Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Middle to Late Cenozoic tectonic events in south and central Palawan

(Philippines) and their implications to the evolution of the south-
eastern margin of South China Sea: Evidence from onshore structural
and offshore seismic data
Mario A. Aurelio a, *, Monina T. Forbes b, Kristine Joy L. Taguibao a, Raymundo B. Savella b,
Jaime A. Bacud b, Dieter Franke c, Manuel Pubellier d, e, Dimitri Savva e, Florian Meresse e,
Stephan Steuer c, Coleen D. Carranza a
a
Structural Geology and Tectonics Laboratory, National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines, Velasquez St., UP Campus, Diliman,
Quezon City 1101, Philippines
b
Philippine National Oil Company e Exploration Corporation, PNPC Complex, Merritt Road, Fort Bonifacio, Taguig City, Philippines
c
Federal Institute for Geoscience and Natural Resource (BGR), Hannover, Germany
d
Universiti Teknologi Petronas, 31750 Tronoh, Malaysia
e
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Paris, 24 Rue Lhomond, Paris, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Using recently gathered onland structural and 2D/3D offshore seismic data in south and central Palawan
Received 25 June 2013 (Philippines), this paper presents a new perspective in unraveling the Cenozoic tectonic history of the
Received in revised form southeastern margin of the South China Sea. South and central Palawan are dominated by Mesozoic
16 October 2013
ophiolites (Palawan Ophiolite), distinct from the primarily continental composition of the north. These
Accepted 6 December 2013
Available online 19 December 2013
ophiolites are emplaced over syn-rift Eocene turbidites (Panas Formation) along thrust structures best
preserved in the ophioliteeturbidite contact as well as within the ophiolites. Thrusting is sealed by Early
Miocene (w20 Ma) sediments of the Pagasa Formation (Isugod Formation onland), constraining the
Keywords:
Central-south Palawan
younger limit of ophiolite emplacement at end Late Oligocene (w23 Ma). The onset of ophiolite
Onland structural transects emplacement at end Eocene is constrained by thrust-related metamorphism of the Eocene turbidites,
3D seismic data and post-emplacement underthrusting of Late Oligocene e Early Miocene Nido Limestone. This car-
South China Sea margin evolution bonate underthrusting at end Early Miocene (w16 Ma) is marked by the deformation of a seismic unit
corresponding to the earliest members of the Early e Middle Miocene Pagasa Formation. Within this
formation, a tectonic wedge was built within Middle Miocene (from w16 Ma to w12 Ma), forming a
thrust-fold belt called the Pagasa Wedge. Wedge deformation is truncated by the regionally-observed
Middle Miocene Unconformity (MMU w12 Ma). A localized, post-kinematic extension affects thrust-
fold structures, the MMU, and Late Miocene to Early Pliocene carbonates (e.g. Tabon Limestone). This
structural set-up suggests a continuous convergent regime affecting the southeastern margin of the
South China Sea between end Eocene to end Middle Miocene. The ensuing structures including juxta-
posed carbonates, turbidites and shallow marine clastics within thrust-fold belts have become ideal
environments for hydrocarbon generation and accumulation. Best developed in the Northwest Borneo
Trough area, the intensity of thrust-fold deformation decreases towards the northeast into offshore
southwest Palawan.
! 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Located on the south-eastern margin of the South China Sea

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ63 29260246, þ63 917 8242404 (mobile);
fax: þ63 29260246.
E-mail address: maurelio.nigs@gmail.com (M.A. Aurelio).
(Fig. 1), Palawan Island is often mentioned as being composed of 2
contrasting tectonic terranes. The northern half is underlain by a
continental microblock that drifted away from mainland Asia and
collided with the Philippine arc in Miocene times (Holloway, 1981;

0264-8172/$ e see front matter ! 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2013.12.002
 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673 659

Figure 1. Regional Tectonic Setting of Palawan (regional location shown on upper inset). The island is situated at the south-eastern margin of the South China Sea. The northeastern
edge of the northern half of the island is colliding with the western edge of the Philippine Mobile Belt while its central and south sections are seismotectonically stable. Lower inset
shows distribution of focal mechanism solutions (source: Global Centroid Moment Tensor Project) around Palawan Island showing the nature of earthquakes at the collision zone
and the absence of seismicity in the central and southern sections of the island. Smallest inset shows coverage of study area (Fig. 2) Land topography is from SRTM (Jarvis et al.,
2008), bathymetry is from GEBCO (2009).

Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Mitchell et al., 1986; Wolfart et al., 1986;
Rangin et al., 1990; Yumul et al., 2008; Aurelio et al., 2012a). The
southern half is underlain by ophiolites believed to be derived from
an ocean basin that started forming in Cretaceous times (MMAJ-
JICA, 1988; Rangin et al., 1990; Yumul and Datuin, 1990; Mitchell
et al., 1986; Santos, 1997). The tectonic boundary between the
continental microblock in the north and the ophiolites in the south
remain the subject of discussion. Some authors (e.g. Saldivar-Sali,
1978; Hamilton, 1979; Holloway, 1981) consider the Ulugan Bay
Fault as the boundary between the 2 terranes, while others (e.g.
MMAJ-JICA, 1988; Mitchell et al., 1986; Rangin et al., 1991; Suzuki
et al., 2000, 2001; Taguibao et al., 2012) locate the boundary on
thrust zones near the underground river in Sabang, north of the
Ulugan Bay area. In the south, the ophiolites are seen to be overlain
by late Neogene shallow marine clastic sequences, but also un-
derlain by an Eocene turbiditic sequence in the form of a tectonic
window (Aurelio et al., 2012b; Taguibao et al., 2012). Because of this
setting, Palawan Island has often been considered as an “old”
terrane where the youngest deformational events are those related
to ophiolite emplacement (Mitchell et al., 1986; MMAJ-JICA, 1988;
Aurelio, 1996). This paper aims to unravel previously unrecognized
tectonic events including those that post-date ophiolite emplace-
ment, as well as to better understand a recently recognized but still
poorly understood tectonic wedge formation (Steuer et al., 2013).
For this objective this paper presents recent information gathered
from onshore structural transects and offshore 3-D seismic surveys
in central and south Palawan. Results are analyzed in the context of
their implications in the evolution of the southeastern margin of
the South China Sea.
2. Methodology
This work correlates structural data collected in onshore central
and south Palawan, with those gathered from 2D and 3D seismic
surveys in the adjoining sea to the west (Fig. 2).
2.1. Onshore structural transects
Onshore data presented in this work were gathered mainly from
a structural mapping campaign in late 2010, covering over 250 km
of traverses along rivers, mountain trails, coasts and roads of central
and south Palawan. Data gathered consist mainly of structural
measurements such as faults, joints, fold axes, shear bands and
foliation (CeS structures), and bedding planes. Structural sections
traversing different areas in the island were generated to show the
structural relationships of the different geologic formations that
660 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673
Figure 2. Geologic Map of Central and South Palawan, simplified from MMAJ-JICA (1988) and Aurelio and Peña (2010) and modified in this work. Locations of onland structural
transects (Figs. 4 and 6), offshore seismic lines (Figs. 8e12) and offshore wells used for correlation (Santiago A-IX, Albion Head 1, Aboabo AIX e locations from BED, 1986) are shown.
Bathymetry is from GEBCO (2009). See text for discussion.
underlie the island. The onshore structural transects were then
correlated with offshore sections established from the interpreta-
tion of 2D and 3D seismic data (see below), to correlate onshore and
offshore observations.
Whenever possible and applicable, local paleostress regime and
terrane transport directions were determined using the method of
Angelier (1984, 1989, 1990). This method employs algorithms to
address deviations between computed and measured values. One
approach provided by this technique uses an iterative search
(R4DT) aimed to minimize the angle between shear stress and slip
vector. Another approach (INVD) minimizes the shift in position of
the main stress axes. In both methods, angle differences of pre-
dicted paleostress directions are compared with measured values
and are analyzed in the context of stress regimes at the projected
time of formation of the structures measured.
2.2. Offshore 2D/3D seismics
The seismic data used in this study include regional 2D lines and
a 3D volume acquired in 2007 and 2009, respectively, in the
offshore area west of central and south Palawan (Fig. 2).
2.2.1. Data acquisition and processing
The 2D seismic data were acquired between late 2007 and early
2008 covering a sail kilometer length of 3475 km with 6.25 CDP
spacing and 159 stacking fold. Data gathering was carried out in a
Single-Streamer, using a 3200 cubic-inch tuned Bolt airgun array.
Shots were triggered in distance intervals of 25 m. Input 2-D data
were in the form of shot-point gathers in SEG-D format and navi-
gation files in p190 format. Seismic and navigation files were
merged, followed by geometry update, shot and channel editing,
gun and cable static correction and constant amplitude scaling.
The 3D volume was acquired in late 2009 covering a full fold
area of approximately 754 square kilometers at 18.25 m " 6.25 m
bin spacing. Four-solid digital streamer and a dual source standard
3D method were utilized for the survey. Shots were triggered in
distance intervals of 18.75 m using a Bolt LLXT series gun. The 3D
dataset was processed from navigation-merged SEG-Y field tapes
and later reformatted. Post stack processing applied included gun
and cable correction, scaling, and smoothing.
The 3D volume was depth-migrated using Kirchhoff migration,
employing a velocity model created first from the iteration of
isotropic tomography inversion/vertical transverse isotropy (VTI),
followed by several iterations of anisotropic tomography inversion
(TTI). The initial velocity model was built using water velocities
migration, water bottom pick, and migration velocity from previous
processing. This earlier migration velocity was calibrated against
logs of the Aboabo AIX well (Robertson Research Private, Ltd., 1981).
2.2.2. Seismic profile interpretation
The 2D and 3D seismic data sets were interpreted with the aid of
the Kingdom Suite (The KINGDOM Software/TKS), and correlated
with offshore wells and onshore field data. Interpretation was done
on depth domain, where several main horizons were mapped,
including the top of a regional carbonate sequence, the top
boundary of a fold-thrust belt, a regional unconformity truncating
the thrust-fold belt sequences, and other important seismic re-
flectors. Faults were identified as spaces cutting across one or more
horizons and were evidenced by sudden increase or decrease of
thickness of overlying sequence, indicating displacement,
depending on the nature of the fault. Grid surfaces were generated
 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673
for each horizon. Contours were rendered from the horizons or
from the grid surfaces generated. While only 3D seismic lines are
shown in this paper, 2D data were also used in the overall analysis.
3. Regional tectonics
Palawan Island is located on the south-eastern edge of the South
China Sea (Fig. 1). Hugging the western flank of the Philippine ar-
chipelago, the island is elongated in a NEeSW direction. Its length
of about 600 km is more than 10 times greater than its average
width of less than 50 km, making the elongated shape of the island
peculiarly distinct from those of the other islands of the archipel-
ago. The island is flanked offshore to the west by a sub-parallel
bathymetric anomaly manifested as the Palawan Trough with
depths exceeding 2000 m in its southern segment.
3.1. Palawan Island
Palawan Island is generally seismotectonically stable. Its
northern edge however, together with the western section of the
islands of Mindoro and Panay (Fig. 1), is colliding with the Philip-
pine Mobile Belt (PMB). This collision was initiated when a conti-
nental fragment of Asia drifted to the southeast and reached the
western edge of the PMB sometime in the Miocene (Holloway,
1981). The drifted piece of Asia eventually formed the continental
North Palawan Block (NPB). The onset of collision between conti-
nental NPB and the PMB arc terrane occurred after the cessation of
the opening of the South China Sea at about 16 Ma (Taylor and
Hayes, 1983). The peak of this continent-arc collisional event is
believed to have been reached at around 14 Mae12 Ma
(Marchadier, 1988; Marchadier and Rangin, 1989, 1990; Rangin
et al., 1988), but it is seen to continue today, albeit already in a
waning stage. At present, collision is expressed in the form of
numerous earthquakes in the western MindoroePanay, north Pal-
awan area. Focal solution of earthquakes are characterized by both
thrust and strike-slip mechanisms (Fig. 1), suggesting an oblique
collision regime. This is consistent with the observed structures in
the offshore collision area between the Manila and Negros Trenches
dominated by NWeSE oriented transpressional faults (Marchadier,
1988; Marchadier and Rangin, 1989, 1990; Rangin et al., 1988).
3.2. Palawan Trough
Several models exist for the origin of the Palawan Trough. One
model considers the trough as the bathymetric expression of
extensional faults related to the rifting of the Palawan continental
microblock between the Cretaceous and the Eocene (Hinz and
Schlueter, 1985; Schlueter et al., 1996). Other authors (e.g.
Mitchell et al., 1986; Letouzey et al., 1987) interpret the Palawan
Trough as the expression of an ancient trench responsible for the
subduction of a proto South China Sea in Palaeogene times. How-
ever, the abrupt termination of the trough against the Luconia
Shoals in the Northwest Borneo Trough area is not easily reconciled
with this interpretation. Hinz et al. (1989), Franke et al. (2008) and
Hesse et al. (2010) present convincing data that show that the
Northwest Borneo Trough area is not underlain by a southeastward
subducting oceanic crust. Instead, the lower plate is composed of
continental crust similar in structural style to that of the Dangerous
Grounds continental terrane.
Despite difficulty in confirming the past existence of a proto
South China Sea mainly because of the absence of its representation
in Philippine stratigraphy (e.g. Peña, 2008; Aurelio and Peña, 2010),
Yumul and Datuin (1990) suggest that the Eocene ophiolites of
Zambales in Luzon Island may represent remnants of this ancient
oceanic lithosphere. Certain authors (e.g. Rangin et al., 1990; Hall,
661
2002) adopt this model and reflect a proto South China Sea crust
between 50 Ma and 35 Ma in their tectonic reconstructions.
Another model considers Palawan Trough as a sediment-starved
foreland trough (Hazebroek and Tan, 1993; Milsom et al., 1997)
downfaulted by thrust front loading of the Dangerous Grounds
continental terrane.
4. Onshore transects: lithology and structures
In central and south Palawan, there is no known present-day
seismotectonic activity, nor any manifestations of continent-arc
collision, past or present (Fig. 1). Compressional tectonics are
instead expressed in the form of numerous inactive thrust faults
best preserved in ophiolitic rocks which are believed to be of
Cretaceous age (Mitchell et al., 1986; MMAJ-JICA, 1988; Aurelio and
Peña, 2010). These thrust faults are sealed by Late Neogene clastic
deposits.
4.1. Longitudinal section: ophiolite thrusts, Eocene tectonic window
The oldest known rocks in central and south Palawan are
Mesozoic ophiolitic rocks (Palawan Ophiolite e Fig. 2), dated on the
basis of the fossil content of pelagic sediments and cherts interca-
lated with pillow basalts (Tumanda et al., 1995; Wolfart et al., 1986),
and from radiometric age determinations of gabbros and perido-
tites (MMAJ-JICA, 1988; Santos, 1997). Lithologies younger than the
ophiolites include Eocene turbidites (Panas Formation) and their
strongly indurated to mildly metamorphosed facies (Pandian For-
mation), and bedded limestones (Sumbiling Limestone), followed
by Late OligoceneeEarly Miocene limestones (Nido Limestone in
the north; Ransang Limestone in the south), and Middle Miocene to
Pleistocene shallow marine clastics and related carbonates (Isugod
Formation, Alphonso XIII Formation, Iwahig Formation). In Aurelio
and Peña (2010), a detailed discussion of the stratigraphy of central
and south Palawan is presented, including formational names, ages,
stratigraphic relationships and correlation, and synonymy. A
simplified stratigraphic correlation of offshore and inland central
and south Palawan is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4 shows a NEeSW transect along the longer axis of
central and south Palawan. This transect shows the structural
relationship among the different lithologies. In central Palawan, the
ophiolites are seen to be thrust over Eocene turbidites of the Panas
Formation forming a tectonic window. The turbidites outcrop as
alternating sandstones, siltstones and shales (Fig. 5a). In certain
cases, these deep marine clastic deposits are affected by mild
metamorphism near and along the thrust boundaries (Fig. 5b).
These turbidites appear to be the equivalents of syn-rift deposits
observed to fill up the deeper parts of half grabens formed during
the rifting of the Asian margin around Palaeocene to Eocene times
and presently observable on both the Palawan and Chinese margins
(Sales et al., 1997; Ding et al., 2011, 2013). Following the deposition
of these turbidites is the onset of spreading of the South China Sea
in Early Oligocene (Holloway, 1981; Taylor and Hayes, 1983).
The kinematics of the thrusting of the ophiolites over the Eocene
turbidites is best preserved in the peridotites exposed in some
mining concessions. In their present, unrotated orientations, fault
striations on thrust planes indicate northerly vergence (Fig. 5c).
This is consistent with strike-slip sets preserved in the same ul-
tramafic rocks of the ophiolites (Fig. 5d). In the south, pillow basalts
(Fig. 5e) are observed to intercalate with pelagic sediments (Fig. 5f).
These are the same deep water sediments dated by Wolfart et al.
(1986) as Late Campanian to Early Maastrichtian (w68 Ma), con-
straining the upper limit of the age of the ophiolites at Late
Cretaceous. Using OsmiumeRhenium dating methods, Santos
(1997) determined ages of as old as 130 Ma for harzburgites,
662 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673

Figure 3. Correlation of Onland and Offshore (Shelfal) Stratigraphies of Central and South Palawan. Offshore formational names are adopted from Forbes et al. (2011), onland
formational names are from Aurelio and Peña (2010). Right-most column is a summary of tectonic events from Eocene to Present (regional and localized convergent events). Brief
description of onshore stratigraphic units shown below correlation column. See text for description of equivalent units in the offshore area.

suggesting that the formation of the ophiolite must have started
much earlier in Early Cretaceous. This 130 Ma harzburgite age is
congruent with similar ages determined by MMAJ-JICA (1988) for
the gabbros of the same ophiolite sequence.
4.2. Transverse section: Neogene sedimentary thrust seal
The valley between the towns of Aboabo and Quezon is the
expression of a Neogene basin unconformably overlying the
Cretaceous ophiolites (Figs. 2 and 6). On this valley, Early Miocene
to Pliocene marine sedimentary sequences and limestones can be
seen to abut abruptly unto rugged mountain flanks cored either by
mafic and ultramafic rocks of the Palawan ophiolites or by indu-
rated varieties of the Eocene turbidites. Close to this abutment,
siltstone and claystone beds of the Isugod Formation are observed
to incline moderately (40# e60# Fig. 7a) while they remain gentle to
relatively flat towards the center of the basin (Fig. 7b). This defor-
mational style suggests normal faulting at the edges of the sedi-
mentary packages likely related to the initial phases of subsidence
that eventually led to basin formation. This basin seals the thrust
contact between the ophiolites and the Eocene turbidites.
On the western coast of mid-southern Palawan in Quezon town,
bedded limestones corresponding to the Tabon limestone can be
observed to dip gently westwards into the offshore area (Fig. 7c).
The Tabon Limestone represents the carbonate sequences of the
Alphonso XIII Formation of Aurelio and Peña (2010). Their offshore
equivalents are the Likas Limestone and Matinloc Formation
respectively (Forbes et al., 2011). From correlation of onland and
M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673 663

offshore stratigraphies, this Late Miocene e Early Pliocene lime-

Figure 4. Longitudinal Structural Transect of Central and South Palawan. Structural features include: thrust-faulted Mesozoic ophiolites emplaced over Eocene turbidites (tectonic window), Early Miocene sedimentary sequences
stone body is seen to be younging offshore, implying an oceanward
progradation of the deposit (Steuer et al., 2013). The base of the
Matinloc sits on top of a major unconformity, the MMU (see Section
5.2 below).

5. Offshore sections: seismic stratigraphy and structures

sealing thrusting, post-ophiolite emplacement normal faults affecting flanks of Early Miocene e Pliocene sedimentary Basin. Transect location is shown in Figure 2 as Line A-A0 -A00 . See text for discussion.
Recently acquired 2D and 3D seismic data and previous well
data in southwest Palawan allow the establishment of the stratig-
raphy of, and characterization of the structures affecting the
seismic sequences in the offshore area.

5.1. NEeSW line: seismic stratigraphy and onshore correlation

Figure 3 shows the correlation between onland stratigraphy

based on Aurelio and Peña (2010) and offshore stratigraphy based
on Forbes et al. (2011). In offshore southwest Palawan, the oldest
recognizable seismic package is a poorly reflecting unit considered
to represent Cretaceous basement rocks. This unit is affected by
numerous normal faults with a preferred southerly apparent dip
direction, creating a series of tilted blocks (Fig. 8). This unit is
overlain by an Eocene sedimentary unit filling up half grabens
formed by the fault-bounded tilted blocks (Figs. 3 and 8). The
onshore equivalent of these syn-rift sediments are the Eocene
turbidites of the Panas Formation. The syn-rift structures and
Eocene sedimentary fill are truncated by a strong seismic reflector
corresponding to the Late Oligocene e Early Miocene Nido Lime-
stone, whose onland equivalent in north Palawan is the St. Paul
Limestone. A chaotic seismic unit corresponding to the Pagasa
Formation, lies on top of the Nido Limestone. From well data
(Robertson Research Private, Ltd., 1981; location of wells on Fig. 2),
this unit corresponds to a sedimentary package composed of
claystones, shales, siltstones, sandstones and occasional conglom-
erates. The onshore equivalent of this seismic unit is the Isugod
Formation (see also Fig. 7a and b). Sealing the deformed Pagasa
Formation is a distinct reflector corresponding to a major uncon-
formity dated Middle Miocene. The youngest seismic unit corre-
sponds to a Late Miocene e Pleistocene series of shallow marine
clastic deposits and carbonate build ups representing the Matinloc
Formation, Tabon Limestone, Quezon Formation, and Carcar
Limestone. The onshore equivalents are included in the Alphonso
XIII and Iwahig Formations.

5.2. NWeSE lines: rift blocks, half grabens, underthrust limestones,

tectonic wedges, post-wedge extension

5.2.1. Tilted basement blocks

In the offshore area, the deformational style affecting the
Cretaceous upwards into the Pleistocene can best be observed in 3-
D seismic profiles (Figs. 8e12). Structural units include tilted rift
blocks, half-grabens, an underthrust limestone body, a tectonic
wedge and a post-tectonic sedimentary capping. The Cretaceous
basement is affected by normal faults with a preferred westerly
apparent dip direction. Together with the southerly apparent dip
observed from a NEeSW seismic line (Fig. 8), a south-westerly true
dip direction can be deduced.

5.2.2. Syn-rift turbidites

Asymmetric basins in the form of half-grabens result from
these tilted blocks, with the deeper portions flanking the fault-
bounded side. These basins are filled with reflectors dipping to-
wards the deeper section of the basin to the southeast. This
sedimentary fill corresponds to the Eocene turbidites observed
onshore central and south Palawan (Panas Formation) as well as in
664 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673

Figure 5. Outcrop photographs of: (a) turbidites on the west coast of central Palawan, characterized by alternating sandstone, siltstone and shale beds. Thickest sandstone bed
about 20 cm in thickness; (b) intense thrust deformation, sometimes accompanied by slight metamorphism, affecting the turbidites at the vicinity of their thrust contact with the
Mesozoic ophiolites (Palawan Ophiolite). Hammer for scale; (c) emplacement-related thrust planes well preserved in peridotites of the Palawan Ophiolite. Inset shows unrotated
paleostress tensor suggesting NNE-SSW principal stress axis s1 (converging arrows). Human feet and car in distance for scale; (d) strike-slip fault planes preserved in peridotites of
the Palawan Ophiolite. Geologist for scale; (e) geologist sitting on top of an uneroded pillow structure in basalts of the Palawan Ophiloite; (f) pelagic sediments and cherts
intercalated with basalts at the top of the Palawan ophiolite sequence. Geologists’ head and booted leg for scale.

the offshore margins surrounding the South China Sea margin
(Sales et al., 1997; Ding et al., 2011, 2013). The sedimentary fill
inside the half-grabens are observed to overtop the footwall of
each tilted block for more than 500 m in some places (Fig. 8),
suggesting continuous subsidence and sedimentation for an
extended period beyond the rifting phase.
5.2.3. Nido Limestone
Overlying the asymmetric basins is a high amplitude, multiply-
banded reflector corresponding to the Late Oligocene e Early
Miocene Nido Limestone. In the deeper offshore area, this reflector
is generally flat, but dips gently to the southeast towards Palawan
Island (Figs. 9e11). The bottom of the limestone body lies directly
over either the turbidite fill, or the Cretaceous basement block, in
which case an angular unconformity is defined (Figs. 8e10). To-
wards the southwest, the limestone is observed to be segmented by
sub-parallel, southeast-dipping thrust faults (Fig. 11). Thrust
displacement may reach over 1000 m vertically, creating in such
case horizon duplication resulting in bed thickening in the thrust-
affected segments (Fig. 12).
5.2.4. Pagasa Wedge
A thick (over 2500 m) chaotic package of incoherent reflectors
lies on top of the Nido Limestone. This chaotic sequence corre-
sponds to the Pagasa Formation and correlates onshore with the
Isugod Formation. Numerous west-verging, low-dipping listric
thrusts affect the sequence, creating an imbricate juxtaposition of
thrust slabs culminating into anticlines towards the top of the
thrust complex (Figs. 9 and 10). Towards the outer shelf, the thrust
fold deformation dies out where Pagasa Formation reflectors attain
a quiet, gentle westward dip (Fig. 9). This suggests north-westward
progression of the thrust front. This highly deformed, wedge-
shaped seismic unit is herein referred to as the Pagasa Wedge
(see Section 6.2 below).
5.2.5. Nido underthrust marker
Between the Nido Limestone and the main wedge is a 500 m-
thick sequence of deformed reflectors, characterized by imbricate
thrust faults dipping to the southeast (Fig. 9). This deformed
sequence is overlain by a flat-lying reflector which appears to mark
the cessation of deformation, and underlain by the undeformed top
 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673 665

Figure 6. Transverse Structural Transect in South Palawan, featuring the Early Miocene e Pliocene sedimentary basin unconformably overlying the Eocene Panas Formation and
basalts of the Mesozoic Palawan Ophiolite. Transect location is shown in Figure 2 as Line B-B0 . See text for discussion.

Figure 7. Outcrop photographs of: (a) moderately-dipping siltstones and claystones of the Late Neogene basin (Isugod Formation) near its contact with the ophiolites. Hammer for
scale; (b) gently-dipping siltstones and claystones of the Late Neogene basin (Isugod Formation) near and at the synclinal axis of the basin. Geologists for scale; (c) layered beds of
the Tabon Limestone gently dipping offshore towards the northwest on a beach on the west coast of southern Palawan. This beach outcrop and the Aboabo-A1X well in the offshore
area are located at about the same latitude (see also Fig. 2). Person on the beach at middle-ground (right third of photograph) for scale. See text for discussion.
666 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673

Figure 8. (Top) 3D seismic profile (in meter depth) in offshore SW Palawan oriented NEeSW (see Fig. 2 for location) and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing the different
seismic units at the south-eastern margin of the South China Sea. These units include: (a) Cretaceous (and older) basement unit affected by rift-related normal faulting; (b) Eocene
syn-rift deposits filling up asymmetric depositional basins created by the normal fault-bounded, block-tilted basement rocks; (c) a high-amplitude, multi-band reflector corre-
sponding to the Late OliogoceneeEarly Miocene Nido Limestone dipping very gently to the southwest; (d) a chaotic seismic unit corresponding to the Pagasa Wedge affecting Early
to Middle Miocene marine clastics; (e) a regional unconformity truncating Middle Miocene sediments (MMU) and overlain by the Tabon Limestone expressed as a mildly un-
dulating, slope-hugging strong reflector, within a generally clastic unit (Matinloc Formation); (f) a top-most seismic unit expressed as a package of variably coherent (Quezon
Formation) and strong reflectors (Carcar Limestone). See text for discussion.

of the Nido Limestone. This deformed seismic band may either
signify the onset of wedge formation or be related to the initiation
of underthrusting of the Nido Limestone. Whichever is the origin of
the deformation, it signifies a period of compression after the
deposition of the oldest members of the Pagasa Formation.
5.2.6. Syn-thrust fold deposit
A relatively quiet series of reflectors can be seen to overlie the
crest of folds topping the Pagasa Wedge (Figs. 9 and 10). The base of
these reflectors follow the contour of the uneroded fold crests,
suggesting that sedimentation occurred while folding was taking
place. Also, some faults bounding the thrust folds penetrate
through these reflectors. These observations suggest that these
reflectors represent a syn-thrust fold sedimentary deposit. Based
from rock composition observed on borehole well data, this deposit
belongs to the upper sections of the Pagasa Formation.
5.2.7. Middle Miocene unconformity and Plio-Pleistocene
sedimentary cap
All pre- and syn-thrust fold structures are truncated by an un-
conformity dated in offshore wells as Middle Miocene (Figs. 8e12).
In onshore Philippines, this unconformity is readily recognizable in
the western section of the archipelago and is often interpreted to
have resulted to the collision of continental north Palawan with the
western edge of the Philippine arc peaking in the Middle Miocene
(Mitchell et al., 1986; Rangin, 1991; Rangin et al., 1989; Aurelio and
Peña, 2010; Aurelio et al., 2012a). While this unconformity is
widespread in the Philippines, Hutchison and Vijayan (2010) take
prudence in interpreting it as being part of a regional unconformity
called by some authors as the Middle Miocene Unconformity
(MMU). These authors contend that the MMU is a complex of
Miocene events occurring at different periods at different places.
Mat Zin and Tucker (1999), for instance, show that there are both
Early and Middle Miocene events, while Hutchison and Vijayan
(2010) indicate an Early Miocene age for the pronounced uncon-
formity in deep water Sarawak on the basis of strontium isotope
dating (18.6e19.0 Ma, with a 2.0e2.5 my hiatus at the unconfor-
mity). In the Philippines, the age of this collision event has been
estimated between 15 Ma and 12 Ma, based on onshore (Bellon and
Rangin, 1991; Marchadier and Rangin, 1989; Rangin et al., 1991) and
offshore studies (Marchadier, 1988; Rangin et al., 1985, 1988; Silver
and Rangin, 1991).
 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673 667

Figure 9. NWeSE oriented 3D seismic line (in meter depth) in offshore SW Palawan (top) and its structural interpretation (bottom), showing the same seismic units shown in
Figure 8. Other structural features include: a 600 m-thick deformed sequence of lower Pagasa Formation, marking the onset of underthrusting of the Nido Limestone; a north-
westward progressing front of the thrust-fold in the Pagasa Wedge; syn-thrust deposition above the top folds of the fold-thrust; MMU truncating the wedge, overlain by Tabon
Limestone (Matinloc Formation) and Carcar Limestone (Quezon Formation). Line location is shown in Figure 2. See text for more detailed discussion.

Above this unconformity is a sequence of alternating strong and
weak reflectors corresponding to shallow marine clastic sequences
interlayering with carbonate build ups in at least 2 periods, rep-
resented by the Likas Limestone (Tabon Limestone as onshore
equivalent) and the Carcar Limestone. These most recent deposits
generally follow the pre-existing morphology of the depositional
environment, with the carbonates occupying the shelfal areas.
5.2.8. Post-thrust fold (kinematic) extension
Fold limbs on the seaward side of the crest of thrust folds are
affected by northwest-dipping listric normal faults (Figs. 11 and 12).
These structures form part of a growth fault that has displaced the
Late Miocene to Early Pliocene Matinloc Formation (Tabon Lime-
stone as marker) by as much as 600 m vertically on its southeast
side, forming an asymmetric basin tilted to the southeast. This
structure operated after the thrust fold episode, suggesting that a
localized extensional period occurred after the formation of the
Pagasa Wedge.
6. Discussion e Middle to Late Cenozoic tectonic events and
their implications to SCS evolution
The new information presented in this work provide valuable
constraints in deciphering the tectonic events that affected the
south-eastern margin of the South China Sea preceding its opening
in Cretaceous times, until the deposition of collision-sealing car-
bonates in the Late Miocene. The new data also provide better
constraints in delineating the timing and mechanism of intervening
events that include the emplacement of the Mesozoic Palawan
Ophiolites over the Eocene Panas Turbidites, the underthrusting of
668 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673

Figure 10. (Top) NWeSE oriented 3D seismic line (in meter depth) located to the southwest of line shown on Figure 9 (line location shown in Fig. 2) and its structural interpretation
(bottom), showing the same seismic units shown in Figure 8. Other structural features include: the Nido Limestone lying on top of both the Eocene syn-rift sediments and the
Cretaceous basement. The Nido Limestone is seen to be affected by thrusting; a well-developed Pagasa Wedge featuring the imbricate stacking of thrust-fold sheets (NW end) and
syn-thrust deposits above fold crests (note thrusting in the syn-thrust deposits). The MMU as well as the Tabon Limestone is affected by listric normal faults dipping to the
northwest. See text for more detailed discussion.

the Nido Limestone below central and south Palawan and the for-
mation of the Pagasa Wedge.
6.1. Rift structures, syn-rift sediments and post-rift carbonates
The normal fault-bounded tilted blocks affecting Cretaceous
basement both observed on NEeSW (Fig. 8) and NWeSE (Figs. 9e
12) oriented seismic lines, are related to the thinning of the
eastern margin of Southeast Asia in preparation for the rifting of the
North Palawan Block to the southeast. These structures can be
observed on both the Palawan and Chinese margins of the South
China Sea (Sales et al., 1997; Ding et al., 2011, 2013). As the margin
rifted, the fault-bounded tilted blocks became sites of asymmetrical
basin deposition. The deeper sections of these tilted basins
accommodated deep marine clastics, forming the syn-rift turbiditic
sequences that are also exposed in central and south Palawan as the
Eocene Panas Formation. Once the basins were filled up, the shelfal
sections of these basins became the sites of carbonate buildup,
depositing a pre-Nido carbonate formation, equivalent to the
Eocene Sumbiling Limestone seen onshore. As rifting ceased, an
extensive shallow marine area persisted from Late Oligocene to
Early Miocene allowing the deposition of a widely distributed
platform carbonate sequence topped in places by shelfal reefs. In
offshore Palawan, this extensively distributed carbonate sequence
corresponds to the Nido Limestone.
6.2. Juxtaposed ophiolites, wedges and carbonates
The Eocene tectonic window in central Palawan constrains the
earliest limit of the onset of emplacement of the ophiolites over the
 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673 669

Figure 11. (Top) NWeSE oriented 3D seismic line (in meter depth) located to the southwest of line shown on Figure 10 (line location shown on Fig. 2) and its structural inter-
pretation (bottom), showing the same seismic units shown in Figure 8. The Nido Limestone is affected by gently-dipping thrust faults causing bed thickening in places. A northwest-
dipping listric growth fault notably displaces the front of the fold-thrust, causing refolding of structures in the syn-thrust deposit. See text for more detailed discussion.

younger sedimentary terranes. The youngest limit of ophiolite
emplacement can be provided by the sealing Early Miocene Isugod
Formation sediments that fill the AboaboeQuezon Valley.
The underthrusting of the Late Oligocene e Early Miocene Nido
Limestone is marked by the earlier phase of deformation affecting
the oldest member of the Early Miocene Pagasa Formation (Fig. 9).
It is notable that the limestone itself is relatively undeformed at the
thrust front, implying its resistance against deformation at that
segment. The less resistant sedimentary layers directly above the
limestone facilitated its underthrusting. Deeper into the thrust fold
zone, however, the limestone body starts to be dismembered along
thrust faults that appear to inherit weak zones along bedding
planes (Figs. 10 and 11). Eocene clastics near and along thrust faults
have been logged from wells drilled into the wedge, suggesting that
wedge-related thrusting also involved scraping off of Eocene
turbidites below the Nido Limestone. The deformation of the oldest
layers of the Pagasa Formation was followed by the building of the
main Pagasa Wedge, an event that lasted until Middle Miocene.
The emplacement of the ophiolites between end of Eocene to
Early Miocene, the underthrusting of the Nido Limestone in Early
Miocene, and the main wedge formation in the Pagasa Formation
peaking in the Middle Miocene are all products of a continuous
convergence from the Eocene to the Middle Miocene. This implies
that the south-eastern edge of the South China Sea, including the
rifted continental microblock (NPB) and an ancient oceanic crust in
its leading edge (proto South China), has been subjected continu-
ously to convergent tectonics from the Eocene to Middle Miocene.
These events were mainly induced by the continuous south-
eastwards travel of these rifted blocks and their approach to-
wards the western margin of the Philippine Mobile Belt, causing
670 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673

Figure 12. (Top) NWeSE oriented 3D seismic line (in meter depth) located to the southwest of line shown on Figure 11 (line location shown on Fig. 2) and its structural inter-
pretation (bottom), showing the same seismic units shown on Figure 8 and similar structural features shown on Figure 11. The Nido Limestone is significantly displaced by thrusting
causing layer doubling/duplication. Displacement on the post-wedge growth fault is noticeably greater than that observed on Figure 11, suggesting a scissor faulting mechanism
with vertical displacement increasing south-westwards. See text for more detailed discussion.

collisions between converging masses of similar densities (e.g.
continental NPB and PMB arc in the north), and subduction and
obduction where crustal densities differ (e.g. proto South China Sea
and PMB arc). This has produced a pile of terrane units stacked
incongruously on top of each other, including a Cretaceous (and
older) continental terrane with Asian affinity, a Cretaceous ophio-
lite thrust over a turbidite-filled syn-rift sequence, a Late Oligocene
e Early Miocene Limestone thrust under an Early to Middle
Miocene tectonic wedge, all of which are capped by a Late
Miocene e Pleistocene shallow marine sediments and carbonates.
The ophiolites crop out exclusively onshore. The offshore e onshore
transition is marked by the underthrust limestone and the tectonic
wedge.
Steuer et al. (2013) use the limestone packages, the Late Oligo-
cene eEarly Miocene Nido Limestone and the Late Miocene e Early
Pliocene Tabon Limestone to constrain the age of formation of the
 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673
Pagasa tectonic wedge. These authors name this unit the Pulute
Wedge. However, citing numerous datings by several authors,
Aurelio and Peña (2010) pegged the age of the Pulute Formation at
Eocene e Early Oligocene, making it older than the Late Oligocene
e Early Miocene Nido Limestone and almost coeval with the Eocene
turbidites (Panas Formation). The wedge as observed on the seismic
profiles affects the Early- to Middle-Miocene Pagasa Formation
which is younger than the Nido Limestone. The term Pagasa Wedge
is thus adopted in this paper to refer to the wedge observed in the
offshore area.
6.3. Post-wedge normal faults
Northwest dipping listric normal faults are observed to traverse
the entire Tabon Limestone sequence downwards into crestal tops
of the Pagasa Wedge (Figs. 11 and 12). The Tabon Limestone is
observed to be displaced vertically by over 600 m, suggesting a
significant extensional event post-dating wedge formation. Roll-
over faults appear to develop at the toe of the listric fault, refolding
fold structures related to the development of the Pagasa Wedge
(Fig. 9). This listric geometry and the position of the faults near and
in the vicinity of the steep shelf slopes suggest the possibility of
these faults originating as gravity slides. Large gravity slide struc-
tures have been proposed to explain the presence of well developed
toe thrusts at the front of fold thrust belts in the Northwest Borneo
Trough (Franke et al., 2008; Ringenbach et al., 2012). The fold thrust
belt in the Pagasa Wedge may well be the northern extension,
albeit much less developed, of the Northwest Borneo Trough fold
thrust structures.
6.4. Implications to South China Sea evolution
The tectonic events deciphered from the structural data bear
significant implications to the evolution of the South China Sea,
particularly in the development of its south-eastern margin. Pre-
ceding the opening of the South China Sea are conspicuous rift
structures in the form of block-faulted Mesozoic basement rocks
filled with syn-rift basins. These pre-South China Sea oceanic crust
structures are still very well-preserved on the western flanks of the
rifted continental microblock of North Palawan. The Cretaceous to
Eocene turbidites exposed in the north and south sectors of Pala-
wan Island respectively, are testimonies of a deep water basinal
environment characterizing the south-eastern margin of the South
China Sea during these periods. Later into Oligocene, this margin
became shallower allowing the widespread deposition of the Nido
Limestone that can still be traced at present from north-west Pal-
awan to north-west Borneo.
In onshore Palawan, the original syn-rift structures in the basins
are now hardly recognizable due to the intense deformation they
have undergone during the emplacement of the Late Mesozoic
Palawan ophiolites over them. These turbidites are highly
deformed, and sometimes slightly to moderately metamorphosed
where they are seen in contact with the ophiolites. This suggests
that during this time, the south-eastern margin of the South China
Sea started to experience convergence (Fig. 3).
Convergence continued into the Miocene, as evidenced by the
formation of the Pagasa tectonic wedge. On the south-eastern
margin of the South China Sea from central Palawan to north-west
Borneo, the onset of wedging was characterized by the under-
thrusting of the Nido Limestone beneath older rock sequences.
Wedging was then succeeded by a widespread uplift expressed in
western Philippines as a major unconformity towards the end of
Middle Miocene. In the Pliocene, a general subsidence eventually
ensued after this erosional event, but waters in the Palawan area
remained shallow allowing the deposition of carbonate (e.g. Tabon
671
Limestone) and shallow marine (e.g. Matinloc Formation) clastic
sequences. Extensional deformation related to this Pliocene shallow
basin deposition is expressed in the form of syn-depositional
normal growth faults mostly affecting the shelfal areas.
At present, the tectonic regime remains convergent at the north-
eastern margin of Palawan Island towards Mindoro and Panay
Islands, as the collision between the Palawan microcontinent block
and the western edge of the Philippine Mobile Belt wanes. The
central and south sectors of Palawan Island are tectonically stable,
while thrust-fold tectonic deformation characterizes the north-
west Borneo region. This scenario suggests the dominance of
compressional events over extensional events at the south-east
margin of the South China Sea since the formation of the ocean
in early Oligocene times.
7. Conclusions: summary and perspectives
The Middle to Late Cenozoic period in central and south Palawan
saw a succession of significant events mostly involving convergent
tectonic regimes. More specifically, these events from the oldest to
the youngest include:
(a) thrust emplacement of the Cretaceous Palawan Ophiolite
over the Eocene Turbidites of the Panas Formation. The onset
of this event is marked by the metamorphism of the turbi-
dites giving rise to the Pandian Formation, the meta-
morphosed equivalents of the Panas Formation. The absolute
age of this event still needs to be established. Metamorphism
is mild, sometimes only manifesting as strong induration in
the sandstones and siltstones. While the absolute age of
metamorphism has not been determined, it cannot be older
than Early Oligocene by virtue of the fossil content of the
youngest layers of the Pandian Formation (Wolfart et al.,
1986). The upper limit of the ophiolite emplacement is
marked by the overlying clastic sequences of the Early
Miocene Isugod Formation that seal ophiolite emplacement-
related thrust faults. These observations therefore suggest
that the emplacement of the ophiolites over the turbidites
must have taken place between Late Oligocene and Early
Miocene (between w33 Ma and w23 Ma), although the
initial detachment of the ophiolitic material must have
occurred at an earlier period, possibly related to a pre
Oligocene shift in tectonic regime from ophiolite generation
to subduction/obduction that Encarnación (2004) believes
has occurred several times in the Philippines since the
Cretaceous.
(b) underthrusting of the Late Oligocene e Early Miocene Nido
Limestone towards the end of Early Miocene. In offshore
southwest Palawan, this carbonate underthrusting is marked
by a w600 m thick layer of deformed seismic sequence
belonging to the lowermost layers of the Pagasa Formation
dated Early Miocene, prior to the main wedge formation.
Using the older limit of 18 Ma of Steuer et al. (2013), the
underthrusting of the Nido can be constrained to have
happened between w18 Ma and w16 Ma.
(c) main wedge deformation involving the Pagasa Formation
within Middle Miocene (w16 Maew12 Ma). Continued un-
derthrusting of the Nido Limestone initiated the wedging
within the Pagasa Formation starting at around w16 Ma. The
syn-thrust fold sediments deposited at the top of the wedge
are truncated by the Middle Miocene Unconformity, marking
the end of wedging at about w12 Ma. This is about the same
period during which the petroleum-rich fold thrust belt in
the Northwest Borneo Trough is believed to have formed
(Ringenbach et al., 2012).
672 M.A. Aurelio et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 58 (2014) 658e673
(d) post-wedge extension manifested in the form of west-
dipping listric normal faults affecting young sequences
including the Early Miocene e Late Pliocene Tabon Lime-
stone. In southwest Palawan, this post-wedge extension
appears localized in the shelfal area, suggesting that the
event could be due primarily to morphology-induced slope
instabilities. There is a need to better understand any re-
lationships of this event, if any, with that observed in
offshore Northwest Borneo, where fold-thrust forming
decolement normal faulting is believed to have been induced
by the sliding of massive deltaic deposits (Baram Delta) in the
Late Neogene (Ringenbach et al., 2012). A better under-
standing of this relationship bears enormous implications in
evaluating the hydrocarbon potential of offshore southwest
Palawan.
Acknowledgments
M. Aurelio would like to thank the Philippine National Oil
Company e Exploration Corporation (PNOC-EC) and Nido Petro-
leum, Inc. for allowing to publish offshore data in southwest Pala-
wan. The onshore data published in this work mostly come from
Project Geosciences Recherche Industrie e South China Sea (GRI-
SCS), a collaborative project funded by Total France and imple-
mented in the Philippines by the National Institute of Geological
Sciences of the University of the Philippines (UP-NIGS), the Ecole
Normale Supérieure de Paris (ENS) of France, and the Federal
Institute for Geoscience and Natural Resource (BGR), of Germany.
Constructive comments from two anonymous reviewers and en-
couragements from Dr. Kirk McIntosh have greatly improved this
paper. They are herein sincerely acknowledged. JD Dianala of UP-
NIGS provided assistance in drafting some of the original figures.
The Generic Mapping Tool (Wessel and Smith, 1991, 1995) was used
to generate some figures.
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