Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures

The cracks can be classified as structural cracks and non-structural cracks. Non-structural cracks
appear due to internally induced stresses in building materials, environmental effects and restraints
to these effects and do not endanger the safety of the structure. These inevitable non-structural or
intrinsic cracks are quite harmless to the extent of acceptable limits of cracks as given in the code
of practices of IS456:2000 (Table: 1). Again the cracks are classified as active and dormant cracks
depending on the movement of cracks in terms of length, depth and width. Dormant cracks can be
repaired easily but active cracks are difficult to be repaired and have to be observed for longer
period and at least for 6 months before doing any repair to such cracks.

Table: 1

Exposure conditions Width of

Cracking
Members where cracking is not harmful and 0.3 mm
does not have any serious adverse effects on
reinforcement & durability
Members where cracking in tensile zone is 0.2 mm
harmful, exposed to moisture/contact with soil
or ground water
Severe exposure conditions 0.1 mm

Evaluation
Before repair of any type of crack the causes and nature of the crack should be diagnosed
properly. The visual observation can be made for surface appearance of the crack which indicates
the basic cause of the cracking. Location and pattern of cracking like diagonal, longitudinal,
transverse, vertical and horizontal are also to be noted. Some non-destructive tests should also to
be carried out to find out the root cause of cracks in the concrete. Ultra-sonic pulse velocity is
being used to find out the voids, identifying the cracks and measuring the crack depth. Crack
microscope can be used to locate and find out the width of the crack and a digital crack measuring
gauge can also be used for the same purpose. For active crack a crack monitor should be used
which is used to monitor the changes in the crack by taking observation for a longer period.
Concrete endoscope and fiberscope are also being used to find out the cracks inside the concrete.
Cracks due to fire damage can be evaluated by petrography. To detect the leakages, voids inside
the concrete thermal imaging camera can be used. The Table 2 shows how to identify the pattern
of cracks, their possible causes and further tests required.

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Table: 2
Crack Pattern Possible Cause Further work-up
(Symptom) (Diagnosis) (Tests)
Rust stain on surface. Ferrous compounds present in Chemical analysis of sample,
concrete/ mortar, binding wire, nails cover check and carbonation
etc. left, corrosion of rebars. test.

Crack in cover concrete, Corrosion of rebars (main and Cover check, loss of rebars,
Rebars exposed, concrete secondary) caused by chlorides. carbonation and chlorides test.
spalls.

Vertical and horizontal Corrosion of secondary Rebars. Cover to secondary rebars

cracks at interval. check.

Cracks at definite interval.
Map pattern
Rebars too near the surface, corrosion Cover check.
of rebars.
Alkali-Silicate Reaction, early drying Chemical analysis of
out condition, high cement content, constituents.
excess compaction, poor curing.

Diagonal cracks in beams Overload inadequate section of beam, Reverse calculation of shear
near the support. inadequate stirrups. strength of beam section

Vertical cracks in beams Overload, inadequate section of beam, -

near mid span. inadequate longitudinal Rebars.

Foundation / substrate / supporting -

Vertical tapering cracks in member movement.
masonry near vertical joint.

Horizontal cracks Corrosion of embedded Rebars Check the rebar near the crack
for corrosion.
Cracks between RCC and Thermal expansion and contraction. Check the bond between RCC
masonry. and masonry.

Water routed through Movement of joint, through crack in Check the Rebar detail.
cracks in concrete. RCC member.

Repair of cracks:
Polyester and epoxy resins should be used for injection of dormant cracks. For live cracks flexible
material of polysulphide or polyurethane should be used. Before repair of any non structural
cracks the factors have to be considered are: whether the crack is dormant or live; the width and
depth of the crack; whether or not sealing against pressure is required, and, if so, from which side
of the crack will the pressure be exerted and whether or not appearance is a factor.

Repair of Dormant cracks

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Dormant cracks may range in width from 0.05 mm or less (crazing) to 6 mm or more. The width
of the crack has a considerable influence on the materials and methods to be chosen for its
repair.The fine cracks are repaired by low viscous epoxy resin and other synthetic resin by
injecting. Wide cracks on a vertical surface are also repaired by injection methods. Cracks on
horizontal surface can be repaired by injection or by crack filling by gravity.

Dormant cracks, where the repair does not have to perform a structural role, can be repaired by
enlarging the crack along the external face and filling and sealing it with a suitable joint sealer.
This method is commonly used to prevent water penetration to cracked areas. The method is
suitable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated defects. Various materials are used,
including epoxies, urethanes, silicones, polysulphides, asphaltic materials and polymer mortars.
Polymer mortars are used for wider cracks. The crack is routed out, cleaned and flushed out before
the sealant is placed. It should be ensured that the crack is filled completely. Where ever a
cementitious material is being used, dry or moist crack edges must be wetted thoroughly.

Cementitious Grouts

It is used for repair of cracks that are 6 mm and greater in width. It is a mixture of cementitious
material and water, with or without aggregate that is proportioned to produce a pourable
consistency without segregation of constituents.
Cement-based grouts are available in a wide range of consistencies; therefore, the methods of
application are diverse. These materials are the most economical of the choices available for
repair. They do not require unusual skill or special equipment to apply, and are reasonably safe to
handle. These materials tend to have similar properties to the parent concrete, and have the ability
to undergo autogeneous healing due to subsequent hydration of cementitious materials at fracture
surfaces. Shrinkage is a concern in such type of grouts. These are not suitable for structural repairs
of active cracks.
For application of cementious grouts generally, some form of routing and surface preparation,
such as removal of loose debris are needed. Pre-wetting should be done to achieve a Saturated-
Surface-Dry (SSD) condition. Grouts are generally to be mixed to a pourable consistency by using
a drill and paddle mixer, and the consistency may be adjusted thereafter. Application should be
done by hand troweling or dry packing into vertical and overhead cracks to fill allpores and voids
.Finally, a suitable coating to be applied on the repaired surfaces.

One of the potentially effective repair procedures is to inject epoxy under pressure into the cracks.
The injection procedure will vary, subject to the application and location of the crack(s), with
horizontal, vertical, and overhead cracks requiring somewhat different approaches. The approach
used must also consider accessibility to the cracked surface and the size of the crack. Cracks can
be injected from one or both sides of a concrete member. If access is limited to only one side,
installation procedures may include variations in epoxy viscosities, injection equipment, injection
pressure, and port spacing to ensure full penetration of epoxy into the crack. Depending on the
specific requirements of the job, crack repair by epoxy injection can restore structural integrity
and reduce moisture penetration through concrete cracks 0.002 in. (0.05 mm) in width and greater.
However, before any concrete repair is carried out, the cause of the damage must be assessed and
corrected and the objective of the repair understood. If the crack is subject to subsequent
movement, an epoxy repair may not be applicable.

Polymer Modified Cementitious Grout

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It is generally used to repair cracks that are 6 mm and greater in width. It is a mixture consisting
primarily of cement, fine aggregate, water, and a polymer such as acrylic, styrene-acrylic, styrene-
butadiene, or a water-borne epoxy. The consistency of this material may vary from a stiff material
suitable for hand-packing large cracks on overhead and vertical surfaces to a pourable consistency
suitable for gravity feeding cracks in horizontal slabs. These materials are generally more
economical than polymer grouts, and the performance, with respect to bond strength, tensile
strength, and flexural strength, are improved compared with cement-based materials that do not
contain any polymers. These materials are filled in the cracks by some form of routing and filling
the crack (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Crack to be filled with ready to use polymeric repair material

Epoxy Resin Grouts

This is most common polymer material used for gravity feed crack repairs. It should be
formulated to have a very thin consistency (low viscosity) and low surface tension to enable the
resin to easily penetrate fine cracks by gravity alone. Viscosities below 200 centipoise (cps)
should be a minimum requirement. Many epoxies are available with viscosities below 100 cps.
The horizontal concrete elements such as bridge and parking decks, floor slabs, plaza decks, and
similar surfaces can be repaired with gravity feed resin. The cracks should be cleaned and free
from dust. If required some routing may be required to facilitate pouring of resin. The surface
should be cleaned with a compressed air. If water is used during cleaning then it should be dried
for 24hr because the moisture present inside the crack may obstruct the flow of resin. The resin
has to be mixed in a bucket with a paddle mixer. Small cans or squeeze bottles can be used for
pouring into individual cracks. Before pouring of resin the underside of cracks should be sealed
temporarily to avoid any leakage. The pouring should continue till the cracks go on absorbing
after which the excess resin should be removed with a flat rubber squeegee.

Structural Crack Repair with Epoxy Injection

Any structural crack repair should be injected with an epoxy resin. The compressive and bond
strength of epoxy resin is higher than concrete itself. While injecting with epoxy two
parameters are more important; viscosity and pressure required for pumping. Depending upon
the width of the crack the viscosity and pressure has to be selected. In general the manufactures
supply as low viscous and very low viscous resins as injection material. Epoxy is also available
as moisture sensitive and moisture insensitive crack repair material. Before repair one has to
check if moisture is present or not. Table 3 provides the guidance for selecting the type of
material and pressure.

Table: 3 Materials and methods for treating cracks

Type of Crack Width mm Movement Water present Treatment
Hair cracks due to Applying very low viscosity epoxy
shrinkage and < = 0.2 No No resin by brush on cracks. Penetration

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 creep of concrete due to capillary action.
Hair cracks due to Protective coating that are capable of
shrinkage and < = 0.2 No Not always bridging cracks by virtue of mineral
creep of concrete fibre fillers.
Structural cracks Injection grouting with very low
0.2 - 1 No No
in concrete viscosity resin, high pressure.
Structural cracks Injection grouting with low viscosity
1-2 No No
in concrete resin, high pressure.
Structural cracks Injection grouting with low viscosity
2-5 No No
in concrete resin, high pressure.
Structural cracks Grout or pour expanding high
>5 No Dry / Moist
in concrete strength cementitious grouts.
Structural cracks Gravity pour expanding high strength
> 15 No Dry / Moist
in concrete cementitious grouts.
Movement cracks Due to High pressure injection with
in concrete 0.2 - 1 temperature Dry / Moist moisture compatible resin.
Vibration
Movement cracks Medium pressure injection with
0.2 - 2 loading, Dry / Moist
in concrete moisture compatible resin
unloading

Material Properties and Equipment

Epoxy resins are injected for repair of hair line cracks and fissures as narrow as 0.05 mm due
to their unique property of super low viscosity. The appropriate viscosity of the epoxy will
depend on the crack size, thickness of the concrete section, and injection access. For crack
width of 0.3mm or smaller a low viscosity epoxy injection can be used. For wider cracks, or
where injection access is limited to one side, a medium to gel viscosity material may be
suitable. Injection can be made of low pressure (Figure 2) or high pressure system (Figure 3)
depending on the nature of cracks. It is better to use two-component pumps with a static mix
head to prevent premature reaction. The requirement of epoxy resin to bond hardened concrete
to hardened concrete as per ASTM C881 “Standard Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base
Bonding Systems for Concrete,” identifies the basic criteria for selecting the grade and class of
epoxies is given in Table 4.

Figure 2. Packer and Injection Hand Pump Figure 3. High pressure Injection Pump

Table: 4 ASTM C 881 requirements for epoxy resin to be used for bonding hardened concrete
Type 1* Type IV#
Viscosity, centipoise
Grade 1(Low-viscosity),maximum 2000 2000
Grade 2(medium viscosity), minimum 2000 2000

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 maximum 10,000 10,000
Consistency, in
Grade 3(Non-sagging),maximum 1/4 1/4
Gel time, min 30 30
Bond strength, Minimum, Mpa
2 days moist cure 6.9 6.9
14 days, moist cure 10.34 10.34
Absorption,24 h maximum,% 1 1
Heat deflection temperature, oC
7 days minimum, o C - 48.88
Linear coefficient of shrinkage
On cure, maximum 0.005 0.005
Compressive yield strength, Mpa
7 days minimum 55.2 68.94
Compression modulus, Minimum 1034.2 1378.9
Tensile strength,7days Minimum 34.5 48.2
Elongation at break,% 1 1
*Type I: For use in nonload-bearing applications
#Type IV: For use in load-bearing applications

Application of Epoxy Injection

1 Surface preparation
The cracks should be cut and cleaned properly. Any contamination should be removed by
flushing with water or some especially effective solvent. Then the solvent should be blown out
with compressed air, or adequate time should be given for air drying. The surfaces should be
sealed. This keeps the epoxy from leaking out before it gelled. A surface can be sealed by
brushing an epoxy over the surface of the crack and allowing it to harden. If extremely high
injection pressures are needed, then the crack should be cut into a V-shape, filled with an epoxy,
and should be stroke off flush with the surface. The entry ports should be installed thereafter.

2 Fixing of injection ports/nozzles

There are three ways to do this. Fitting of nozzles to be inserted in drilled holes should be made
by drilling a hole into the crack for 8 mm dia injection packers @ 200 to 300 mm c/c, penetrating
below the bottom of the V-grooved section. A fitting such as a pipe nipple should be inserted or
tire valve stem should be inserted into the hole and bonded with an epoxy adhesive. A vacuum
chuck and bit will help to keep the cracks from being plugged with drilling dust. The second
method is by bonded flush fitting. When the cracks are not V-grooved, a common method of
providing an entry port is to bond a fitting flush with the concrete face over the crack. Last
method is by interruption in seal. Another way to allow entry is to omit the seal from part of the
crack. This method uses special gasket devices that cover the unsealed portion of the crack and
allow injection of the adhesive directly into the crack.
3 Mixing
Mixing the two components of epoxy injection grout of base and hardener should be done in a
suitable container with heavy duty slow speed drilling machine with paddle attachment. Mixing
should be made for 2 to 3 minutes to obtain a uniform colour.
4 Injection of Epoxy

For smaller area or isolated crack a hand pump may be used for injection (Figure 4). Hydraulic
pumps, paint pressure pots, or air-actuated caulking guns can be used for larger cracked areas

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(Figure 5). The pressure should be selected carefully, because too much pressure can extend the
existing cracks and cause more damage. If cracks are clearly visible, injection ports can be
installed at appropriate interval by drilling directly into the crack surface. The surface of the crack
between ports is allowed to cure. For vertical cracks, pumping of epoxy into the entry port should
start at the lowest elevation until the epoxy level reaches the entry port above. Then the lower
injection port is caped and the process is repeated at successively higher ports until the crack has
been completely filled in. For horizontal cracks, injection starts from one end of the crack to the
other in the same way. When the pressure is maintained, the crack is filled completely. For
injection from underside of ceiling of flat roof a lot of pressure is being exerted. Hence care
should be taken while injecting from underside.

Figure 4. Injecting with a hand pump Figure 5. Epoxy injection in progress

5 Removals of the Surface Seal
After the injected epoxy has cured, the surface seal is being removed by grinding or some other
appropriate means. Fittings and holes at entry ports should be painted with an epoxy patching
compound.

Cementious Injection Grouts

Ultra fine polymer stable cementitious grouts are also being used for injections for cracks. It is
very much compatible with concrete and can be more effective for densifying the concrete. It
penetrates deep into micro-cracks, while ordinary cement slurry can not. It fills effectively all
honey combs inside the concrete. Its fineness value ranges from 6000 16,000 cm2 / gm which are
2 to 4 times higher than Ordinary Portland cement. The 28days compressive strength for cracks up
to 0.8 mm is usually 40-50Mpa where as for cracks above 0.8 mm width varies between 60-65
MPa. It is more economical than epoxies or PU injections.

Polyurethane (PU) injection

Polyurethane grouts are usually used to repair cracks that are 0.12 mm and greater in width, both
wet and active, and leaking a significant amount of water through joints or cracks. These grouts
are semi flexible; thus, they may tolerate some change in crack width. The reaction time to form
the foam may be controlled from 30 to 45 seconds up to several minutes using different catalyst
additives.
Polyurethane grouts generally are not suitable for structural repairs. Additionally, a highly skilled
work crew is required along with special injection equipment. Finally, these materials typically are
not stable when exposed to UV light. This is usually not a major concern because the material is
injected into a narrow crack where exposure to UV light is minimal.

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Polyurethane chemical grouts are usually injected under pressure as a liquid resin into or in the
vicinity of the leak (Figure6). Once the resin contacts water, a chemical reaction occurs.
Depending on the material formulation, the grout/water combination forms either expansive
closed cell foam (Figure7) or a gel.
Because of the immediate crack arresting nature they are well suited for tanks for the storage of
liquids, dams, tunnels, sewers, and other water-containment structures.

Figure 6. PU Injection in process Figure 7. PU forming foam after the injection

Conclusion
For any nonstructural dormant crack any cementious, or polymer modified cementious will be
more suitable. The epoxy is the best material for injection in to cracks in structural members. But
for densifying and treatment of honeycombs, the cementious grouts will not only be suitable but
also economical. The active cracks need to be treated with a Polyurethane sealant. But if the
cracks are located in water retaining structures or in damp locations then polyurethane injection is
the best option.

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