The Human Body Systems

(Zoology Lecture)

Circulatory System – The Circle of Blood Page 2

 The circulatory or
cardiovascular system is the
blood circulation with heart,
arteries and veins. It is made
up of the vessels and the
muscles that help and control
the flow of the blood around
the body. This process is
called circulation. The main
parts of the system are the
heart, arteries, capillaries and
veins.

As blood begins to circulate, it

leaves the heart from the left ventricle
and goes into the aorta. The aorta is the
largest artery in the body. The blood
leaving the aorta is full of oxygen. This
is important for the cells in the brain and
the body to do their work. The oxygen
rich blood travels throughout the body in
its system of arteries into the smallest
arterioles.
On its way back to the heart, the
blood travels through a system of veins.
As it reaches the lungs, the carbon
dioxide (a waste product) is removed
from the blood and replace with fresh
oxygen that we have inhaled through the
lungs.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SYSTEM

 The circulatory system plays an
important role in many of the body's
processes including respiration,
nutrition, and the removal of wastes and
poisons. In respiration it delivers oxygen
to the body's cells and removes carbon
dioxide from them. In nutrition, it carries
digested food substances to the cells.
Nutrients from food enter the
bloodstream by passing through the
walls of the small intestine into the
capillaries. The blood then carries most
of the nutrients to the liver, where some
of these are extracted and stored for
Circulatory System – The Circle of Blood
TYPES OF THE CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
Open Circulatory System. The Open
Circulatory System is a system in which
fluid (called hemolymph) in a cavity
called the hemocoel bathes the organs
directly with oxygen and nutrients and
there is no distinction between blood and
interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is
called hemolymph or haemolymph.
Muscular movements by the animal
during locomotion can facilitate
hemolymph movement, but diverting
flow from one area to another is limited.
When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn
back toward the heart through open-
ended pores (ostia).
Close Circulatory System. The
cardiovascular systems of humans are
closed, meaning that the blood never
leaves the network of blood vessels. In
contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse
across the blood vessel layers and enters
interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen
and nutrients to the target cells, and
carbon dioxide and wastes in the
opposite direction. The other component
of the circulatory system, the lymphatic
system, is not closed. The heart is
located more towards the left side of the
release back into the blood as and when
the body needs them.
Other nutrients are converted by
the liver into substances which are
required in the production of energy,
enzymes, and new building materials for
the body. Hormones, which affect or
control the activities of various organs
and tissues, are produced by the
endocrine glands – including the thyroid,
pituitary, adrenal, and sex glands – and
they too are transported by the blood
through the body.
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body because it is accompanying the
lungs.
MAIN COMPONENTS
Blood Vessels. There are three major
types of blood vessels: arteries that carry
blood from the heart; veins that return
blood to the heart; and capillaries –
extremely tiny vessels connecting the
arteries and the veins. When blood is
pumped out of the heart into the arteries
it is forced out at high pressure by
contractions of the muscular ventricles.
Arteries therefore require strong walls to
withstand the pressure of the blood
flowing through them. They have elastic
tissue in their walls that can stretch and
recoil with the force of the blood. Artery
walls also contain muscle and this
determines the amount of blood that can
flow through them, and the blood
pressure.
Heart. The heart is actually two separate
pumps. The left side pumps blood to the
body (systemic circulation) and the right
side pumps blood to the lungs
(pulmonary circulation). Each side has
an atrium and a ventricle. They do not
work on their own, but together as a
team. The body's blood is circulated
through the heart more than 1,000 times
per day. Between five and six thousand
quarts of blood are pumped each day.
Your heart is about the same size as your
fist.
The job of the heart is to pump
blood around your body. Its muscles
contract and squeeze out blood. The left-
hand side pumps blood from the lungs to
the rest of your body. The right-hand
side pumps stale blood from your body
back to your lungs for a fresh supply of
oxygen.
Blood. Blood is thicker than water and
has a little bit salty taste. In an adults
body there is 10.6 pints of blood
Circulatory System – The Circle of Blood
circulating around. In their blood there is
billions of living blood cells floating in a
liquid called plasma. If you took a small
sample of this blood and poured it into a
test tube and then put it in a machine
called a centrifuge, you would be able to
see the layers of this blood. This
machine spins the blood around so fast
that it separates the red blood cells, from
the white blood cells, from the platelets.
The red blood cells sink to the bottom
because they are the heavier, more solid
parts, but the plasma remains at the top
because it is lighter. The plasma is 95%
water and the other 5% is made up of
dissolved substances including salts.
Human blood has two parts,
liquid (plasma) and cells. Plasma
contains dissolved gasses, nutrients,
wastes, salts, and proteins. Cells are red
blood cells which are biconcave disks
filled with hemoglobin and continuously
produced in the red marrow of the skull,
ribs, vertebrae, and ends of the long
bones; and white blood cells or
leukocytes are cells of the immune
system defending the body against both
infectious disease and foreign materials.
WASTE DISPOSAL
In addition to feeding and
nourishing the body, the circulatory
system also helps to dispose of waste
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products and poisons which would prove
harmful if allowed to accumulate.
Carbon dioxide, produced by the body's
cells as they respire, diffuses through the
walls of the capillaries into the blood.
The blood containing carbon dioxide is
returned via the heart to the lungs and
passed out of the body on expiration. In
processing food, the liver removes
ammonia and other wastes, together with
various poisons that enter the body
through the digestive system. These are
converted into water-soluble substances,
which are carried by the blood to the
kidneys. The kidneys then filter out
these wastes and expel them from the
body in urine.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
As well as the heat produced
generally by cells during respiration,
some parts of the body, such as the liver
and muscles, produce heat in the course
of their activities. This heat is
transported by the blood to warm other
parts of the body. As the temperature of
the body rises, the flow of blood into
vessels in the skin increases as a result of
small arteries expanding, and excess heat
is conveyed to the surface where it is
lost. When the temperature of the body
drops the flow of blood to the skin is
restricted. Thus, the circulatory system
acts as a natural thermostat allowing the
body to maintain an optimum and stable
temperature.
Digestive System Page 5

The human digestive system is

a complex series of organs and glands
that processes food. In order to use the
food we eat, our body has to break the
food down into smaller molecules that
it can process; it also has to excrete
waste.
Most of the digestive organs
(like the stomach and intestines) are
tube-like and contain the food as it
makes its way through the body. The
digestive system is essentially a long,
twisting tube that runs from the mouth
to the anus, plus a few other organs
(like the liver and pancreas) that
produce or store digestive chemicals.
system defending the body against both
infectious disease and foreign
materials.

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

The start of the process: the mouth.
The digestive process begins in the
mouth. Food is partly broken down by
the process of chewing and by the
chemical action of salivary enzymes
(these enzymes are produced by the
salivary glands and break down starches
into smaller molecules).
On the way to the stomach: the
esophagus. After being chewed and
swallowed, the food enters the
esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube
that runs from the mouth to the stomach.
It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle
movements (called peristalsis) to force
food from the throat into the stomach.
This muscle movement gives us the
ability to eat or drink even when we're
upside-down.
In the stomach. The stomach is a large,
sack-like organ that churns the food and
bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric
acid). Food in the stomach that is partly
digested and mixed with stomach acids
is called chyme.
In the small intestine. After being in the
stomach, food enters the duodenum, the
first part of the small intestine. It then
enters the jejunum and then the ileum
(the final part of the small intestine). In
the small intestine, bile (produced in the
liver and stored in the gall bladder),
pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive
enzymes produced by the inner wall of
Digestive System
removed from the food. Many microbes
(bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus
acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and
Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in
the digestion process. The first part of
the large intestine is called the cecum
(the appendix is connected to the
cecum). Food then travels upward in the
ascending colon. The food travels across
the abdomen in the transverse colon,
goes back down the other side of the
body in the descending colon, and then
through the sigmoid colon.
The end of the process. Solid waste is
then stored in the rectum until it is
excreted via the anus.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM GLOSSARY
Anus. The opening at the end of the
digestive system from which feces
(waste) exits the body.
Appendix. A small sac located on the
cecum.
Ascending colon. The part of the large
intestine that run upwards; it is located
after the cecum.
Bile. A digestive chemical that is
produced in the liver, stored in the gall
bladder, and secreted into the small
intestine.
Cecum. The first part of the large
intestine; the appendix is connected to
the cecum.
Chyme. Food in the stomach that is
partly digested and mixed with stomach
the small intestine help in the breakdown
of food.
In the large intestine. After passing
through the small intestine, food passes
into the large intestine. In the large
intestine, some of the water and
electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are
Page 6
acids. Chyme goes on to the small
intestine for further digestion.
Descending colon. The part of the large
intestine that run downwards after the
transverse colon and before the sigmoid
colon.
Duodenum. The first part of the small
intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from
the stomach to the jejunum.
Epiglottis. The flap at the back of the
tongue that keeps chewed food from
going down the windpipe to the lungs.
When you swallow, the epiglottis
automatically closes. When you breathe,
the epiglottis opens so that air can go in
and out of the windpipe.
Esophagus. The long tube between the
mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic
muscle movements (called peristalsis) to
force food from the throat into the
stomach.
Gall bladder. A small, sac-like organ
located by the duodenum. It stores and
releases bile (a digestive chemical which
is produced in the liver) into the small
intestine.
Ileum. The last part of the small
intestine before the large intestine
begins.
Jejunum. The long, coiled mid-section
of the small intestine; it is between the
duodenum and the ileum.
Liver. A large organ located above and
in front of the stomach. It filters toxins
from the blood, and makes bile (which
breaks down fats) and some blood
proteins.
Mouth. The first part of the digestive
system, where food enters the body.
Chewing and salivary enzymes in the
mouth are the beginning of the digestive
process (breaking down the food).
Pancreas. An enzyme-producing gland
located below the stomach and above the
Digestive System –
Rectum. The lower part of the large
intestine, where feces are stored before
they are excreted.
Salivary glands. Glands located in the
mouth that produce saliva. Saliva
contains enzymes that break down
carbohydrates (starch) into smaller
molecules.
Sigmoid colon. The part of the large
intestine between the descending colon
and the rectum.
intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas
help in the digestion of carbohydrates,
fats and proteins in the small intestine.
Peristalsis. Rhythmic muscle
movements that force food in the
esophagus from the throat into the
stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you
cannot control it. It is also what allows
you to eat and drink while upside-down.
Page 7
Stomach. A sack-like, muscular organ
that is attached to the esophagus. Both
chemical and mechanical digestion takes
place in the stomach. When food enters
the stomach, it is churned in a bath of
acids and enzymes.
Transverse colon. The part of the large
intestine that runs horizontally across the
abdomen.
Endocrine System – The Communicator Page 8

Although we rarely think

about the endocrine system, it
influences almost every cell,
organ, and function of our
bodies. The endocrine system is
instrumental in regulating mood,
growth and development, tissue
function, metabolism, and sexual
function and reproductive
processes.
In general, the endocrine
system is in charge of body
processes that happen slowly,
such as cell growth. Faster
processes like breathing and
materials from the blood, processes
body movement are controlled by the
them, and secretes the finished chemical
nervous system. But even though the
product for use somewhere in the body.
nervous system and endocrine system
The major glands that make up the
are separate systems, they often work
human endocrine system include the:
together to help the body function
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid,
properly.
parathyroids, adrenal glands, pineal
The foundations of the endocrine
body, and reproductive glands (which
system are the hormones and glands. As
include the ovaries and testes).
the body's chemical messengers,
Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, a
hormones transfer information and
collection of specialized cells that is
instructions from one set of cells to
located in the lower central part of the
another. Many different hormones move
brain, is the main link between the
through the bloodstream, but each type
endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve
of hormone is designed to affect only
cells in the hypothalamus control the
certain cells.
pituitary gland by producing chemicals
that either stimulate or suppress
MAJOR GLANDS
hormone secretions from the pituitary.
A gland is a group of cells that
Pituitary. Although it is no bigger than
produces and secretes, or gives off,
a pea, the pituitary (pronounced: puh-
chemicals. A gland selects and removes
too-uh-ter-ee) gland, located at the base
of the brain just beneath the
hypothalamus, is considered the most
important part of the endocrine system.
It's often called the "master gland"
because it makes hormones that control
several other endocrine glands.
The production and secretion of
pituitary hormones can be influenced by
Endocrine System – The Communicator
posterior lobe. The ANTERIOR LOBE
regulates the activity of the thyroid,
adrenals, and reproductive glands. The
anterior lobe produces hormones such
as:
Growth hormone, which stimulates the
growth of bone and other body tissues
and plays a role in the body's handling of
nutrients and minerals;
factors such as emotions and changes in
the seasons. To accomplish this, the
hypothalamus provides information
sensed by the brain (such as
environmental temperature, light
exposure patterns, and feelings) to the
pituitary.
The tiny pituitary is divided into
two parts: the anterior lobe and the
Page 9
Prolactin, which activates milk
production in women who are
breastfeeding;
Thyrotropin, which stimulates the
thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones;
Corticotropin, which stimulates the
adrenal gland to produce certain
hormones.
The pituitary also secretes
endorphins, chemicals that act on the
nervous system and reduce feelings of
pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes
hormones that signal the reproductive
organs to make sex hormones. The
pituitary gland also controls ovulation
and the menstrual cycle in women.
The POSTERIOR LOBE of the
pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone,
which helps control the balance of water
in the body. The posterior lobe also
produces oxytocin, which triggers the
contractions of the uterus in a woman
having a baby.
Thyroid. The thyroid, located in the
front part of the lower neck, is shaped
like a bow tie or butterfly and produces
the thyroid hormones thyroxine and
triiodothyronine. These hormones
control the rate at which cells burn fuels
from food to produce energy.
The production and release of
thyroid hormones is controlled by
thyrotropin, which is secreted by the
pituitary gland. The more thyroid
hormone there is in a person's
bloodstream, the faster chemical
reactions occur in the body.
Parathyroids. Attached to the thyroid
are four tiny glands that function
together called the parathyroids. They
release parathyroid hormone, which
regulates the level of calcium in the
blood with the help of calcitonin, which
is produced in the thyroid.
Endocrine System – The Communicator
INNER PART, the adrenal medulla,
produces catecholamines, such as
epinephrine. Also called adrenaline,
epinephrine increases blood pressure and
heart rate when the body experiences
stress.
Pineal. The pineal body, also called the
pineal gland, is located in the middle of
the brain. It secretes melatonin, a
hormone that may help regulate when
you sleep at night and when you wake in
the morning.
Reproductive Glands. The GONADS
are the main source of sex hormones.
Most people don't realize it, but both
guys and girls have gonads.
In guys the male gonads, or
testes, are located in the scrotum. They
secrete hormones called androgens, the
most important of which is testosterone.
Adrenal Glands. The adrenal glands
have two parts, each of which produces a
set of hormones and has a different
function: The OUTER PART, the
adrenal cortex, produces hormones
called corticosteroids that influence or
regulate salt and water balance in the
body, the body's response to stress,
metabolism, the immune system, and
sexual development and function. The
Page 10
These hormones tell a guy's body when
it's time to make the changes associated
with puberty, like penis and height
growth, deepening voice, and growth in
tu and pubic hair. Working with
hormones from the pituitary gland,
testosterone also tells a guy's body when
it's time to produce sperm in the testes.
A girl's gonads, the ovaries, are
located in her pelvis. They produce eggs
and secrete the female hormones
estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is
involved when a girl begins to go
through puberty. During puberty, a girl
will experience breast growth, will begin
to accumulate body fat around the hips
and thighs, and will have a growth spurt.
Estrogen and progesterone are also
involved in the regulation of a girl's
menstrual cycle. These hormones also
play a role in pregnancy.
The pancreas is also part of the
body's hormone-secreting system, even
though it is also associated with the
digestive system because it produces and
secretes digestive enzymes. The
pancreas produces two important
hormones, insulin and glucagon. They
work together to maintain a steady level
of glucose, or sugar, in the blood and to
keep the body supplied with fuel to
produce and maintain stores of energy.
Excretory System – The Waste-Eliminator Page 11

The urinary system is

made-up of the kidneys, ureters,
bladder, and urethra. The
nephron, an evolutionary
modification of the nephridium, is
the kidney's functional unit.
Waste is filtered from the blood
and collected as urine in each
kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys
by ureters, and collects in the
bladder. The bladder can distend
to store urine that eventually
leaves through the urethra.
Excretion is the removal
of the metabolic wastes of an
organism. Wastes that are
removed include carbon dioxide,
water, salt, urea and uric acid. All
excreted wastes travel at some
time in the blood.
Nephron. The nephron consists
of a cup-shaped capsule
containing capillaries and the
glomerulus, and a long renal tube.
Blood flows into the kidney returned to the capillaries that surround
through the renal artery, which branches the nephron tubule.
into capillaries associated with the There are several components of
glomerulus. Arterial pressure causes Nephron, these are:
water and solutes from the blood to filter Glomerulus, mechanically filters blood;
into the capsule. Fluid flows through the Bowman's Capsule, mechanically filters
proximal tubule, which include the loop blood;
of Henle, and then into the distal tubule. Proximal Convoluted Tubule, Reabsorbs
The distal tubule empties into a 75% of the water, salts, glucose, and
collecting duct. Fluids and solutes are amino acids;
Loop of Henle, Countercurrent
exchange, which maintains the
concentration gradient;
Distal Convoluted Tubule, Tubular
secretion of H ions, potassium, and
certain drugs.
Functions of Nephron. (a) Glomerular
filtration of water and solutes from the
Excretory System – The Waste-Eliminator
Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per
minute; filtering the entire body fluid
component 16 times each day. In a 24
hour period nephrons produce 180 liters
of filtrate, of which 178.5 liters are
reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters
forms urine.
Urine Production. (a) Filtration in the
glomerulus and nephron capsule; (b)
reabsorption in the proximal tubule; and
(c) tubular secretion in the Loop of
Henle.
Kidney Stones. In some cases, excess
wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They
grow and can become a painful irritant
that may require surgery or ultrasound
treatments. Some stones are small
enough to be forced into the urethra,
others are the size of huge, massive
boulders.
Infection, environmental toxins
such as mercury, and genetic disease can
have devastating results by causing
disruption of kidney function. Many
kidney problems can be treated by
dialysis, where a machine acts as a
kidney. Kidney transplants are an
alternative to dialysis.
ORGANS OF EXCRETORY
SYSTEM
Lungs. Removal of excess carbon
dioxide.
blood; (b) tubular reabsorption of water
and conserved molecules back into the
blood; and (c) tubular secretion of ions
and other waste products from
surrounding capillaries into the distal
tubule.
Page 12
Liver. Produces urea and uric acid as a
by-product of the breakdown of proteins.
Skin. Removal of excess water, salt,
urea and uric acid.
Urinary System. Kidneys filter the
blood to form urine, which is excess
water, salt, urea and uric acid.
THE URINARY SYSTEM
Urine. The first nitrogenous waste to be
formed from the breakdown of protein is
ammonia, a highly toxic chemical that is
quickly converted by the liver to urea
and uric acid. These are less toxic than
ammonia and are transported in the
blood to the kidneys for excretion in
urine. Urine consists of excess water,
excess salt, urea and uric acid.
PARTS OF THE URINARY
SYSTEM
Renal Arteries. 2 renal arteries
constantly transport blood to the
kidneys.
Kidneys. 2 kidneys composed of
millions of nephrons constantly filter
about 170 to 200 litres of blood to
produce about 1.5 to 2 litres of urine
daily.
Renal Veins. 2 renal veins return useful
nutrients back into the bloodstream.
Ureters. 2 ureters carry urine from the
kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder. The urinary bladder
temporarily stores urine until it is
released from the body.
Urethra. The urethra is the tube that
carries urine from the urinary bladder to
the outside of the body. The outer end of
the urethra is controlled by a circular
muscle called a sphincter.

Immune System – The Defender Page 13

The human
immune system is made
up of a number of
interdependent cell
types which collectively
protect the person's
body from various
parasitic, fungal,
bacterial and viral
infections, as well as
from the growth of
tumor cells.
The human
immune system is made
up of a number of
interdependent cell
types which collectively
protect the person's
body from various may assist in comprehension of the root
parasitic, fungal, bacterial and viral of immune deficiencies, as well as
infections, as well as from the growth of perception of the potential avenues that
tumor cells. A number of these cell types the human immune system can be
have specialized functions, are able to modulated in the case of particular
kill parasites, engulf bacteria, or kill diseases.
tumor cells or viral-infected cells.
Frequently, these cells are dependent IMMUNE SYSTEM ORGANS
upon the, 'T,' helper subset for activation Bone Marrow. Every cell involved in a
signals in the form of secretions which person's immune system is initially
are more formally referred to as, derived from bone marrow. These cells
'Lymphokines,' 'Cytokines,' or form through a process referred to as,
specifically as, 'Interleukins.' An 'Hematopoiesis.' During hematopoiesis
understanding of the T helper subset
bone marrow derived stem cells
differentiate into one of two things;
either mature cells of the immune
system, or precursors of cells which then
migrate out of the person's bone marrow,
continuing their maturation elsewhere in
the body. Bone marrow produces, 'B,'
cells, killer cells, immature thymocytes,
and granulocytes, as well as platelets and
red blood cells.
Thymus. The Thymus' function is to
produce mature, 'T,' cells. Immature
Immune System – The Defender
Spleen. A person's spleen is an
immunological filter, filtering their
blood. The spleen is comprised of T
cells, B cells dendritic cells,
macrophages, red blood cells and natural
killer cells. Macrophages and dendritic
cells not only capture foreign materials
called, 'Antigens,' from a person's blood
which passes through the spleen, they
bring these antigens to the spleen itself
from the person's blood stream. A
person's body experiences an immune
response when the macrophage or
dendritic cells present the antigen to
appropriate T or B cells. In a person's
spleen, B cells are activated and produce
great amounts of antibody. The spleen
also destroys old red blood cells.
Lymph Nodes. A person's lymph nodes
work as an immunological filter for their
bodily fluid referred to as, 'Lymph.'
People have lymph nodes throughout
their body. Lymph nodes are made
mostly of B cells, T cells, macrophages,
and dendritic cells. A person's lymph
nodes drain fluid from the majority of
their tissues. Lymph nodes filter out
antigens from lymph prior to returning
lymph to the person's body for
circulation. In a manner much like the
spleen, dendritic cells and macrophages
that capture antigens present foreign
Tymocytes, also referred to as,
'Prothymocytes,' emerge from the
person's bone marrow and move into
their thymus. Through a process called,
'Thymic Education,' these T cells which
are beneficial to the person's immune
system are spared while T cells that may
cause a detrimental autoimmune
response are removed. Mature T cells
are released into the person's blood
stream.
Page 14
materials to both B and T cells, initiating
an immune response.
IMMUNE SYSTEM CELLS
T Cells. T Lymphocytes are commonly
placed into two major subsets which are
identifiably different. One of these
subsets is the, 'T Helper Subset,' also
referred to as the, 'CD4+ T Cell,' which
is a coordinator of a person's immune
regulation. The primary function of the
T helper cell is augmentation of the
person's immune responses through
secretion of specialized factors which
activate additional white blood cells in
order to fight off an infection.
CD8+ T Cells. CD8+ T Cells are also
called T killer/suppressor cells and are
important because they are involved in
directly killing viral infected cells,
specific tumor cells, and sometimes
parasites. CD8+ T cells are important
because they also down-regulate
immune responses. While both types of
T cells are found throughout a person's
body, they are many times dependent on
the lymph nodes and spleen as places
where activation happens, yet are also
found in other tissues in a person's body,
notably the person's lungs, liver, blood
and intestinal and reproductive tracts.
Natural Killer Cells. Natural killer cells
are also called, 'NK Cells,' and are
similar to cells from the killer T cell
subset. Natural killer cells work as
effector cells, killing specific tumors like
lymphomas, melanomas, and viral
infected cells such as herpes and
cytomegalovirus infected cells. Natural
killer cells kill their targets in the
person's lymphoid organs; however,
these cells which have been activated
through secretions from CD4+ T cells
Immune System – The Defender
foreign substances or antigens is often
critical as a means of signaling
additional cells to engulf and kill, or
remove a substance from the person's
body.
Polymorphonuclear (PMN)
Leukocytes or Granulocytes. There is a
group of white blood cells which is
collectively referred to by medical
personnel as, 'Polymorphonuclear
Leukocytes (PMN's),' or, 'Granulocytes.'
Granulocytes are made of three cell
types which are referred to as,
'Eosinophils,' 'Neutrophils,' and,
'Basophils.' The names for them are
based on their staining characteristics
with specific dyes. The cells are
important because they are involved in
the removal of parasites and bacteria
from a person's body. These cells first
engulf foreign bodies and then degrade
them by using their powerful enzymes.
Macrophages. Macrophages are
important due to their function in the
regulation of immune responses.
Macrophages are many times referred to
as, 'scavengers,' or, 'Antigen-Presenting
Cells (APC's),' because they both pick
up and ingest foreign materials, and then
present these antigens to other cells in a
person's immune system like B cells and
will kill viral-infected targets or tumors
more efficiently.
B Cells. The primary function of B cells
is to produce antibodies in response to
foreign proteins such as viruses, bacteria
and tumor cells. Antibodies are proteins
that specifically first recognize and then
bind to one other particular protein
which also specifically recognize and
bind to one particular protein. The
production of antibodies and binding to
Page 15
T cells. The process is one of the steps
involved in initiating an immune
response. Microphages that have been
stimulated show increased levels of,
'Phagocytosis,' and are also secretory.
Dendritic Cells. Dendritic cells also
originate in a person's bone marrow,
working as antigen presenting cells
(APC's). Interestingly, dendritic cells are
more efficient APC's than macrophages.
Dendritic cells are commonly found in
the structural compartment of a person's
lymphoid organs, such as their spleen,
lymph nodes and thymus. These cells
can also be found in the person's blood
stream, as well as in other tissues in their
body. Science believes that these cells
capture antigen, or bring it to the
person's lymphoid organs, where an
immune response is initiated. One of the
reasons that scientists know very little
about dendritic cells is because they are
difficult to isolate; something that is
often a prerequisite for studying the
functional qualities of exact cell types.
Of particular note is a recent finding that
dendritic cells bind high amount of HIV
and could be a reservoir of virus which
is transmitted to CD4+ T cells during
and activation event.
IMMUNE RESPONSE
The presence of an APC,
combined with a T cell or B cell, is
required in order for there to be an
immune response to a foreign antigen.
Should an APC present an antigen on it's
cell surface to a B cell, for example, the
B cell is signaled to proliferate and
produce antibodies. The antibodies then
specifically bind to that antigen. If the
antibodies bind to antigens on parasites
or bacteria, it acts as a signal for
macrophages or PMN's to engulf and kill
Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails
them. One addition and important
function of antibodies is to start
something referred to as a, 'Complement
Destruction Cascade.' When antibodies
bind to bacteria or cells, serum proteins
referred to as, 'Complement,' first bind to
immobilized antibodies, and then
destroy the bacteria through creating
holes in the bacteria. Antibodies may
also signal macrophages and natural
killer cells to kill bacterial infected cells
or viral cells.
Page 16
 The integumentary system,
formed by the skin, hair, nails, and
associated glands, enwraps the body. It
is the most visible organ system and one
of the most complex. Diverse in both
form and function—from delicate
eyelashes to the thick skin of the soles—
the integumentary system protects the
body from the outside world and its
many harmful substances. It utilizes the
Sun's rays while at the same time
shielding the body from their damaging
effects. In addition, the system helps to
regulate body temperature, serves as a
minor excretory organ, and makes the
Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails
to 0.08 inches (1 to 2 millimeters), but
can measure up to 0.2 inches (6
millimeters) thick on the palms of the
hands and the soles of the feet. The skin
in these areas is referred to as thick skin
(skin elsewhere on the body is called
thin skin).
PARTS OF THE
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Apocrine sweat glands, sweat glands
located primarily in the armpit and
genital areas.
Arrector pili muscle, smooth muscle
attached to a hair follicle that, when
stimulated, pulls on the follicle, causing
the hair shaft to stand upright.
Dermal papillae, finger-like projections
extending upward from the dermis
containing blood capillaries, which
provide nutrients for the lower layer of
the epidermis; also form the
characteristic ridges on the skin surface
of the hands (fingerprints) and feet.
Dermi , thick, inner layer of the skin.
Eccrine sweat glands, body's most
numerous sweat glands, which produce
inner body aware of its outer
environment through sensory receptors.
Skin. Although the skin is not often
thought of as an organ, such as the heart
or liver, medically it is. An organ is any
part of the body formed of two or more
tissues that performs a specialized
function. As an organ, the skin is the
largest and heaviest in the body. In an
average adult, the skin covers about 21.5
square feet (2 square meters) and
accounts for approximately 7 percent of
body weight, or about 11 pounds (5
kilograms) in a 160-pound (73-kilogram)
person. It ranges in thickness from 0.04
Page 16
watery sweat to maintain normal body
temperature.
Epidermis, thin, outer layer of the skin.
Epithelial tissue, tissue that covers the
internal and external surfaces of the
body and also forms glandular organs.
Integument, in animals and plants, any
natural outer covering, such as skin,
shell, membrane, or husk.
Keratin, tough, fibrous, water-resistant
protein that forms the outer layers of
hair, calluses, and nails and coats the
surface of the skin.
Lunula, white, crescent-shaped area of
the nail bed near the nail root.
Melanocyte, cell found in the lower
epidermis that produces the protein
pigment melanin.
Organ, any part of the body formed of
two or more tissues that performs a
specialized function.
Sebaceous gland, exocrine gland in the
dermis that produces sebum.
Sebum, mixture of oily substances and
fragmented cells secreted by sebaceous
glands.
Squamous cells, cells that are flat and
scalelike.
Subcutaneous, tissues between the
dermis and the muscles.
FUNCTIONS OF THE
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system has
multiple roles in homeostasis. All body
systems work in an interconnected
manner to maintain the internal
conditions essential to the function of the
body. The skin has an important job of
protecting the body and acts as the
body’s first line of defense against
infection, temperature change, and other
challenges to homeostasis. Functions
include:
Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails
TWO PRINCIPAL LAYERS OF
THE SKIN
The skin has two principal
layers: the epidermis and the dermis.
The epidermis is the thin, outer layer,
and the dermis is the thicker, inner layer.
Beneath the dermis lies the subcutaneous
layer or hypodermis, which is composed
of adipose or fatty tissue. Although not
technically part of the skin, it does
anchor the skin to the underlying
muscles. It also contains the major blood
vessels that supply the dermis and
houses many white blood cells, which
destroy foreign invaders that have
entered the body through breaks in the
skin.
Epidermis. The epidermis is made of
stratified squamous epithelial tissue.
Epithelial tissue covers the internal and
external surfaces of the body and also
forms glandular organs. Squamous cells
are thin and flat like fish scales.
Stratified simply means having two or
more layers. In short, the epidermis is
composed of many layers of thin,
flattened cells that fit closely together
a. Protect the body’s internal living
tissues and organs
b. Protect against invasion by infectious
organisms
c. Protect the body from dehydration
d. Protect the body against abrupt
changes in temperature
e. Help excrete waste materials through
perspiration
f. Act as a receptor for touch, pressure,
pain, heat, and cold
g. Protect the body against sunburns
h. Generate vitamin D through exposure
to ultraviolet light
i. Participate in temperature regulation
Page 17
and are able to withstand a good deal of
abuse or friction.
The epidermis can be divided
into four or five layers. Most important
of these are the inner and outer layers.
The inner or deepest cell layer is the
only layer of the epidermis that receives
nutrients (from the underlying dermis).
The cells of this layer, called basal cells,
are constantly dividing and creating new
cells daily, which push the older cells
toward the surface. Basal cells produce
keratin, an extremely durable and water-
resistant fibrous protein.
Another type of cell found in the lower
epidermis is the melanocyte.
Melanocytes produce melanin, a protein
pigment that ranges in color from yellow
to brown to black. The amount of
melanin produced determines skin color,
which is a hereditary characteristic. The
melanocytes of dark-skinned individuals
continuously produce large amounts of
melanin. Those of light-skinned
individuals produce less. Freckles are the
result of melanin clumping in one spot.
 The outermost layer of the
epidermis consists of about twenty to
thirty rows of tightly joined flat dead
cells. All that is left in these cells is their
keratin, which makes this outer layer
waterproof. It takes roughly fourteen
days for cells to move from the inner
layer of the epidermis to the outer layer.
Once part of the outer layer, the dead
cells remain for another fourteen days or
so before flaking off slowly and steadily.
Dermis. The dermis, the second layer of
skin, lies between the epidermis and the
subcutaneous layer. Much thicker than
the epidermis, the dermis contains the
accessory skin structures. Hair, sweat
glands, and sebaceous (oil) glands are all
Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails
the epidermis. On the skin surface of the
hands and feet, especially on the tips of
the fingers, thumbs, and toes, the dermal
papillae form looped and whorled ridges.
These print patterns, known as
fingerprints or toeprints, increase the
gripping ability of the hands and feet.
Genetically determined, the patterns are
unique to every individual.
Fingerprints (the pattern of
ridges on an individual's fingertips and
thumbs formed by dermal papillae) are
unique to each individual and the
patterns never change. People have long
known about the distinctiveness of
fingerprints, but their use in identifying
people did not arise until the nineteenth
century.
It is generally acknowledged that
English scientist Francis Galton (1822–
1911) was the first person to devise a
system of fingerprint identification. In
the 1880s, Galton obtained the first
extensive collection of fingerprints for
his studies on heredity. He also
established a bureau for the registration
rooted in the dermis. This layer also
contains blood vessels and nerve fibers.
Nourished by the blood and oxygen
provided by these blood vessels, the
cells of the dermis are alive.
Connective tissue forms the
dermis. Bundles of elastic and collagen
(tough fibrous protein) fibers blend into
the connective tissue. These fibers
provide the dermis strength and
flexibility.
The upper layer of the dermis has
fingerlike projections that extend into
the epidermis. Called dermal papillae,
they contain blood capillaries that
provide nutrients for the basal cells in
Page 18
of civilians by means of fingerprints and
measurements.
Galton's ideas were further
developed by fellow Englishman
Edward R. Henry (1850–1931). In the
1890s, Henry developed a more
simplified fingerprint classification
system. In 1901, he established
England's first fingerprint bureau, called
the Fingerprint Branch, within the
Scotland Yard police force. Henry's
system is still used today in Great
Britain and the United States.
Within the dermis are sensory
receptors for the senses of touch,
pressure, heat, cold, and pain. A specific
type of receptor exists for each
sensation. For pain, the receptors are free
nerve endings. For the other sensations,
the receptors are encapsulated nerve
endings, meaning they have a cellular
structure around their endings. The
number and type of sensory receptors
present in a particular area of skin
determines how sensitive that area is to a
particular sensation. For example,
fingertips have many touch receptors
and are quite sensitive. The skin of the
upper arm is less sensitive because it has
very few touch receptors.
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
The accessory structures of the
integumentary system include hair, nails,
and sweat and sebaceous glands.
Hair. Roughly 5 million hairs cover the
body of an average individual. About
100,000 of those hairs appear on the
scalp. Almost every part of the body is
covered by hair, except the palms of the
hands, the soles of the feet, the sides of
the fingers and toes, the lips, and certain
parts of the outer genital organs.
Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails
are pushed upward from the nutrient-rich
follicle base by newly formed cells. Like
the upper layers of the epidermis, the
hair shaft is made of dead material,
almost entirely protein. The hair shaft is
divided into two layers: the cuticle or
outer layer consists of a single layer of
flat, overlapping cells; the cortex or
inner layer is made mostly of keratin.
Hair shafts differ in size, shape,
and color. In the eyebrows, they are
short and stiff, but on the scalp they are
longer and more flexible. Elsewhere on
the body they are nearly invisible. Oval-
shaped hair shafts produce wavy hair.
Flat or ribbonlike hair shafts produce
kinky or curly hair. Perfectly round hair
shafts produce straight hair. The
different types of melanin—yellow, rust,
brown, and black—produced by
melanocytes at the follicle base combine
to create the many varieties of hair color,
from the palest blonde to the richest
black. With age, the production of
Each hair originates from a tiny
tubelike structure called a hair follicle
that extends deep into the dermis layer.
Often, the follicle will project into the
subcutaneous layer. Capillaries and
nerves attach to the base of the follicle,
providing nutrients and sensory
information. Inside the base of the
follicle, epithelial cells grow and divide,
forming the hair bulb or enlarged hair
base. Keratin, the primary component in
these epithelial cells, coats and stiffens
the hair as it grows upward through the
follicle. The part of the hair enclosed in
the follicle is called the hair root. Once
the hair projects from the scalp or skin, it
is called a hair shaft.
The older epithelial cells forming
the hair root and hair shaft die as they
Page 19
melanin decreases, and hair color turns
gray.
Attached to each hair follicle is a
ribbon of smooth muscle called an
arrector pili muscle. When stimulated,
the muscle contracts and pulls on the
follicle, causing the hair shaft to stand
upright.
Nails. Nails in humans correspond to the
hooves of horses and cattle and the
claws of birds and reptiles. Found on the
ends of fingers and toes, nails are
produced by nail follicles just as hair is
produced by hair follicles. The nail root
is that portion of the nail embedded in
the skin, lying very near the bone of the
fingertip. Here, cells produce a stronger
form of keratin than is found in hair. As
new cells are formed, older cells are
pushed forward, forming the nail body
or the visible attached portion of the nail.
The free edge is that portion of the nail
that extends over the tip of the finger or
toe. Healthy fingernails grow about 0.04
inches (1 millimeter) per week, slightly
faster than toenails.
The nail body is made of dead
cells, but the nail bed (the tissue
underneath the nail body) is alive. The
blood vessels running through the nail
bed give the otherwise transparent nail
body a pink color. Near the nail root,
however, these blood vessels are
obscured. The resulting white crescent is
called the lunula (from the Latin word
luna , meaning "moon").
Sweat Glands. More than 2.5
million sweat glands are distributed over
most surfaces of the human body. They
are divided into two types: eccrine sweat
glands and apocrine sweat glands.
Eccrine glands, the more
numerous of the two types, are found all
over the body. They are especially
Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails
the skin surface. While most sebaceous
glands secrete sebum through ducts into
hair follicles, some secrete sebum
directly onto the surface of the skin.
numerous on the forehead, upper lip,
palms, and soles. The glands are simply
coiled tubes that originate in the dermis.
A duct extends from the gland to the
skin's surface, where it opens into a pore.
Eccrine glands produce sweat or
perspiration, a clear secretion that is 99
percent water. Some salts, traces of
waste materials such as urea, and
vitamin C form the remainder (the salts
give sweat its characteristic salty taste).
Sebaceous Gland. Sebaceous glands,
also known as oil glands, are found in
the dermis all over the body, except for
the palms and soles. They secrete sebum,
a mixture of lipids (fats), proteins, and
fragments of dead fatproducing cells.
The function of sebum is to prevent the
drying of skin and hair. It also contains
chemicals that kill bacteria present on
Page 20
Arrector pili muscles, which contract to
elevate hairs, also squeeze sebaceous
glands, forcing out sebum.
Muscular System – Movement using Muscles Page 21

The muscular system is the

body's network of tissues that controls
movement both of the body and within
it. Walking, running, jumping: all these
actions propelling the body through
space are possible only because of the
contraction (shortening) and relaxation
of muscles. These major movements,
however, are not the only ones directed
by muscular activity. Muscles make it
possible to stand, sit, speak, and blink.
Even more, were it not for muscles,
blood would not rush through blood
vessels, air would not fill lungs, and
food would not move through the
digestive system. In short, muscles are
the machines of the body, allowing it to
work.

PARTS OF THE MUSCULAR

SYSTEM
 The muscles of the body are
divided into three main types: skeletal,
smooth, and cardiac. As their name
implies, skeletal muscles are attached to
the skeleton and move various parts of
the body. They are composed of tissue
fibers that are striated or striped. The
alternating bands of light and dark result
from the pattern of the filaments
(threadlike proteins) within each muscle
cell. Skeletal muscles are called
voluntary muscles because a person
controls their use, such as in the flexing
of an arm or the raising of a foot.
There are just over 650 skeletal
muscles in the whole human body. Some
authorities state there are as many as 850
muscles in the body. No exact figure is
available because scientists disagree
about which ones are separate muscles
Muscular System – Movement using Muscles
longitudinally (up and down). As the
two layers alternately contract and relax,
the shape of the vessel or organ changes
and fluid or food is propelled along.
Smooth muscles contract slowly and can
remain contracted for a long period of
time without tiring.
Acetylcholine, neurotransmitter chemical
released at the neuromuscular junction
by motor neurons that translates
messages from the brain to muscle
fibers.
Adenosine triphosphate, high-energy
molecule found in every cell in the body.
Aerobic metabolism, Chemical reactions
that require oxygen in order to create
adenosine triphosphate.
Antagonist, muscle that acts in
opposition to a prime mover.
Cramp, prolonged muscle spasm.
Fascicle, Bundle of myofibrils wrapped
together by connective tissue.
Lactic acid, chemical waste product
created when muscle fibers break down
and which ones are part of larger
muscles. There is also some variability
in muscular structure between
individuals.
Smooth muscles are found in the
stomach and intestinal walls, in artery
and vein walls, and in various hollow
organs. They are called involuntary
muscles because a person generally
cannot consciously control them. They
are regulated by the autonomic nervous
system (a division of the nervous system
that affects internal organs such as the
heart, lungs, stomach, and liver). Unlike
skeletal muscles, smooth muscles have
no striations or stripes.
In a vessel or organ, smooth muscles are
arranged in sheets or layers. Often, there
are two layers, one running circularly
(around) and the other
Page 22
glucose without the proper amount of
oxygen
Muscle tone, sustained partial
contraction of certain muscle fibers in all
muscles.
Myofibrils, cylindrical structures lying
within skeletal muscle fibers that are
composed of repeating structural units
called sarcomeres.
Myofilament, protein filament
composing the myofibrils; can be either
thick (composed of myosin) or thin
(composed of actin).
Neuromuscular junction, region where a
motor neuron comes into close contact
with a muscle fiber.
Prime mover (or agonist), muscle whose
contractions are chiefly responsible for
producing a particular movement.
Rigor mortis, rigid state of the body after
death due to irreversible muscle
contractions.
Sarcomere, unit of contraction in a
skeletal muscle fiber containing a
precise arrangement of thick and thin
myofilaments.
Spasm, sudden, involuntary muscle
contraction.
Strain, slight tear in a muscle; also called
a pulled muscle.
Synergist, muscle that cooperates with
another to produce a particular
movement.
Tendon, tough, white, cordlike tissue
that attaches muscle to bone.
STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE CELLS
Each muscle is made of hundreds
to thousands of individual muscle cells.
Unlike most other cells in the body,
these cells are unusually shaped: they are
elongated like a cylinder or a long rod.
Because of their shape, muscle cells are
normally referred to as muscle fibers.
Muscular System – Movement using Muscles
oxygen and nutrients, including ATP.
Calcium ions leak out of their storage
area in the membranes of muscle fibers,
causing thick myofilaments to attach to
and pull thin myofilaments. While the
muscle fibers still have a stored supply
of ATP, the heads of thick myofilaments
are able to detach from the thin
myofilaments. When the supply of ATP
runs out, however, the heads cannot
detach and the muscle fibers stay in a
contracted position. The rigid state of
muscle contraction that results is called
rigor mortis. Depending on the person's
physical condition at death, the onset of
rigor mortis may vary from ten minutes
to several hours after death. Facial
muscles are usually affected first,
followed by other parts of the body.
Rigor mortis lasts until the muscle fibers
begin to decompose fifteen to twenty-
five hours after death.
Each muscle fiber is composed
of hundreds of smaller filaments or
Whereas most cells have a single
nucleus (the part of the cell that controls
its activities), muscle fibers have as
many as 100 or more nuclei. The nuclei
are located on the surface of the fiber,
just under its thin membrane. Another
difference between muscle fibers and
other body cells is their size. They can
extend the entire length of a muscle. For
example, a muscle fiber in a thigh
muscle could measure 0.0004 inch
(0.001 centimeter) in diameter and 12 to
16 inches (30 to 40 centimeters) in
length.
When a person dies, blood stops
circulating through the body. The
skeletal muscles (along with all other
parts of the body) are deprived of
Page 23
threads called myofibrils (the prefix
myocomes from the Latin word myos ,
meaning "muscle"). Each myofibril
contains bundles of threadlike proteins
or filaments called myofilaments, which
can be either thick or thin. The larger
thick myofilaments are made mostly of
bundled molecules of the protein
myosin. The thin myofilaments are
composed of the protein actin. In each
myofibril, the thick and thin
myofilaments are combined into
thousands of units or segments that
repeat over and over. These units are
called sarcomeres. Thick myofilaments
lie in the center of a sarcomere. Thin
myofilaments are attached at either end
of a sarcomere and extend toward the
center, passing among the thick
myofilaments. This regular arrangement
of the varying myofilaments within each
sarcomere produces the striated or
striped appearance of each myofibril
and, by extension, of muscle fibers.
 As are most living cells, muscle
fibers are soft and fragile. Even so, they
can exert tremendous power without
being ripped apart. The reason is that
muscles are composed of different types
of tissue (like all other organs in the
body). In addition, those tissues are
bundled together, providing strength and
support. Each myofibril is enclosed in a
delicate sheath or covering made of
connective tissue (tissue found
everywhere in the body that connects
body parts, providing support, storage,
and protection). Numerous sheathed
myofibrils are then bundled together and
wrapped with thicker connective tissue
to form what is called a fascicle (from
the Latin word fasciculus , meaning "a
bundle"). Many fascicles are then
bundled together by an even tougher
Muscular System – Movement using Muscles
muscle contracts is called the insertion.
The other end, attached to a bone that
does not move when the muscle
contracts, is called the origin. It is
important to note that not all muscles are
attached to bones at both ends. The ends
of some muscles are attached to other
muscles; some are attached to the skin.
MAJOR MUSCLES OF THE BODY
Skeletal muscles that support the
skull, backbone, and rib cage are called
axial skeletal muscles. These include the
muscles of the head and neck and those
of the trunk. Roughly 60 percent of all
skeletal muscles in the body are axial
muscles. The skeletal muscles of the
limbs (arms and legs) are called distal or
appendicular skeletal muscles. These
include the muscles of the shoulders and
arms and those of the hip and legs.
Muscle names are descriptive.
Some muscles are named according to
their location in the body. For example,
coat of connective tissue to form the
muscle.
Tendons. The layers of connective
tissue that bundle the various parts of a
muscle usually converge or come
together at the end of the muscle to form
a tough, white, cord-like tissue called a
tendon. Tendons attach muscles to bone.
Because they contain fibers of the tough
protein collagen, tendons are much
stronger than muscle tissue. The
collagen fibers are arranged in a tendon
in a wavy way so that it can stretch and
provide additional length at the muscle-
bone junction. As muscles are used, the
tendons are able to withstand the
constant pulling and tugging.
Muscles are always attached at both of
their ends. The end that is attached to a
bone that moves when the
Page 24
the frontalis muscle overlies the frontal
bone of the skull. Other muscles are
named for their relative size. Terms such
as maximus (largest), minimus
(smallest), and longus (long) are often
used as part of a muscle's name. Still
other muscles are named for their shape.
The deltoid muscle is so named because
it has the shape of the Greek letter delta
, which is triangular-shaped. And some
muscles are named for their actions.
Terms such as flexor (to flex or bend in),
extensor (to extend or straighten out),
adductor (to draw toward a line that runs
down the middle of the body), and
abductor (to draw away from a line that
runs down the middle of the body) are
often added as part of a muscle's name.
Muscles of the Head and Neck. The
muscles of the face are unique: they are
attached to the skull on one end and to
the skin or other muscles on the other
end. Muscles that are attached to the skin
of the face allow people to express
emotions through actions such as
smiling, frowning, pouting, and kissing.
As mentioned, the frontalis
covers the frontal bone or forehead. The
temporalis is a fan-shaped muscle
overlying the temporal bone on each side
of the head above the ear. The
orbicularis oculi encircles each eye and
helps close the eyelid. The orbicularis
oris is the circular muscle around the
lips. It closes and extends the lips.
The masseter, located over the
rear of the lower jaw on each side of the
face, opens and closes the jaw, allowing
chewing. The buccinator, running
horizontally across each cheek, flattens
the cheek and pulls back the corners of
the mouth. The sternocleidomastoid,
located on either side of the neck and
extending from the clavicle or
Muscular System – Movement using Muscles
On the rear part of the trunk, the
trapezius are the kite-shaped muscles
that run from the back of the neck and
upper back down to the middle of the
back. They raise, lower, and adduct the
shoulders. The large, flat muscles that
cover the lower back are the latissimus
dorsi. They adduct and rotate the arms
and help extend the shoulders.
Muscles of the Shoulders and Arms.
The fleshy, triangular-shaped muscles
that form the rounded shape of the
shoulders are the deltoid. They help
abduct the arm, or move it away from
the middle of the body. The most
familiar muscle of the upper arm is the
biceps brachii Located on the front of
the upper arm, the bicep makes a
prominent bulge as it flexes the elbow.
On the rear portion of the upper arms is
the triceps brachii. Its action is just the
opposite of the biceps: it extends or
straightens the forearm.
collarbone to the temporal bone on the
side of the head, allows the head to
rotate and the neck to flex.
Muscles of the Trunk. On the front
part of the trunk or torso, the pectoralis
major are the large, fan-shaped muscles
that cover the upper part of the chest.
They flex the shoulders and pull the
arms into the body. The rectus
abdominis are the strap-like muscles of
the abdomen, extending from the ribs to
the pelvis. Better known as the stomach
muscles, they flex the vertebral column
or backbone and provide support for the
abdomen and its many organs. The
muscles making up the side walls of the
abdomen are the external oblique. In
addition to helping compress the
abdomen, they rotate the trunk and allow
it to bend sideways.
Page 25
The muscles of the forearm,
which move the bones of the hands, are
thin and long. Of these many muscles,
the flexor carpi bend the wrist and the
flexor digitorum bend the fingers. The
muscles that have the opposite effect,
extending the wrist and fingers, are the
extensor carpi and the extensor
digitorum.
Muscles of the Hips and Legs. Muscles
of the lower limbs cause movement at
the hip, knee, and foot joints. These
muscles are among the largest and
strongest muscles in the body. Muscles
on the thigh (upper portion of the leg)
are especially massive and powerful
since they hold the body upright against
the force of gravity.
The gluteus maximus are the
large muscles that form most of the flesh
of the buttocks. These powerful muscles
help extend the hip in activities such as
climbing stairs and jumping. The
adductor muscles are a group of muscles
that form a mass on the inside of the
thighs. As their name indicates, they
adduct or press the thighs together.
On the front of the thigh is a
group of four muscles known
collectively as the quadriceps. Together,
the quadriceps help powerfully extend or
straighten the knee, such as when an
individual kicks a soccer ball. On the
back of the thigh, a group of three
muscles performs the opposite effect.
Known as hamstrings, these muscles flex
or bend the knee. The sartorius is long,
straplike muscle that crosses the front of
the thigh diagonally from the outside of
the hip to the inside of the knee.
Although it is not that powerful, it does
lie on upper surface of the thigh and is
easily seen. The sartorius helps rotate the
Nervous System – Brain and Nerves
The nervous system is the master
controller of the body. Each thought,
each emotion, each action—all result
from the activity of this system. Through
its many parts, the nervous system
monitors conditions both within and
outside the body. It then processes that
information and decides how the body
should respond, if at all. Finally, if a
response is needed, the system sends out
electrical signals that spur the body into
leg so an individual can sit in a cross-
legged position with the knees wide
apart.
On the back part of the lower leg
is the calf muscle, properly known as the
gastrocnemius. This diamond-shaped
muscle, formed in two sections, helps
extend or lower the foot, such as when
an individual walks on his or her toes.
The strong tendon that attaches the
gastrocnemius to the heel of the foot is
the well-known Achilles tendon in
Greek mythology, a hero of the Trojan
War who is killed by an arrow shot into
his heel. The main muscle on the front
part of the lower leg, the tibialis anterior,
opposes the action of the gastrocnemius.
It flexes and inverts or elevates the foot.
Page 26
immediate action. Although one of the
smallest of the body's systems in terms
of weight, the nervous system is the
most complex and versatile.
PARTS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The nervous system is a
collection of cells, tissues, and organs. It
can be split into two separate divisions:
the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
The central nervous system
(CNS) acts as the command center of the
body. It interprets incoming sensory
information, then sends out instructions
on how the body should react. The CNS
consists of two major parts: the brain
and the spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system
(PNS) is the part of the nervous system
outside of the CNS. It consists mainly of
nerves that extend from the brain and
spinal cord to areas in the rest of the
body. Cranial nerves carry impulses to
and from the brain while spinal nerves
carry impulses to and from the spinal
cord. The PNS can be divided into two
systems: the somatic nervous system and
the autonomic nervous system. The
somatic nervous system controls the
voluntary movements of the skeletal
muscles. The autonomic nervous system
control activities in the body that are
involuntary or automatic. These include
the actions of the heart, glands, and
digestive organs and associated parts.
The autonomic nervous system
can be divided further into two
subdivisions: the parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous systems. These two
subdivisions work against each other.
The parasympathetic nervous system
regulates involuntary activities that keep
Nervous System – Brain and Nerves
voluntary actions, memory, thought, and
personality.
Corpus callosum, large band of neurons
connecting the two cerebral
hemispheres.
Dendrites, branchlike extensions of
neurons that carry impulses toward the
cell body.
Diencephalon, rear part of the forebrain
that connects the midbrain to the
the body running smoothly under
normal, everyday conditions. The
sympathetic nervous system controls
involuntary activities that help the body
respond to stressful situations.
Arachnoid, weblike middle layer of the
three meninges covering the brain and
spinal cord.
Autonomic nervous system, part of the
peripheral nervous system that controls
involuntary actions, such as the
heartbeat, gland secretions, and
digestion.
Axon, taillike projection extending out a
neuron that carries impulses away from
the cell body.
Basal ganglia, paired masses of gray
matter within the white matter of the
cerebrum that help coordinate
subconscious skeletal muscular
movement.
Brain, central controlling and
coordinating organ of the nervous
system.
Cauda equine, spinal nerves that hang
below the end of the spinal cord.
Central nervous system, part of the
nervous system consisting of the brain
and spinal cord.
Cerebral cortex, outermost layer of the
cerebrum made entirely of gray matter.
Cerebrum, largest part of the brain,
involved with conscious perception,
Page 27
cerebrum and that contains the thalamus
and hypothalamus.
Dura mate, outermost and toughest of
the three meninges covering the brain
and spinal cord.
Ganglion, any collection of nerve cell
bodies forming a nerve center in the
peripheral nervous system.
Gray matter, grayish nerve tissue of the
central nervous system containing
neuron cell bodies, neuroglia, and
unmyelinated axons.
Gyri, outward folds on the surface of the
cerebral cortex.
Hippocampus, structure in the limbic
system necessary for the formation of
long-term memory.
Hypothalamus, region of the brain
containing many control centers for
body functions and emotions; also
regulates the pituitary gland's secretions.
Limbic system, group of structures in the
cerebrum and diencephalon that are
involved with emotional states and
memory.
Medulla oblongata, part of the brain
located at the top end of the spinal cord
that controls breathing and other
involuntary functions.
Meninges, membranes that cover the
brain and spinal cord.
Midbrain, part of the brain between the
hypothalamus and the pons that
regulates visual, auditory, and rightening
reflexes.
Myelin, soft, white, fatty material that
forms a sheath around the axons of most
neurons.
Nerve, bundle of axons in the peripheral
nervous system.
Neuroglia, also known as glial cells,
cells that support and protect neurons in
the central nervous system.
Neuron, nerve cell.
Nervous System – Brain and Nerves
Spinal cord, long cord of nerve tissue
running through the spine or backbone
that transmits impulses to and from the
brain and controls some reflex actions.
Sulci, shallow grooves on the surface of
the cerebral cortex.
Sympathetic nervous system, division of
the autonomic nervous system that
Neurotransmitter, chemical released by
the axon of a neuron that travels across a
synapse and binds to receptors on the
dendrites of other neurons or body cells.
Node of Ranvier, small area between
Schwann cells on an axon that is
unmyelinated or uncovered.
Oligodendrocyte, cell that produces the
myelin sheath around the axons of
neurons in the central nervous system.
Parasympathetic nervous system,
division of the autonomic nervous
system that controls involuntary
activities that keep the body running
smoothly under normal, everyday
conditions.
Peripheral nervous system, part of the
nervous system consisting of the cranial
and spinal nerves.
Pia mater, delicate innermost layer of
the three meninges covering the brain
and spinal cord.
Pons, part of the brain connecting the
medulla oblongata with the midbrain.
Reflex, involuntary and rapid response to
a stimulus.
Schwann cell, cell that forms the myelin
sheath around axons of neurons in the
peripheral nervous system.
Somatic nervous system, part of the
peripheral nervous system that controls
the voluntary movements of the skeletal
muscles
Page 28
controls involuntary activities that help
the body respond to stressful situations.
Synapse, small space or gap where a
nerve impulse passes between the axon
of one neuron and a dendrite of the next
neuron.
Thalamus, part of the brain behind the
hypothalamus that acts as the brain's
main relay station, sending information
to the cerebral cortex and other parts of
the brain.
White matter, whitish nerve tissue of the
central nervous system containing
bundles of myelinated axons.
Neurons. The cells making up the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves are called
neurons. They are special cells capable
of receiving a stimulus (nerve or
electrical impulse), transmitting that
stimulus throughout their length, and
then delivering that stimulus to other
cells next to them. The human body
contains about 200 billion neurons.
Almost half of them are located in the
brain.
A neuron consists of three main
parts: the cell body, dendrites, and an
axon (dendrites and axons are both
referred to as nerve fibers). The cell
body has most of the same structures
found in typical body cells, such as a
nucleus (the part of the cell that controls
its activities). It is ball shaped, about
0.001 inch (0.002 centimeter) in
diameter.
Dendrite comes from the Greek
word dendron , meaning "tree."
Dendrites are hairlike threads branching
off of the cell body like branches of a
tree. Extensions of the cell body, they
contain the same cytoplasm or cellular
fluid found in the cell body. Dendrites
are the points through which signals
from adjacent neurons enter a particular
Nervous System – Brain and Nerves
indentation on an axon where one
Schwann cell ends and another begins is
known as a node of Ranvier. The nodes
are unmyelinated (lack a myelin sheath),
and the nerve or electrical impulse jumps
from node to node as it passes along an
neuron (the signal is then transmitted to
the cell body). Since each neuron
contains many dendrites, a neuron can
receive signals from many other
surrounding neurons.
An axon is a taillike projection
extending out of one end of the cell
body. It ends in a cluster of branches
called terminal branches or axon
terminals. Axons have the opposite
function of dendrites: they carry nerve
impulses away from the cell body.
Axons vary in length and diameter.
Some (such as those in the central
nervous system) are very short, no
longer than 0.01 inch (0.02 centimeter).
Others (such as those in the peripheral
nervous system) can be 3 feet (1 meter)
long.
Most long axons are surrounded
by a white, fatty material called myelin.
The tubelike covering formed is known
as a myelin sheath. It serves the same
kind of function as the wrapping on a
telephone line or an electrical cable. It
protects the axon and prevents electrical
impulses traveling through it from
becoming lost.
Special cells form the myelin
sheath by wrapping themselves around
the axons of neurons. In the CNS, the
cells forming the myelin sheath are
called oligodendrocytes. In the PNS,
special cells known as Schwann cells
form the myelin sheath. The gap or
Page 29
axon (in unmyelinated axons, the
impulse travels continuously along the
axon). Scientists believe Schwann cells
produce a chemical that helps regenerate
or restore damaged neurons in the
peripheral nervous system. For example,
if surgeons are able to reattach a person's
severed hand, that person may regain
some sensation and movement in that
hand as neurons grow and make
connections. Conversely,
oligodendrocytes lack this ability. This is
why an injury to the brain or spinal cord
often results in some permanent loss of
function.
Types of Neurons. Neurons in the body
may be divided into three groups:
sensory neurons, motor neurons, and
interneurons. As their name implies,
sensory neurons carry impulses or
sensations from receptors to the brain or
Supporting Cells. Neuroglia, or glial
cells, are cells that surround neurons in
the central nervous system. They do not
conduct impulses, but help to support
and protect neurons, combining with
them to form what is known as nerve
tissue. They also supply neurons with
nutrients and remove their wastes.
Neuroglia are abundant, accounting for
some ten times the number of neurons.
An example of neuroglia in the CNS are
oligodendrocytes.
Nerves. A nerve is a bundle of axons in
the PNS. Each axon or nerve fiber is
wrapped in delicate connective tissue.
Groups of axons are then bound in
coarser connective tissue to form
bundles. Finally, many bundles are
bound together (along with blood vessels
to nourish the axons and Schwann cells)
by even tougher connective tissue to
form a nerve.
Nervous System – Brain and Nerves
Although brain size varies considerably
among humans, there is no correlation or
link between brain size and intelligence.
spinal cord (central nervous system).
Receptors, which are located in the skin,
skeletal muscles, joints, and internal
organs, detect changes both inside and
outside the body. Motor neurons work in
the opposite direction. They carry
impulses from the brain or spinal cord to
muscles and glands, causing muscles to
contract and glands to secrete. Both
sensory and motor neurons make up the
peripheral nervous system. Interneurons
work entirely within the central nervous
system. They conduct impulses from
sensory to motor neurons.
Nerves are categorized like
neurons according to the direction in
which they conduct impulses. Sensory
nerves, made of the axons of sensory
neurons, carry impulses to the brain and
spinal cord. Motor nerves, made of the
axons of motor neurons, carry impulses
to the muscles and glands. Mixed nerves
contain axons of both sensory and motor
neurons. The most abundant nerves,
mixed nerves can conduct impulses both
to and from the central nervous system.
The Brain. The human brain is a soft,
shiny, grayish white, mushroom-shaped
structure encased within the skull. At
birth, a typical human brain weighs
between 12 and 14 ounces (350 and 400
grams). By the time an average person
reaches adulthood, the brain weighs
about 3 pounds (1.36 kilograms).
Because of greater average body size,
the brains of male are generally about 10
percent larger than those of females.
Page 30
The human brain is composed of
up to one trillion nerve cells. One
hundred billion of these are neurons, and
the remainder are the supporting
neuroglia. The brain consists of gray and
white matter. Gray matter is nerve tissue
in the CNS composed of neuron cell
bodies, neuroglia, and unmyelinated
axons; white matter is nerve tissue in the
CNS composed chiefly of bundles of
myelinated axons.
The brain is protected by the
skull and by three membranes called the
meninges. The outermost membrane is
known as the dura mater, the middle as
the arachnoid, and the innermost as the
pia mater. Also protecting the brain is
cerebrospinal fluid, a liquid that
circulates between the arachnoid.
The Brain Stem. The brain stem is the
stalk of the brain and is a continuation of
the spinal cord. It consists of the medulla
oblongata, pons, and midbrain. The
medulla oblongata is actually a portion
of the spinal cord that extends into the
brain. All messages that are transmitted
between the brain and spinal cord pass
through the medulla. Nerves on the right
side of the medulla cross to the left side
of the brain, and those on the left cross
to the right. The result of this
arrangement is that each side of the brain
controls the opposite side of the body.
Three vital centers in the medulla
control heartbeat, rate of breathing, and
diameter of the blood vessels. Centers
that help coordinate swallowing,
vomiting, hiccuping, coughing,
sneezing, and other basic functions of
life are also located in the medulla. A
region within the medulla helps to
maintain the conscious state. The pons
(from the Latin word meaning "bridge")
conducts messages between the spinal
Nervous System – Brain and Nerves
The Cerebrum. The cerebrum makes up
about 80 percent of the brain's weight. It
lies above the diencephalon. The
cerebrum's outer layer, the cerebral
cord and the rest of the brain, and
between the different parts of the brain.
The midbrain conveys impulses from the
hypothalamus to the pons and spinal
cord. It also contains visual and audio
reflex centers involving the movement
of the eyeballs and head.
Twelve pair of cranial nerves
originate in the underside of the brain,
mostly from the brain stem. They leave
the skull through openings and extend as
peripheral nerves to their destinations.
Cranial nerves bring information to the
brain from regions in the face, head, and
neck. For example, the olfactory nerve
transmits messages about smell from the
nose and the optic nerve transmits visual
information from the eyes. The only
exception is the vagus nerve (vagus
comes from the Latin word meaning
"wandering"). It is the lone cranial nerve
that serves other areas of the body. The
vagus nerve branches extensively to the
larynx, heart, lungs, stomach, and
intestines. Among other functions, it
helps promote digestive activity and
regulate heart activity.
The Diecephalon. The diencephalon
lies above the brain stem, and includes
the thalamus and hypothalamus. The
thalamus is an important relay station for
sensory information coming to the
cerebral cortex from other parts of the
brain. The thalamus also interprets
sensations of pain, pressure,
temperature, and touch, and is concerned
with some of our emotions and memory.
It receives information from the outside
environment in the form of sound, smell,
and taste.
Page 31
cortex, is made entirely of gray matter
(white matter makes up the inner portion
of the cerebrum). The tissue of the
cerebral cortex is about 0.08 to 0.16 inch
(2 to 4 millimeters) thick. The cerebral
cortex is folded extensively. The folds
are called convolutions or gyri, and the
shallow grooves between the folds are
sulci. Deeper grooves, which are less
numerous, are called fissures. The folds
greatly increase the surface area of the
cerebral cortex—it would have a surface
area of about 5 square feet (1.5 square
meters) if spread out—and thus the total
number of nerve cell bodies it contains.
The Cerebellum. The cerebellum is
located below the cerebrum and behind
the brain stem, and is shaped like a
butterfly. The "wings" are the cerebellar
hemispheres, and each consists of lobes
that have distinct grooves or fissures.
The cerebellum controls the actions of
the muscular system needed for
movement, balance, and posture. All
motor activity in the body depends on
the cerebellum.
Respiratory System – Breathing
The Limbic System. The limbic system
is a horseshoe-shaped area of the brain
located along the border between the
cerebrum and diencephalon. Key
structures of the limbic system include
the almond-shaped amygdala and the sea
horse-shaped hippocampus. The limbic
system is concerned with emotional
states (such as rage, fear, and sexual
arousal) and memory. The hippocampus,
in particular, plays a vital role in
learning and long-term memory.
The Spinal Cord. The spinal cord, a
glistening white rope, is a continuation
of the brain stem. It transmits impulses
to and from the brain and controls some
reflex actions. On average, the spinal
cord measures about 18 inches (45
centimeters) in length and about 0.5 inch
(14 centimeters) in width. It weighs
about 1.25 ounces (35 grams).
Page 32

Breathing, controlled by the
respiratory system, is a continuous
process of which a person is normally
unaware. If breathing stops, however, a
person becomes acutely aware of the
fact. An individual can go days without
food and water and hours without sleep,
but only five or six minutes without air.
Anything beyond that would be fatal.
The trillions of cells in the body need a
constant and generous amount of oxygen
to carry out their vital functions. As they
use that oxygen, they give off carbon
dioxide as a waste product. It is the role
of the respiration system, working in
conjunction with the cardiovascular
system, to supply the oxygen and
dispose of the carbon dioxide.
Main Function. The main function of
the respiratory system is to provide
oxygen for the body's cells and remove
the carbon dioxide they produce.
Oxygen is the most important energy
source for the cells. They need it for
cellular respiration: the process by which
the simple sugar glucose is oxidized
(combined with oxygen) to form the
Respiratory System – Breathing
energy-rich compound
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Glucose is
produced in cells by the
breakdown of more
complex carbohydrates,
including starch,
cellulose, and complex
sugars such as sucrose
(cane or beet sugar) and
fructose (fruit sugar).
ATP is the compound
used by all cells to carry
out their ordinary
functions: growth, the
production of new cell
parts and chemicals, and the movement
of compounds through cells and the
body as a whole.
PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Breathing describes the process
of inhaling and exhaling air. The
exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between living cells and the
environment is a process known as
respiration. The respiratory system,
which controls breathing and respiration,
consists of the respiratory tract and the
lungs.
The respiratory tract cleans,
warms, and moistens air on its way to
the lungs. The tract can be divided into
an upper and a lower part. The upper
part consists of the nose, nasal cavity,
pharynx (throat), larynx, and upper part
of the trachea (windpipe). The lower part
consists of the lower part of the trachea,
bronchi, and lungs (which contain
bronchioles and alveoli).
The nose and nasal cavity. The nose
Page 33
is the only external part of the
respiratory system. It is made of bone
and cartilage (tough connective tissue)
and is covered with skin. The two
openings to the outside, called nostrils,
allow air to enter or leave the body
during breathing. The nostrils are lined
with coarse hairs that prevent large
particles such as dust, insects, and sand
from entering.
The nostrils open into a large
cavity, the nasal cavity. This cavity is
divided into right and left cavities by a
thin plate of bone and cartilage called
the nasal septum. The hard portion of the
palate forms the floor of the entire nasal
cavity, separating it from the mouth or
oral cavity below. Three flat, spongy
folds or plates project toward the nasal
septum from the sides of the nasal
cavity. These plates, called nasal
conchae, help to slow down the passage
of air, causing it to swirl in the nasal
cavity.
Alveoli, air sacs of the lungs.
Breathing, process of inhaling and
exhaling air.
Bronchi, largest branch of the bronchial
tree between the trachea and
bronchioles.
Bronchial tree, entire system of air
passageways within the lungs formed by
the branching of bronchial tubes.
Bronchioles, smallest of the air
passageways within the lungs.
Epiglottis, flaplike piece of tissue at the
top of the larynx that covers its opening
when swallowing is occurring.
Esophagus, muscular tube connecting
the pharynx and stomach.
Exhalation, also known as expiration,
the movement of air out of the lungs.
Glottis, opening of the larynx between
the vocal cords.
Respiratory System – Breathing
Hemoglobin, iron-containing protein
pigment in red blood cells that can
combine with oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Inhalation, also known as inspiration,
the movement of air into the lungs.
Larynx, organ between the pharynx and
trachea that contains the vocal cords.
Lungs, paired breathing organs.
Nasal cavity, air cavity in the skull
through which air passes from the
nostrils to the upper part of the pharynx.
Nasal conchae, flat, spongy plates that
project toward the nasal septum from the
sides of the nasal cavity.
Nasal septum, vertical plate made of
bone and cartilage that divides the nasal
cavity.
Nose, part of the human face that
contains the nostrils and organs of smell
and forms the beginning of the
respiratory tract.
Nostril, either of the two external
openings of the nose.
Paranasal sinuses, air-filled chambers in
the bones of the skull that open into the
nasal cavity.
Pharynx, short, muscular tube extending
from the mouth and nasal cavities to the
trachea and esophagus.
Pleura, membrane sac covering and
protecting each lung.
Pulmonary surfactant, oily substance
secreted by the alveoli to prevent their
walls from sticking together.
Respiration, exchange of gases (oxygen
and carbon dioxide) between living cells
and the environment.
Trachea. Also known as the windpipe,
the respiratory tube extending from the
larynx to the bronchi. The nasal cavity is
lined by mucous membrane containing
microscopic hairlike structures called
cilia. The cells of the membrane produce
Page 34
mucus, a thick, gooey liquid. As the
nasal conchae cause air to swirl in the
nasal cavity, the mucus moistens the air
and traps any bacteria or particles of air
pollution. The cilia wave back and forth
in rhythmic movement, and pieces of
mucus with their trapped particles are
swept along to the throat. The mucus is
then either spat out or (more often)
swallowed. Any bacteria present in the
swallowed mucus is destroyed by the
hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice of
the stomach. Air is not only moistened
in the nasal cavity but warmed, as well.
A rich network of thin-walled capillaries
permeates the mucus membrane
(especially the uppermost concha), and
the incoming air is warmed as it passes
over the vessels. When air finally
reaches the lungs, it is similar to the
warm, damp air found in the tropics.
The bones that surround the nasal
cavity contain hollow spaces known as
paranasal sinuses. The sinuses are also
lined with mucous membrane containing
cilia. The mucus produced in the sinuses
drains into the nasal cavity. The main
functions of the sinuses are to lighten the
skull and to provide resonance (sound
quality) for the voice.
The pharynx. The pharynx or throat is a
short, muscular tube extending about 5
inches (12.7 centimeters) from the nasal
cavity and mouth to the esophagus and
trachea. It serves two separate systems:
the digestive system (by allowing the
passage of solid food and liquids) and
the respiratory system (by allowing the
passage of air).
The larynx. The larynx, commonly
called the voice box, forms the upper
part of the trachea. The larynx is made
of nine pieces of cartilage connected by
ligaments. The largest of these cartilages
Respiratory System – Breathing
is the shield-shaped thyroid cartilage,
which may protrude at the front of the
neck, forming the so-called Adam's
apple. The upper cartilage is the
epiglottis, a flaplike piece of tissue.
During swallowing, the larynx rises up
and the epiglottis folds down to cover
the glottis, or the larynx's opening. This
prevents food or liquids from passing
into the lower respiratory tract. Mucous
membrane lines the larynx. A pair of
elastic folds in that lining form the vocal
cords. During silent breathing, the vocal
cords lie against the walls of the larynx.
During speech, the cords are stretched
across the opening of the larynx and air
that passes through causes them to
vibrate, generating sound waves.
Various muscles produce tension on the
cords, making them tighter (shorter) or
looser (longer). The tighter the tension,
the higher the pitch of the sound
produced. Since men's larynges tend to
be larger than women's, their vocal cords
tend to be thicker and longer. The male
voice thus tends to be lower in pitch.
The trachea. The trachea is a tough,
flexible tube about 1 inch (2.5
centimeters) in diameter and 4.5 inches
(11.4 centimeters) in length. Located in
front of the esophagus, it is the principal
tube that carries air to and from the
lungs. Elastic fibers in the tracheal walls
allow the trachea to expand and contract
during breathing, while the cartilage
rings prevent it from collapsing. Mucous
membrane containing cilia lines the
trachea. The mucus produced by the
membrane traps dust particles and other
debris. The cilia move continuously in a
direction opposite that of the incoming
air, helping propel the mucus away from
the lungs to the throat where it can be
swallowed or spat out.
Page 35
The bronchi. The trachea divides
behind the sternum (breastbone) to form
a right and left branch called primary
bronchi (singular: bronchus). Each
bronchus passes into a lung—the right
bronchus into the right lung and the left
bronchus into the left lung. The right
bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter
than the left. As a result, accidentally
inhaled objects (such as pieces of food)
most often enter the right primary
bronchus. By the time incoming air
reaches the primary bronchi, it is warm,
moistened, and cleansed of most
particles or other impurities.
The lungs. The lungs are two broad,
cone-shaped organs located on either
side of the heart in the thoracic or chest
cavity. They extend from the collarbones
to the diaphragm, a membrane of muscle
separating the thoracic cavity from the
abdominal cavity. The base of each lung
rests directly on the diaphragm. The rib
cage forms a wall around the lungs,
protecting them.
At birth, the lungs are pale pink
in color. As people age, their lungs grow
darker. The inhaling of dirt and other
particles increases this aging process,
even scarring the delicate tissue of the
lungs.
Each lung is divided into lobes
separated by deep grooves or fissures.
The right lung, which is larger, is
divided into three lobes. The left lung is
divided into only two lobes. Combined,
the two soft and spongy lungs weigh
about 2.5 pounds (1.1 kilograms).
A membrane sac, called the
pleura, surrounds and protects each lung.
One layer of the pleura attaches to the
wall of the thoracic cavity; the other
layer encloses the lung. A fluid (pleural
fluid) between the two membrane layers
Skeletal System – Body Framework
reduces friction and allows smooth
movement of a lung during breathing.
After the bronchi enter the lungs,
they subdivide repeatedly into smaller
and smaller bronchi or branches.
Eventually they form thousands of tiny
branches called bronchioles, which have
a diameter of about 0.02 inch (0.5
millimeter). This branching network of
bronchial tubes within the lungs is called
the bronchial tree.
The bronchioles branch to form
even smaller passageways that open into
clusters of cup-shaped air sacs called
alveoli (singular: alveolus). The average
person has a total of about 700 million
alveoli (which resemble clusters of
grapes) in his or her lungs. These
provide an enormous surface area-
roughly the size of a tennis court—for
gas exchange. A network of capillaries
surrounds each alveolus. As blood
passes through these vessels and air fills
the alveoli, the exchange of gases takes
place: oxygen passes from the alveoli
into the capillaries while carbon dioxide
passes from the capillaries into the
alveoli.
The membranes of the alveoli are
extremely delicate and thin to allow the
gases to pass easily through them. The
inner lining of those membranes is
coated with a thin layer of tissue fluid (a
gas must be dissolved in a liquid in order
to enter or leave a cell). To prevent the
walls of the alveoli from sticking
together (like the inside walls of a wet
plastic bag), cells in the alveoli also
produce an oily secretion, called
pulmonary surfactant, that mixes with
the tissue fluid (pulmonary refers to
anything relating to or affecting the
lungs).
Page 36
 The word skeleton comes
from the Greek word skeletos ,
meaning "dried up." The parts of
the skeletal system—the bones and
other structures that make up the
joints of the skeleton—are
anything but dried up. Strong yet
light, the skeletal system is made
of living material, with networks
of blood vessels running
throughout. The system protects
body organs, supports the body,
and provides attachment points for
muscles to enable body movement.
All bones act as storage sites for
minerals such as calcium and
phosphorus, and certain bones also
produce blood cells.

PARTS OF THE SKELETAL

SYSTEM
Because the bones making
up the human skeleton are inside
the body, the skeleton is called an
endoskeleton ( endo means "within").
In animals that have an external
skeleton, such as the crab, the skeleton is
called an exoskeleton ( exo means
"outside"). Exoskeletons restrict the
movement of an organism and must be
shed periodically in order for that
organism to grow. Endoskeletons allow
for freer movement and grow along with
an organism. All humans are born with
over 300 bones. As an individual ages,
certain bones (such as those in the skull
and lower spine) fuse or join together,
thereby reducing the number. By the
time an individual reaches adulthood, the
number of bones in the body totals about
206.
Structure of Bone. Bone is living tissue
that is constantly being renewed
throughout life. Three types of bone
cells take part in this process:
osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
( osteon is the Greek word meaning
"bone").
Osteoblasts are the principal
bone-building cells. They produce hard
calcium compounds and flexible
collagen (a fibrous protein), which
combined form the nonliving part of
bone called the bone matrix. The matrix
makes bone strong, hard, and slightly
elastic. In the process of forming the
bone matrix, osteoblasts become trapped
in it. Once they are trapped, they
develop into osteocytes or mature bone
cells. Osteocytes help maintain the hard
bone tissue by removing and replacing
the calcium compounds in the matrix. In
mature adults (whose bones are no
longer growing), osteocytes are the most

Skeletal System – Body Framework Page 37

numerous bone cells. Finally, osteoclasts
are the bone-destroying cells. They
break down bone matrix, releasing
calcium and phosphate ions into the
blood (this is important when blood
calcium levels drop below normal).
Appendicular skeleton, portion of the
skeleton consisting of the pectoral girdle,
the pelvic girdle, and the bones of the
arms and legs.
Axial skeleton, portion of the skeleton
consisting of the skull, vertebral column,
and rib cage.
Bursa, sac filled with synovial fluid that
decreases friction between a tendon and
a bone.
Diaphysis, shaft of a long bone
containing a narrow canal filled with
yellow bone marrow.
Epiphysis, end of a long bone.
Fontanels, also known as soft spots,
fibrous connective tissue between flat
bones in the developing cranium.
Joint, area where adjacent bones meet or
articulate.
Ligament, fibrous connective tissue that
connects bone to bone.
Ossification, process of bone formation.
Osteoblasts, principal bone-building
cells.
Osteoclasts, large cells that break down
bone matrix.
Osteocytes, mature bone cells.
Periosteum, dense fibrous membrane
covering the surface of bones except at
the joints.
Synovial membrane, connective tissue
membrane that lines joint cavities and
secretes synovial fluid.
Tendon, tough, white, cordlike tissue
that attaches muscle to bone.
FOUR TYPES OF BONES -
According to Shape
Skeletal System – Body Framework
Four types are recognized based
on shape. These are long bones, short
bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
Long bones are found in the
extremities: the arms, legs, hands, and
feet (but not the wrists or ankles). As
their name indicates, long bones have a
long central shaft with knobby end
portions. The shaft is called the
diaphysis and each end is called the
epiphysis. Short bones, which are cube-
shaped, are found in confined spaces
such as the wrist and ankle. Flat bones
are thin and wide, providing surfaces for
muscle attachment and protection for
underlying organs. The ribs, shoulder
blades, sternum (breastbone), pelvis
(hips), and most of the bones of the skull
are consider flat bones. Irregular bones
are those that do not fit into the first
three categories. Vertebrae (bones of the
spinal column) and facial bones are
types of irregular bones.
Short, flat, and irregular bones
are all made of spongy bone covered by
a thin layer of compact bone. The
cavities of the spongy bone in these
bones are filled with red bone marrow,
which is the loose connective tissue that
produces blood cells in certain bones. In
adults, red blood cells, five types of
white blood cells, and platelets are
formed in the red bone marrow of
portions of the ribs, vertebrae, sternum,
and pelvis.
AXIAL SKELETON
The Skull. The skull consists of two sets
of bones: cranial bones and facial bones.
In addition to protecting the brain, these
bones protect and support the organs
responsible for sight, hearing, smell, and
taste.
Page 38
 The eight bones of the cranium
(the part of the skull that encloses the
brain) are thin and flat. Interlocking at
their joints, they are immovable. The
frontal bone forms the forehead and the
upper part of the eye sockets. The two
parietal bones form the sides and upper
portion of the cranium. Lying
underneath the parietal bones are the two
temporal bones. The occipital bone
forms the back of the cranium.
Vertebral Column. The skull rests atop
the vertebral column, which encloses the
spinal cord. Also called the spine or
backbone, the vertebral column protects
the spinal cord and helps to support the
weight of the body, transmitting that
weight to the lower limbs. It also
provides attachment sites for the ribs as
well as the muscles that move the trunk
(main part of the body). The individual
bones making up the column are
collectively called vertebrae. A single
bone is called a vertebra.
The Rib Cage. Twelve pairs of ribs
extend forward from the thoracic
vertebrae. Most of the ribs (the first
seven pairs) attach in the front of the
body by cartilage called costal cartilage
to the long, flat sternum or breastbone.
These ribs are called true ribs. The next
five pair of ribs are called false ribs. The
first three pair of false ribs do not attach
directly to the sternum, but to the costal
cartilage of the seventh pair of ribs. The
lower two pair of ribs of false ribs, also
called floating ribs, do not attach to the
sternum at all.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The Pectoral Girdle. Forming a loose
attachment with the sternum is the
pectoral girdle, or shoulder. Each
shoulder is formed by two bones: the
Skeletal System – Body Framework
scapula or shoulder blade and the
clavicle or collar bone. The large
triangular-shaped scapula anchors some
of the muscles that move the upper arm.
The S-shaped clavicle is small and light
and relatively fragile. Each clavicle acts
as a brace for its corresponding scapula,
preventing the shoulder from coming too
far forward. The major advantage to the
loose attachment of the pectoral girdle is
that it allows for a wide range of
shoulder motions and greater overall
freedom of movement.
The Arms. Each arm or upper limb
contains thirty bones. The upper arm
contains only one bone, the humerus,
which extends from the shoulder joint to
the elbow joint. At the elbow joint, the
humerus articulates or connects with the
two bones of the forearm, the radius and
the ulna. When the arm is held out and
palm faces upward, the radius and ulna
are parallel to each other; the radius is on
the thumb side and the ulna is on the
little finger side. When the arm is turned
over and the palm faces downward, the
radius crosses on top of the ulna to form
an X.
The Pelvic Girdle. Unlike the pectoral
girdle, the pelvic girdle is strong and
dense. It consists of two large coxal or
hip bones. Each coxal bone, left and
right, consists of three fused bones—the
ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. The
ilium is the flared, upper portion of a
hip. Each ilium attaches at the rear to the
sacrum, connecting the pelvic girdle to
the vertebral column. The ischium is the
ring-shaped lower part on which a
person sits, and the pubis is the most
forward portion at the bottom of a hip.
These three bones generally have fused
together by the time an individual
reaches adolescence.
Page 39
The Legs. Each leg or lower limb is
similar in form to an arm or upper limb.
Each leg (composed of the thigh, lower
leg, and foot) also contains thirty bones.
The thigh contains only one bone, the
femur, which extends from the hip joint
to the knee joint. The bones of the lower
limbs are thicker and stronger than the
bones of the upper limbs. In fact, the
femur is the longest, strongest, and
heaviest bone in the body. As it runs
down the upper part of the leg, the femur
slants inward. This helps bring the knees
in line with the body's center of gravity.
Ligaments and tendons. Two types of
dense connective or fibrous tissue are
attached to bones—ligaments and
tendons. Ligaments fasten bone to bone
at joints, wrapping around the joints to
hold the bones together. By doing so,
they make joints more stable. Depending
on their location in the body, they can be
shaped like a thick strap, a rope, or a flat
ribbon or bandage. Because they are
bundles containing elastic fibers as well
as collagen fibers, ligaments can stretch
to a certain degree.
Reproductive System – Sex Organs
The reproductive system makes
life possible. An individual does not
need the system to survive, but the
human race does. Without the
reproductive system, babies would not
be born to grow into adults to give birth
to more babies. The human cycle would
end. All living things on the planet
reproduce more of their own kind, and
they do so in one of two ways. Some
organisms reproduce by splitting in half
or by growing buds that eventually turn
into copies of the original organism.
This method, in which a single organism
reproduces itself, is called asexual
reproduction. The reproductive method
whereby a male and female of a
particular species interact and exchange
genetic material to create offspring is
called sexual reproduction. Humans
reproduce by this latter method.
PARTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
The male and female
reproductive systems form the halves
that come together to create new human
life. Each system is composed of
primary and accessory reproductive
organs. In both, the primary sex organs
are called gonads. These gonads produce
reproductive or sex cells called gametes;
they also secrete sex hormones. Despite
their joint purpose to produce offspring,
the two systems are quite different in
structure and function.
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
The male reproductive system. The
primary organs in the male reproductive
system are the testes. Their main
Page 40
function is to produce male gametes or
sperm, which fertilize ova or female
eggs (they also produce the male
hormone testosterone). The reproductive
ducts—epididymis, ductus deferens,
ejaculatory duct, and urethra—carry
sperm from the testes to the exterior of
the body. Accessory glands—seminal
vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands—produce
secretions that combine with sperm to
create semen. The male genitalia
(external sex organs) are the scrotum and
penis.
Testes. The testes are two small, egg-
shaped structures suspended in the
scrotum, a loose sac of skin that hangs
outside the pelvic cavity between the
upper thighs. In a male fetus, the testes
develop near the kidneys, then descend
into the scrotum just before birth.
Each testis measures about 1.5
inches (3.8 centimeters) long and 1 inch
(2.5 centimeters) wide. Internally, a
testis is subdivided into many lobes.
Each lobe contains one to four tightly
coiled tubes, called seminiferous tubules,
in which sperm is produced. The
combined length of all the seminiferous
tubules in a testis equals about 0.5 mile
(0.8 kilometer).
Mature sperm cells are the
smallest cells in the body. Each
tadpolelike sperm cell consists of three
regions: the head, middle piece, and
flagellum. The helmetlike head contains
the male genetic material essential for
reproduction. On the tip of the head is
the acrosome, which contains enzymes
to break down the membrane of an ovum
so fertilization can occur. The middle
piece contains a supply of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), a high-energy
molecule found in every cell in the body.
Reproductive System – Sex Organs
Epididymis. The epididymis is a tube
about 20 feet (6 meters) in length.
Tightly coiled on the posterior or back
side of each testis, each epididymis takes
up very little room. As sperm cells move
through this tube, they absorb nutrients
and become mature or fully developed, a
process that takes about two weeks. The
walls of the epididymis are made of
smooth muscle cells, which helps propel
sperms cells into the ductus deferens.
Ductus Deferens. The ductus deferens,
also called the vas deferens, extends
from each epididymis upward over the
top of the bladder, then down its back
side. The paired ducts measure between
16 and 18 inches (40 and 45 centimeters)
in length. Their smooth muscular walls
move the sperm along through peristaltic
contractions, or a series of wavelike
muscular contractions that move
material in one direction through a
hollow organ.
Ejaculatory Duct. The ejaculatory duct
is a short passageway that is formed by
the union of a ductus deferens and the
duct of a seminal vesicle. Each
ejaculatory duct measures just under 1
inch (2.5 centimeters) in length. Both
ejaculatory ducts empty sperm (from the
ductus deferens) and fluid (from the
seminal vesicle) into the single urethra.
Urethra. The urethra extends from the
base of the urinary bladder to the tip of
the penis, a distance of 6 to 8 inches (15
to 20 centimeters). In males, the urethra
serves both the reproductive and urinary
systems. It transports sperm (with its
fluid) and urine to the body exterior, but
never both at the same time. When
sperm enters the urethra from the
The sperm cell uses the ATP to power its
flagellum, the long whiplike tail, to
move the cell along.
Page 41
ejaculatory ducts, a sphincter or ring of
muscle at the junction of the bladder and
urethra closes, keeping urine in the
bladder (and also preventing sperm from
entering the bladder).
Accessory Glands and Semen. The
three accessory glands produce
secretions that combine with sperm to
create a whitish, somewhat sticky
mixture called semen. Those secretions
(the fluid part of semen) are known
collectively as seminal fluid. Ejaculation
is the sudden ejection of semen from the
penis. A typical ejaculation releases
between 0.07 and 0.17 ounce (2 and 5
milliliters) of semen. Although as many
as 400 to 600 million sperm are
contained in a typical ejaculation, they
make up only about 1 percent of the
volume of the semen because of their
extremely small size.
The seminal vesicles are the first
accessory glands to add secretions to
sperm. Located at the base of the
bladder, their ducts join with the paired
ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory
ducts. Their thick, yellowish secretion,
which makes up about 60 percent of the
seminal fluid, contains high amounts of
fructose (sugar), vitamin C, and other
substances. The secretion helps nourish
and activate the sperm as its passes
through the reproductive tract.
Male Genitalia. The scrotum and penis
are the male genitalia that hang outside
the body. As stated earlier, the scrotum
is a loose sac of skin that hangs outside
the pelvic cavity between the upper
thighs. It is divided into two
compartments, each holding a testis. The
scrotum holds the testes away from the
body since normal body temperature is
too warm for sperm to be produced. The
temperature inside the scrotum is a few
degrees cooler than inside the rest of the
body. If the external temperature
becomes very cold,
Reproductive System – Sex Organs
muscles in the scrotum pull the testes
closer to the body, maintaining the
proper temperature for sperm
production.
The penis is a tubular organ that
surrounds the latter part of the urethra. It
serves two purposes: to conduct urine
outside the body and to deliver semen
into the female reproductive tract. The
two main parts of the penis are the glans
(enlarged tip) and shaft (body). A fold of
skin called the prepuce or foreskin
covers the glans. It is common practice
in certain cultures and religions to
remove the foreskin surgically soon after
birth, a procedure called a circumcision.
The shaft contains three masses or
columns of erectile tissue. Normally, this
spongy tissue is not filled with much
blood. During sexual arousal, however,
blood flow to the tissue increases. The
penis, engorged with blood, becomes
longer, wider, and rigid. This event,
called an erection, allows the penis to
enter the female vagina and deliver
semen to the female's reproductive tract.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
The reproductive system in
females is more complex than that in
males. The system produces female
gametes, called ova or eggs, and
provides a protective space for an ovum
to be fertilized and to develop until birth.
The primary organs in this system are
the ovaries. The accessory organs
Page 42
include the fallopian tubes, the uterus,
the vagina, the genitalia, and the
mammary glands.
Ovaries. The ovaries are two almond-
shaped structures measuring about 1.5
inches (3.8 centimeters) in length. They
are located on each side of the pelvis,
one at the end of each fallopian tube.
Ligaments attach the
Fallopian Tubes. The fallopian tubes,
also called uterine tubes, connect the
ovaries to the uterus. Each fallopian tube
is about 4 inches (10 centimeters) in
length and extremely narrow. The end of
the tube that attaches to an ovary has
fingerlike projections called fimbriae
that partially surround the ovary. The
inner surfaces of the tubes are carpeted
with cilia, microscopic hairlike
structures projecting in from the inner
lining.
Uterus. The uterus, or womb, is a
hollow, muscular chamber shaped like
an upside-down pear. An average uterus
measures about 3 inches (7.6
centimeters) in length and 2 inches (5
centimeters) in width. It weighs
approximately between 1 and 1.4 ounces
(30 and 40 grams). The uterus lies in the
pelvis between the urinary bladder and
rectum and is anchored in place by
various ligaments.
Vagina. The vagina is a muscular tube
extending from the uterus to the
genitalia. It lies parallel to the rectum.
The vagina serves as a exit for menstrual
fluids, receives the penis during
intercourse, and forms the birth canal
through which the fetus passes at the end
of pregnancy. Normally, it measures
about 4 inches (10 centimeters) in
length, but to accommodate all of its
Reproductive System – Sex Organs
majora and minora, clitoris, and greater
vestibular glands.
The mons pubis is the prominent
fatty bulge at the top of the vulva.
Beginning at puberty, this area is
covered with pubic hair. Running down
from the mons pubis are two hair-
covered skin folds or flaps called the
labia majora. They enclose two delicate,
hair-free skin folds called the labia
minora. The area within the labia
minora, referred to as the vestibule,
contains the openings of the urethra
(through which urine passes) and the
vagina.
activities, its length and width vary
widely.
Female Genitalia. In females, the
external sex organs are collectively
called the vulva. The parts making up
the vulva include the mons pubis, labia
Page 43
Mammary Glands. Mammary glands
are found in the breasts of both women
and men. However, they normally
function only in women. Mammary
glands are modified sweat glands that
are actually part of the integumentary
system (skin). Although not directly
involved in the reproduction process,
mammary glands play an important role
in providing nourishment for a newborn
baby and their activities are controlled
by hormones of the reproductive system.
For these reasons, they are considered
accessory reproductive organs.