. This will de-energize the primary of the step-down transformer. Then
the thermostat will no longer be able to hold the clapper in, even though it is making
contact. Thus the primary control is deprived of all current, and the burner will stop.

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Fig. 7
When the steam pressure drops, the circuit will be restored, and if the thermostat is
still calling for heat (making contact), the unit will resume operation. In case of
abnormal operation (no fire or insufficient fire appearing), the safety function of the
primary control takes over and the unit shuts down, going into safety.
2.5 Combustion Control generally used on packaged boilers:
A positioning control system is generally used, because it is more flexible. Steam
pressure is the measured variable, and a master pressure controller responds to
changes in header pressure and (by means of power units or actuators) positions the
forced-draft damper to control airflow and the fuel valve to regulate fuel supply. An
independent controller, positioning the uptake damper, maintains furnace draft within
the desired limits.
Although positioning-type control systems are an improvement over the on-off type,
airflow and fuel supply are at their theoretically correct ration at only one setting. This
is usually the point at which they were calibrated on installation. Positioning control
also assumes that a given output signal from the master controller always produces
the same change in the flow of combustion air, in stoker speed, or fuel valve setting.
But stoker speed might be affected by line voltage variations, and airflow by boiler
slagging or barometric conditions. Thus manual adjustment is still necessary, not only
on load changes but to counteract these longer-term effects.
2.6 A combustion control that is considered superior to a Positioning Control:
A metering control is considered superior to Positioning Control. It measures the fuel
flow and airflow and then modifies the valve and damper positions to maintain these
measured flows rather than implied ones. Thus it holds an optimum air/fuel ratio over
a wide load range without manual intervention. Especially valuable is its inherent
compensation for such variables as boiler cleanliness, voltage swings in electric
actuators, lost motion in mechanical or pneumatic devices, and changes in fuel
quality.
For simplicity, let us consider one system having a pressure-responsive primary
element controlling fuel feed and airflow, plus an independent furnace-pressure
controller. The output signal from this primary element, or master pressure controller,
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is frequently modified by elements sensitive to steam flow, airflow, fuel-feed rate,
flue-gas analysis, or other variables. And these elements may be combined in feed-
forward control in various ways.
2.7 Reasons for Combustion Controls being geared to Pressure Variation in a boiler:
To begin, pressure variation is caused by:
1. Load on the boiler. An increase in load without additional fuel input causes a
pressure drop. A decrease in load without an accompanying decrease in fuel input
causes a pressure rise.
2. Fuel input to the boiler. Too high an input will cause a pressure rise, while too
low an input will cause a pressure drop.
Thus pressure regulation and fuel regulation, or combustion controls, are directly
related. And for this reason combustion controls are geared for modulation by
pressure variations within close limits. While airflow and exhaust flow usually
follow fuel flow, the latter is determined by the pressure-set limits within which a
boiler is to operate.
2.8 Method of Measurement and Control of Furnace Draft:
Draft-measuring elements may be combined with a controller (fig. 8b). The spiral
Bourdon tube (Fig. 8a) handles draft measurements with greater sensitivity than the
fairly rigid element used for high-pressure applications. The diaphragm mechanism
(Fig. 8b) converts, through a pilot valve, furnace-draft variations into proportional
changes in the output signal.

Fig. 8

2.9 Method of Measurement and Control of Steam Flow:

The principle underlying flow measurement is shown in Fig. 9a. A pressure drop
across an orifice, in this case in the steam line, can be measured by tapping the pipe at
each side of the restriction. The resulting pressure differential is proportional to the
square of the fluid velocity. But correct location of the tapping points is important. By
using nozzle restriction (Fig. 9b), the best result (largest pressure differential for a
given flow) is obtained when connections are located about one pipe diameter
upstream and one-half diameter downstream from the nozzle’s inlet face.

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Fig. 9 a
Converting differential pressure to a usable output signal may be done in various
ways. Two widely used secondary elements are a mercury-float manometer (Fig. 9c)
or a Ledoux bell mechanism (Fig. 9d). In Fig. 9c the two pressure-tapings from the
primary element are connected to two mercury chambers, joined by a U tube. Pressure
variations raise and lower the float. A pressure-tight shaft conveys this movement to
mechanical linkage within the controller. Check valves in the two legs of the U tube
prevent damage to the mechanism resulting from sudden changes or reversals in
pressure differential.

Fig. 9 b & c

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Fig. 9 d
2.10 A Pneumatic Differential Pressure Transmitter:
Fig. 10 illustrates a pneumatic system used for differential pressure transmission,
which is converted to steam flow in an indicating, recording, or control device.
Diaphragm motion moves the force beam and vane. Movement of the force beam
changes the vane-nozzle relationship, thus changing nozzle relationship, thus
changing nozzle backpressure (NBP) in chamber B of the reset booster relay. This
opens either the inlet valve (increase in NBP) or the exhaust valve (decrease in NBP)
producing a change in booster output repositions the restoring beam. The restoring
beam, in contact with the force beam through range adjustment, moves the measuring
diaphragm back to the normal centered position and restores vane-nozzle at balance
distance. The booster output pressure, which is proportional to the measured level, is
also transmitted to indicating, recording, and /or controlling equipment.

Fig. 10
2.11 Electric Pressure Transmitter:

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Fig. 11
A true force-balance mechanism characterizes the dc transmitted shown in Fig. 11.
Deflection of the Bourdon tube exerts a force on the beam balance system; as the
beam starts to move, the air gap, and thus the inductance of the position detector,
changes proportionally and in turn varies the oscillator-amplifier output signal. The
null-balance force motor, a wire coil maintained in an air gap between permanent-
magnet poles, develops a feedback force balanced against the input force from the
Bourdon tube, thus restoring null balance.
No matter how the output signal is generated, nor what measured variable it
represents, whether it be alternating or direct current, it forms the input to an electric
or electronic controller whose circuits perform the same functions as the bellows,
baffles, and nozzles of the pneumatic controller. The unit illustrated handles pressures
up to 10,000 psig. As the Bourdon-tube deflection reacts on the balance beam, its
movement is sensed by the position detector and converted into a proportional change
in the 10- 15 mA output current. The force motor, in series across this output, acts as
feedback in opposing beam movement.
2.12 Method of electrically transmitting a pressure measurement to indicating, recording,
and control equipment at a remote point and then show measured pressure at that
point:
In one device a Bourdon tube positions a movable core in a transformer. The core is
adjusted to travel the same distance for all pressure ranges, thus making it possible to
transmit to standard electronic receivers. The core position (fig. 12) determines the
magnetic flux linkage between the primary and the secondary windings.
The voltage induced in each secondary winding is proportional to the displacement of
the core form its center position. Thus, the core position determines the signal voltage
output. At 100 percent travel, voltage E2 is larger than E1 since the core is near the top
of the transformer. Downward motion of the core causes E 2 to decrease linearly and
E1 to increase linearly until at 0 percent travel, the voltage magnitudes have reversed.
At 50 percent travel, voltage E2 and E1 are equal since the core is centered between
the two secondary windings. Within the operating range, a definite linear relationship
exists between each of the two secondary voltages and the core position.

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Fig. 12
Utilizing a movable core transformer with a duplicate set of secondary windings,
changing the external connections, or doing both, permits a wide range of applications
using the same basic transmitter. The output voltage on the secondary windings can
be calibrated for proportional pressure reading on the receiving end.
2.13 Trends in feed water control in modern boilers:

Most boilers today use two-element (drum level and steam flow) or three-element
controls in which steam flow and water flow form the primary measured variables,
with water level acting as a third input. But the single-element (drum level) regulator
(fig. 13) is still popular. This is a thermo-hydraulic device based on the principle that
the volume of a given weight of low-pressure steam is far greater than that of the
water from which it is generated.
The regulator forms a closed hydraulic system, including the annular space between
inner and outer tubes of the steam generator, the connecting tubing, and the metal
bellows of the regulating valve. Heat from steam in the upper portion of the inner tube
causes the surrounding water (in the space between the two tubes) to flash into steam.
The remaining water is thus forced out of this space until the water levels in the two
tubes are equal. The displaced water passes into the actuator bellows, thus partially
opening the regulating valve.

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Fig. 13
As steam demand increases, the water level in the drum and generator will fall; more
water in the annular space between the tubes flashes into steam, and the regulating
valve opens still farther. Thus if the drum level rises, the water in the generator rises
also; cooled by the radiating fins, this water condenses part of the steam in the annular
space and in turn permits the regulating valve to partially close. Since this is a
proportional device, it is suitable only for small boilers with relatively stable steaming
rates.

Fig. 14

In larger units, drum level measurement forms a trimming signal, with steam and
water flow as the primary variables. Displacer-type units are also replacing the self-
acting, thermo-hydraulic device. In these, a cylindrical float or displacer is lightened
by the weight of the liquid it displaces. This change in weight is detected by either a
torque-tube or a force-balance system (Fig. 14) and converted into a pneumatic or
electric output signal to a controller.
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2.14 How does the three-element feedwater control system work?
In this system (fig. 15) steam flow, feedwater flow, and water level are measured and
recorded by mechanically operated meters. Measurements of steam flow and water
flow are balanced against each other with differential linkage. A pilot control is
connected to the linkage so that any difference between the amounts of steam flow
and of water flow causes a change in the pneumatic output signal. This signal is
transmitted to an air relay where it is combined with the pneumatic signal from the
water level recorder.

Fig. 15
A change in boiler load unbalances the differential linkage, thus producing a change
in the output of the pilot control. That in turn changes the output of the air relay. This
new signal repositions the feed-water control valve, admitting required water into the
boiler equal to the steam flow out of the boiler. The resulting change in feedwater
flow rebalances the differential linkage and brings the pilot-control signal back to its
neutral point. As a final check, and to ensure having the proper drum level, the signal
from the pilot control in the water level recorder readjusts the feedwater control valve,
if required. The selector valve in the system provides automatic or remote manual
control. Under normal operating conditions the control pressure gage on the selector
valves is an indication of valve position.
2.15 Usual method of control of water level in boilers of small commercial, and industrial
types:
On a closed-loop heating boiler, it is common to find no automatic water feeding to
the boiler. Instead, the attendant checks the gage glass periodically and maintains the
water level manually. The owner relies on the automatic low-water cutoff to save the
boiler in case of a low-water condition.
Water level is usually controlled by:
1. Manual feed (Fig. 16a)

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2. Automatic feeder, either a mechanical or an electrical solenoid-operated valve,
actuated by a float or electrode in the water space of the boiler (Fig. 16b)
3. Combination low-water fuel cutoff and feeder, based on the water level in the
boiler (Fig. 16c).
4. Combination low-water cutoff and pump control (Fig. 16d).

Fig. 16 a & b
Fig. 16 (a) Manual makeup feed system. (b) Solenoid-operated makeup water
feeder; solenoid, actuated from switch, contacts a float-operated low-water cutoff.
(c) Combination water feeder and low-water cutoff. (d) Combination low-water
cutoff and pump-control feed. (e) Combination law-water cutoff and feeder and
pump controller with makeup feeder on condensate tank.

Fig. 16 c & d

This system is installed at the normal boiler waterline. The water level is maintained
by connecting the pump control directly to the condensate pump. For the
additional makeup water required, a receiver tank makeup feeder is installed on
the condensate receiver tank. In addition to functioning as a pump controller acts
as a low-water cutoff. This stops the burner if a low-water condition occurs. This
type of water feed is used also on packaged boilers of up to about 10,000 lb per hr
and 200 psi pressure.
NOTE: Feed is actuated electrically by a float-switch combination turning on and
off the pump. If the valve from the receiver tank to the boiler is closed, this
circuits will not sense the need for more water, because the pump could still
operate but obviously deliver no water. Then the boiler would have to be shut
down by the low-water cutoff to protect it from damage.
5. Combination low-water cutoff and feeder actuated by the direct contact wit the
boiler water level and pump controller (Fig. 16e). This is an improvement upon
the system described in No. 4 above.

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Fig. 16e
A state code for low-pressure steam boilers requires adding a mechanical water
feeder to an electrical pump system in these words:
“Where water of condensation of all of the steam generated by the boiler cannot
be returned by gravity to the boiler, and pumps, traps, or other devices o\are used
for this purpose, or steam is used for processes where there would be no water of
condensation to return to the boiler, an automatic water feeding device should be
installed.”
2.16 Description of three types of low-water cutoffs used in packaged boilers for the
prevention of low water:
The low-water cutoff (Fig.17), Separate from the programming sequence control,
immediately shuts down the boiler if the water drops to a dangerously low level. The
three types are as follows:

Fig. 17
1. The float-magnet type (Fig. 17a) has a ferrous plunger on one end of a float rod.
The plunger slides within a nonferrous sleeve. A permanent magnet, with a
mercury switch affixed, is supported by a pivot adjacent to the nonferrous sleeve.
Under normal water conditions, the ferrous plunger is above and out of reach of
the magnetic field. In this position the mercury switch is in a horizontal plane,
keeping the burner circuit closed. But if the boiler-water level drops, the float also
drops, bringing the ferrous plunger within the magnetic field. Then the magnet
swings through a small arc toward the plunger; the mercury switch tilts, opening
the burner circuit.
2. The float-linked type (Fig. 17b) has a float connected through linkage to a plate
supporting a mercury switch. Because the plate is horizontal in the normal water-
level position, the switch hold the burner circuit closed. If the water level drops,
the float drops, tilting the plate so the switch opens circuit.

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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
3. The submerged-electrode type (Fig. 17c) uses boiler water to complete the burner
circuit. If the water level drops below the electrode tip, current flow is interrupted,
shutting down the burner. On ft boilers, the low-water cutoff generally includes an
intermediate switch that controls the feed pump.
2.17 The correct way to hook up two-water cutoffs, one of the electrode type, the other of
the float type:
For maximum protection, the second additional low-water cutoff should be mounted
on the opposite drumhead with individual connections and blowdown piping and
valves. And both units should be wired and properly interlocked.
REMEMBER: Dual low-water cutoffs provide dual protection only when individual
drum connections are provided.

2.18 Reasons why are manual reset controls useful on pressure or temperature high-limit
controls:
The manual reset mechanism on the high-limit control calls attention if the operating
control (not high-limit) has malfunctioned, thus prohibiting further boiler operation
until corrected. At times, this malfunction may be due to fused contacts, a leaking gas
valve, a shorted wire, etc. Thus the boiler should not be operated until this is
corrected.
2.19 Method of control of the fuel/air ratio in small industrial and commercial automatic
packaged-type boilers:
Valve control of the fuel/air ratio is achieved by use of constant pressure variable
areas. A simple mechanism can be used to cause the opening area or two valves to
vary in proportion to one another. If the valve characteristics are not the same, the fuel
and airflows will match at only two points throughout the range. If the movement is
not directly proportional, the mixture will be lean at some firing rates and rich at
others.

Fig. 18
Figure 18a shows two rotary-type valves on a common shaft. Figure 18b shows two
rotary-type valves driven by a parallel-arm linkage. One or preferably both of the
valves should embody manual adjustment of the valve opening (in addition to the
handle adjustment) so as to permit adjustment of the fuel/air ratio. The valve control
system requires an air blower with a constant-pressure characteristic and oil or gas
pressure regulators ahead of the control valve. Thus the upstream pressures for both

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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
air and fuel must be constant at the valve because variations in the oil viscosity would
affect the flow rate.
2.20 Description of a typical control system for pulverized-coal-fired boilers:
The basic principle is to control the fuel and combustion air simultaneously with
changes in steam pressure and readjusting airflow as needed to maintain the optimum
air/fuel ratio. Instead of directly connected controllers, actuated by the process
variable being measured, transmitters sense the variables directly and then transmit
appropriate pneumatic or electric signals to the controllers. It is equipped with
pressurized, ball-type pulverizers. The FD fan supplies preheated combustion air. In
passing through the pulverizer, this air picks up the coal and carries it to the burners.
Thus regulating the flow of primary air controls fuel supply.
Combustion air from the FD and primary-air fans is controlled from steam header
pressure, positioning a damper at the inlet to each pulverizer. Sensing this airflow is a
feeder control sub-loop (self-contained control system), which regulates the supply of
raw coal leaving the feeder, relative to airflow, in order to ensure a constant coal level
in the pulverizer. The air/fuel ratio is maintained by means of an air/steam-flow ratio
controller, sensing steam header flow and, in, turn, positioning the FD fan outlet
damper. Thus varying airflow through the pulverizers meets load changes.
A second sub-loop (coal-air temperature control) senses the pulverizer outlet
temperature and regulates the proportion of tempering air combined with that from the
air heater before it enters the primary air fan. As with the other control circuits, a hand
auto-selector enables the operator to assume manual control when required. When two
or more pulverizers are operated in parallel, either manual or automatic compensation
is made for the number in service, so that each shares the total load equally.
2.21 Method of Control of Superheat and Reheat Steam Temperatures:
Today steam temperature of 10000F is common and units are being installed for 1050
and 10000F. Because these high temperatures are limited only by metallurgy, steam
temperatures must be held to close limits for safety as well as for economy. Six basic
methods are used for controlling the temperatures of steam leaving the boiler:
1. Bypass damper control with a single bypass damper or series-and-shunt
damper arrangement for bypassing flue gas around the superheater as required.
2. Spray-type desuperheater control where water is sprayed directly into the
steam with a spray-water control valve for temperature regulation.
3. Attemperator control where a controlled portion of the steam passes through a
submerged tubular desuperheater and a control valve in the steam line to the
desuperheater or attemperator is used.
4. Condenser control with desuperheating condenser-tube bundles located in the
superheater inlet header and water-control valve or valves to regulate a portion of
the feedwater flow through the condenser as required.
5. Tilting-burner control where the tilt angle of the burners is adjusted to change
the furnace heat absorption and resultant steam temperature.
6. Flue-gas-recirculation control where a portion of the flue gas is recirculated
into the furnace by means of an auxiliary fan with a damper control to change the
mass flow through the superheater and the heat absorption in the furnace, as
required for maintaining steam temperature.
2.22 Basic controls used on once-through boilers:

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DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
Unlike the natural-circulation boiler, where varying the ratio of heat absorption
between steam-generating surface and superheating surface best attains steam-
temperature control, the once-through unit can maintain the desired steam temperature
over a much wider load range. If the ratio of heat input of fluid flow is correct, heat
absorption is self-adjusting. Spray attemperation then provides rapid temporary
control of temperature on load swings.
The firing rate of a simplified integrated control system for normal operation is
closely tied to feedwater flow control. And these are also being controlled to maintain
both desired load and desired steam temperature. The turbine governor controls are
also tied into the system to give quick response and stability. A small amount of spray
desuperheating is used in the up and down deviation of load for better steam-
temperature control during transient conditions.
2.23 Steps that are being taken to help a power plant operator understand better the
functions of the computer in aiding him to operate a plant:
The complexity of a modern power plant has led control engineers to search for better
communication between the computer and the human operator. One result is the use
of lighted, color-coded push buttons grouped adjacent to their respective edgewise
indicators. Actuation of “increase” and “decrease” buttons replaces the operation of
conventional control handles. Flashing alarm lamps, similarly located in the push
buttons, draw instant attention to the pieces of equipment concerned, saving the time
otherwise wasted in relating an alarm signal to its source.
Another solution to the same problem is to link the process computer with an audible
alarm Annunciator. One such power plant installation has an audible Annunciator
coupled with a continuous loop 16-track tape-recording unit. When the computer
recognizes an out-of-limit input signal, it simultaneously addresses both an alarm
printer and the tape unit. While the printer types a statement of the alarm occurrence,
the tape unit selects, from several hundred prerecorded vocal messages, the one
message stating what alarm signal has been received and broadcasts it over the
Annunciator.
Should out-of-limit inputs occur faster than they can be announced; the computer is
programmed to store the signals and announce them either in the order in which they
occur or in order of their priority. Both alarm warnings and remedial instructions can
be prerecorded on the tape. A microphone data-input facility lets the programmer or
operator change this taped information at will.

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