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Volcanology and Geothermal Energy

Page ii
Published Titles in the LOS ALAMOS SERIES IN BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES,
edited by David H. Sharp and L. M. Simmons, Jr.
1. Wildon Fickett and William C. Davis,
Detonation
2. Charles L. Mader,
Numerical Modeling of Detonation
3. Robert Cowan,
The Theory of Atomic Structure and Spectra
4. Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, eds.,
Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience
5. Wildon Ficket,
Introduction to Detonation Theory
6. Grant Heiken and Kenneth Wohletz,
Volcanic Ash
7. N. Metropolis, D. H. Sharp, W. J. Worlton, and K. R. Ames, eds.,
Frontiers of Supercomputing
8. Charles L. Mader,
Numerical Modeling of Water Waves
9. S. Kass, J. Ptera, R. Moody, R. Slansky,
Kac-Moody Algebras, Weight Multiplicities, and Branching Rules
10. S. M. Ulam,
Analogies Between Analogies. The Mathematical Reports of S. M. Ulam and his Los
Alamos Collaborators
11. Torleif Ericson, Vernon Hughes, and Darragh Nagle,
The Meson Factories
12. Kenneth Wohletz and Grant Heiken,
Page iii

Kenneth Wohletz
Grant Heiken
Edited by Jody H. Heiken

Page iv
University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California
University of California Press
Oxford, England
Copyright © 1992 by the Regents of the University of California
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wohletz, Kenneth.
Volcanology and geothermal energy / Kenneth Wohletz, Grant Heiken.
p. cm. (Los Alamos series in basic and applied sciences: 12)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN (invalid) 0-05-201914-0 (alk. paper)
1. Volcanism. 2. Geothermal resources. I. Heiken, Grant. II. Series.
QE522.W64 1992 91-43707
551.2'1dc20 CIP
Printed in the United States of America
123456789
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information SciencesPermanence of Paper for Printed Library
Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984
Page v
For our families, who have provided inspiration,

instilled the desire to learn, encouraged us to share our knowledge,
and, along the way, given us love
Page vii
Contents
Preface xiii
Introduction 1
Application of Volcanological Observations to
2
Geothermal Exploration
Step 1. Evaluation of Available Information about the
3
Area to Be Studied
Step 2. Field and Laboratory Investigations 4
Step 3. Detailed Field and Laboratory Studies:
4
Geology and Volcanology
Basic Approach 5
Chapter 1. Recent Practical Advances in Volcanology 7
Quantitative Methodology and Volcanology 8
Statistical Methods 8
Physical Processes 9
Chemical Processes 10
Magma Generation, Accumulation and Differentiation
11
in Chambers, and Eruptions
Tectonic Setting and Origin of Magmas 11
Magma Chambers 13
Explosive Eruptions and Quantitative Models 18
Pyroclastic Fallout 21
Pyroclastic Flows 22
Pyroclastic Surge 24
Hydrovolcanism 26
Environments of Hydrovolcanism 30
Nature of Hydrovolcanic Phenomena 30
Hydrovolcanic Products 33
Hydrovolcanic Cycles and Geothermal Energy 33
Chapter 2. Pyroclastic Rocks as a Tool to Evaluate
39
Geothermal Systems
Explosive Eruptions and Geothermal Energy Sources 40
Subsurface Thermal Energy Estimates 42
Pyroclastic Rock Volumes 45
Heat-Flow Calculation 46
Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy 50
Water/Magma (Hydrovolcanic) Interaction: Field and
50
Laboratory Aspects
Basic Concept 52
Wet and Dry Facies Relationships 54
Polygenetic Volcanoes and Calderas 57
Petrography of Hydrovolcanic Tephra Constituents 62
Experimental and Theoretical Aspects of
69
Hydrovolcanism
Results from Experiments 69
Predictions Based on Theory 74
Page viii
Geothermal Importance of Hydrovolcanism 82

Tephra Stratigraphy: Geometry and Depth of
83
Reservoir Rocks
Lithic Ejecta: An Important Geothermal Prospecting
89
Tool
Volcanic Hydrofractures 95
Theoretical Background 97
Size of Hydraulic Fractures 105
Field Examples 111
Summary: Volcanological Interpretation 112
Chapter 3. Surface Manifestations of Geothermal Systems 119
Hot Springs and Geysers 120
Siliceous Sinter Deposits 121
Single-Stage or Primary Sinters 121
Multiple-Stage Sinters 122
Form and Extent of Siliceous Sinter Deposits 122
Travertine 123
Older Spring Deposits 125
Hydrothermal (Phreatic) Craters and Deposits 125
Hydrothermal Alteration 129
Characterization and Interpretation 130
Mapping Alteration Mineralogy 135
Chapter 4. Calderas and Their Geothermal Systems 141
Intrusion 142
Eruption Processes That Lead to Caldera Collapse 146
Volcanism, Structural Deformation, and Sedimentation
150
Following Caldera Collapse
Caldera Structure and Shape 156
Geothermal Systems in Calderas 159
Latium Volcanoes of Italy 161
Latera Volcanic Complex 161
Baccano Caldera 163
The Phlegrean Fields in Italy 166
Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand 170
Geologic Setting 170
Maroa Volcanic Center and Wairakei Geothermal
171
Field
Chapter 5. Silicic Domes: Heat Flow around Small,
177
Evolved Magma Bodies
Silicic Domes and Extrusion of Viscous Lava 178
Common Geologic Settings 178
Evolution and Internal Structure 178
Tephra Deposits Associated with Silicic Domes 180
Initial Plinian and Phreatomagmatic Eruptions 182
Vulcanian Eruptive Cycles 183
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Peléean and Merapian Dome Destruction 185

Phreatic Eruptions 185
Hydrothermal Systems Associated with Domes 187
Role of Water in Dome Eruptions 187
Geothermal Systems Models 188
Structural Influences 192
Coso California Geothermal Field 194
Geologic Setting 194
Hydrogeochemistry 200
Geophysical Character 201
Volcanological Interpretations 204
Usu Volcano in Japan 205
Geology 207
Geophysical Properties 208
Terre Blanche-Belfond in St. Lucia 213
Geology 213
Volcanological Interpretations 218
Chapter 6. Geothermal Systems Associated with Basaltic
225
Volcanoes
Scoria Cones and Tuff Rings 226
Shield Volcanoes 230
Lava Lakes and Magma EnergyResources for the
231
Future
Kilauea Volcano and Kapoho Geothermal Area of
Hawaii 231
Migration of Magma and Evaluation of Thermal
234
Sources
Hydrothermal Systems at Kilauea Caldera and Along
239
Its East Rift Zone
Three Geothermal Systems in Iceland: Krafla, Surtsey,
246
and Heimaey Volcanoes
Migration of Magma and Dike Formation 248
Hydrothermal Reservoirs 250
Geothermal Potential of Several Small Basaltic
252
Islands
Réunion Island in the Indian Ocean 255
Chapter 7. Geothermal Systems in Maturing Composite
261
Cones
Distributions, Volumes, and Compositions 262
Distribution of Composite Cones in Volcanic Arcs 262
Volcanic Eruption Rates and Relative Volumes for
265
Magma Types in Composite Cones of Volcanic Arcs
Inferred Intrusive Volumes and Their Depths below
268
Composite Cones
Eruption Phenomena and Deposits at Composite Cones 268
Immature Stage 269
Submature Stage 273
Mature Stage 275
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Models of Composite Cones 279

Models Based on Mapping and Mining of Porphyry
279
Copper Deposits in Deeply Eroded Composite Cones
Well-Mapped Examples of Eroded Composite Cones 281
A Facies Model 284
A Model Based on Heat Flow Measurements 284
Composite Cone Geothermal Systems 284
Proven (Drilled) Geothermal Fields 285
Composite Cones with Possible Geothermal
290
PotentialAs Yet Unproven by Deep Drilling
Discussion 292
Appendix A: Field Methods in Volcanic Regions 295
Preparation for Field Work 295
Definition of the Problem 295
Library Research 296
Collecting Geographic Materials 296
Establishing the Stratigraphic Framework of a Volcanic
297
Field
Approach 300
Volcanic Rock Units 302
Characteristics of Pyroclastic and Epiclastic Rocks 303
Lava Flows and Domes 306
Correlation of Volcanic Rock Units 309
Lithology and Structure 309
Lava Samples 310
Pyroclastic Samples 312
Structural Analysis 321
The Map 322
Scale and Graphic Detail 325
Thematic Mapping 326
Cross Sections 329
Three-Dimensional Model from Maps, Cross Sections,
333
and Drillhole Data
Recommendations and Justification for Drilling 334
Appendix B: Volcanic Rock Classifications and Data 337
Classification Methods 337
Chemical Classification 337
Textural Classification 338
Density 339
Porosity and Permeability 340
Appendix C: Notation 347
Page xi
Appendix D: Conversion Factors, Steam Properties, and

353
Conversion of Geothermal Heat to Electricity
Conversion Factors 353
Thermodynamic Properties of Steam 353
Conversion of Geothermal Heat to Electricity 354
Appendix E: Heat Flow (Two-Dimensional Diffusion
361
Code)
Source Code Listing 362
Appendix F: Cores and Drill Cuttings: Geothermal Well
369
Logs
Cores 369
Drill Cuttings 370
Geothermal Well Logs 371
Appendix G: Glossary 373
References 385
Index 415
Page xiii
Preface
Los Alamos National Laboratory, with support from the U.S. Department of Energy, has
been developing geothermal energy technology for nearly 20 years. The technology and
experimental verification concepts developed by the Laboratory's Hot Dry Rock Program
have demonstrated tremendous potential for what is now known as heat miningthe
creation of a man-made heat-exchange system in hot, fractured rock. This method was
developed because much of the Earth's crustal heat resources are found in impermeable
rock that is not capable of supporting the hydrothermal system required for a traditional
geothermal resource.
Geologists at Los Alamos have contributed to the fundamental aspects of this geothermal
energy program since its inception. Because the Laboratory's Hot Dry Rock experimental
facility is located near the Valles caldera of the Jemez volcanic field in northern New
Mexico, much of our geological research has focused on understanding the ultimate heat
source for that experiment: the magma body below the Valles caldera. One of the most
complex problems we have studied is how hydrothermal systems develop in calderas and
the relationship of these systems to volcanic vents and rock permeability. Research
drilling within the Valles caldera and the Long Valley caldera of California has expanded
our knowledge of these relationships.
During the past decade, we have applied the experience gained in the Jemez volcanic field
to numerous volcanic areas throughout the world to evaluate their geothermal energy
resources. This book is a testament of our firm belief that volcanic geothermal systems
are uniquely defined by specific combinations of tectonic environment and volcanic
structure. In recognition of these conditions, we have attempted to develop a general
perspective of such geothermal systems from a volcanological viewpoint. Modern
volcanological concepts have not been adequately applied to the numerous geothermal
ventures now being developed
Page xiv
throughout the world. With the application of volcanological observations, one can
quickly locate the areas within volcanic fields that are most likely to contain hydrothermal
systems. In addition, volcanoes and their products may be seen as the initial windows to
subsurface conditions such as the thermal regime and lithology; this information can
greatly reduce the error involved in locating exploration drill holes and geophysical
surveys.
This book is a collation from vast amounts of many individuals' previous work in
volcanology and geothermal exploration. The key to our presentation of this earlier work
is the development of often unrecognized links between these two fields. In review of
many modern volcanological tools and their potential bearing upon geothermal energy
exploration, we present numerous case histories of geothermal development in volcanic
areas. This approach encourages the reader to begin thinking about volcanoes and
geothermal energy in parallel andwe hopestimulates thought processes that might uncover
still more links.
Publication of Volcanology and Geothermal Energy is the result of the dedication and
enthusiastic support of numerous individuals. The University of California Press, in
conjunction with Los Alamos National Laboratory, fosters creation of books that pass on
the knowledge and experience gained in sometimes obscure studies at the Laboratory. We
thank Elizabeth Knoll and David Sharp for their roles in this collaboration. The U.S.
Department of Energy, through Laboratory Directed Research and Development at Los
Alamos, dedicated initial funds for the writing of the book; illustration, design, and
editing have been supported by Laboratory Director's funds.
Jody Heiken should by all rights be listed not only as the editor but also as a contributing
author. In addition to steadfastly and thoroughly editing the often disparate bits and
pieces of text she received from us, she recognized and filled gaps in information,
corrected inconsistencies, and discerned technical problems with sound scientific
judgement. She also developed and implemented the book design. As authors, we owe
the actual completion of the book to her long hours of work. Her firm faith in our
knowledge of the subject often bridged the gap between our files of data and creation of
the text.
Lynn Phipps of Tech Reps, assisted by Mike Dominguez, showed ingenious creativity in
developing the more than 250 illustrations in this book, many of which were adapted
from previous publications and required numerous modifications to fit the evolving text
and format of the book. She also was responsible for design of the chapter icons and the
book cover. Lynn's enthusiasm for this often frustrating work has served as a tremendous
inspiration.
Numerous scientific colleagues have enthusiastically supported our work on this book,
although we name but a few here. Drs. Richard V. Fisher and Wendell Duffield
thoroughly reviewed the book, and much of the information contained in it is attributed
to their fruitful careers in volcanology and geothermal energy. Wes Myers, John Whetten,
and Wayne Morris provided institutional support and logistics for our studies. Fraser
Goff has been an extremely knowledgeable and supportive compatriot in developing our
ideas and organizing field work in geothermal areas.
On another level, our wives, Ann and Jody, and our families have happily accompanied
and patiently waited with us through years of exploration in a jungle of information and
experience, which has required laboratory research and travel to remote geothermal
fields. We hope that they also will reap the benefits we have received in completing this
work.
Page 1
Introduction
Geothermal energy is an important and promising alternative energy resource that has
shown continual growth throughout this century; regrettably, its fortunes have reflected
the variable successes experienced when traditional petroleum exploration techniques are
used. Because the world's highest temperatureand perhaps most abundantgeothermal
resources are associated with volcanic regions, this book develops a framework for
exploration and development of geothermal resources in volcanic areas by linking
modern volcanological concepts to aspects of geothermal energy.
We emphasize the importance of volcanic field observations to geothermal exploration
and review the OLADE (Latin American Energy Development Organization) approach to
geothermal energy exploration. We have integrated quantitative approaches and models
that can be used to collect and interpret field and laboratory data. These quantitative
approaches have been introduced, in a simplified theoretical framework, to also show
some links between volcanology and engineering concepts.
Volcanology has largely been an outgrowth of the larger discipline of geology and, like
geology, is mostly a qualitative or ''inexact" science. In contrast, much of the supporting
science of geothermal energy has evolved from engineering methods that were developed
in the petroleum industry; hence, it is intrinsically more quantitative and has a very
different technical language. This traditional dichotomy in technological approach has, we
believe, hindered progress in both exploration for and developments of geothermal
systems in volcanic areas. We practice a strategy that bridges that gap by first synthesizing
classical and newly developed models of volcanoes (as well as their hydrothermal
systems) and then applying this synthesis to the quantitative and engineering aspects of
geothermal energy exploitation. This philosophy has been implicit in the OLADE
methodology but has never been described and published in detail.
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Because so much of volcanology has direct societal impactand thus requires measures of
certainty, the ability to predict, and inter-disciplinary approachesvolcanological studies
have become increasingly quantitative over the last decade or more. For economic
minerals and geologic hazards applications, these studies must address such problems as
investment security, environmental issues, and municipal safety. Our need for pragmatic
approaches to research has spawned new methods in geophysics, mechanical engineering,
and geochemistry; these techniques are now woven into the fabric of volcanology and
have resulted in an increasingly quantitative discipline. Throughout this book, we attempt
to demonstrate how models based upon these approaches can elucidate the complex and
uncertain environments of volcanic hydrothermal systems.
In developing the text of this book, we have emphasized the inexactitude of the
quantitative or semi-quantitative volcanologic models. Each volcano or volcanic area is
complex and presents an individual problem to be solved systematically. Models only
serve as a framework to focus and possibly enhance the efficiency of exploration and
development. It is for this reason that we use case histories as examples for readers to
consider in terms of typical models.
Finally, it is our intention that by addressing issues of volcanology that can be directly
applied to engineering problems, it will be possible to better incorporate geologic
reasoning into the development of geothermal resources. Through our experience at Los
Alamos National Laboratory, where geologists and engineers work closely, we have
found that the "cross fertilization" of these disciplines produces seeds of understanding
that can grow to strong exploration and development programs, often surmounting
scientific and technological barriers that might have otherwise prevented success.
Application of Volcanological Observations to Geothermal Exploration
Our experience in numerous geothermal exploration projects has taught us a fundamental
axiom for geothermal exploration in volcanic areas. Many of the complexities and
unknown, subsurface characteristics of a volcanic geothermal field can be constrained
through logical deduction that is based upon careful field observation, mapping, sample
studies, and the integration of related geophysical and hydrogeochemical data.
We believe that many geothermal exploration projects in volcanic areas have suffered
from the lack of pertinent volcanological observations and interpretations. So many clues
regarding the location and magnitude of geothermal systems are available from the
volcanic structure and deposits that one might say detailed interpretation of these
observations constitutes a type of "exploration drillhole." Therefore, we stress the need
for careful field volcanology during geothermal exploration projects in volcanic areas.
During the last 10 years, the field of volcanology has been growing rapidly; the resulting
new observations and ideas are providing us with numerous hypotheses on volcanic
structure and processes. In magma genesis, movement, and eruption phenomena, as well
as volcanic structure and thermal histories, there have been many new discoveries that
have engendered a better understanding of igneous systems and their relationship to high-
grade geothermal systems. These hypotheses and discoveries have important geothermal
implications when applied to the interpretation of volcanological observations.
Page 3
Geologists must use what is known about volcanoes, their structure, eruption phenomena,
and composition, to reveal necessary information about the heat sources and settings of
groundwaterkey factors in formation of a hydrothermal system. A basic approach to
exploration includes good geological mapping by whatever means is available:
topographic maps, aerial photographs, satellite photographs, planetable surveying, tape
and brunton traverses, and panoramic viewpoints. Also, systematic descriptions of tephra
deposits and rocks are vital, especially for core logs from exploration holes.
In applying volcanological observations, one should integrate the observations (for
example, mapping and sample analyses) with other information on surface springs and
fumaroles, water chemistry and hydrology, and geophysical surveys, including gravity,
electrical resistivity, seismicity, and heat flow. Any of these surveys by itself, without a
geologic framework, is almost useless; integrated with good geological surveys, each is
valuable. Hydrochemists, geophysicists, reservoir engineers, and geologists must talk to
each other and work as teams to successfully develop geothermal resources.
A basic methodology for geothermal exploration in volcanic fields was developed in 1983
by an international team of experts for the Latin American Energy Development
Organization (OLADE, 1983). The field approach involves learning everything possible
about a volcano or volcanic field, including structure, structural setting, eruption
phenomena, composition, and ages of eruptions (see illustration). Using these data, it is
possible to establish hypotheses regarding the location and magnitude of hydrothermal
resources. Simply put, the volcano and its products supply information normally gathered
from the first drillholes and may provide a view of the volcano's geothermal system or
systems. Employed in conjunction with hydrogeochemical sampling of hydrothermal
waters and gases,
Flow diagram showing steps of the OLADE

methodology for a geothermal project.
the field approach is extremely cost-effective and is the first step toward prescribing the
more expensive geophysical surveys and exploration drilling that will be needed. The
geological and physical volcanological approach involves the three steps outlined here;
these steps are undertaken at the same time as the hydrogeochemical sampling but before
geophysical surveys. Later chapters will expand upon these techniques and their
application.
Step 1
Evaluation of Available Information about the Area to Be Studied
In the initial phase of a project, all existing information is collected and evaluated,
including:
topographic and geological maps at large and small scales;
regional geological syntheses, including stratigraphy, structural geology, and history of
volcanism;
all published and unpublished reports on geology, geochemistry, and geophysics;
satellite images and aerial photography;
Page 4
information on the presence and characteristics of hot springs, fumaroles, and
hydrothermal alteration;
information on drillholes or coreholes from any source, including water well drilling,
petroleum drilling, and coring by mining companies;
published and unpublished geophysical data; and
information on hydrology and meteorology.
Step 2
Field and Laboratory Investigations
Following analysis and interpretation of prior work, field and laboratory investigations
should be designed to answer specific questions regarding (a) the possible presence of
shallow thermal anomalies, (b) regional hydrologic conditions, and (c) the nature of
thermal manifestations. In volcanic regions, it is important to focus geological
observations on a number of points.
Identify those areas where there are episodes of recent volcanism. The definition of
"recent" varies according to the volume of material erupted because large magma bodies
retain heat much longer than small ones do.
Evaluate the relative quantities of silicic and mafic or intermediate volcanic products.
Define, on a regional scale, the present relationship between the volcanic structure and
the regional tectonic framework.
Identify phreatic explosion craters.
Systematically collect samples of all lithologic types for laboratory analysis, including
petrographic and chemical analyses.
Collect lithic clasts (xenoliths) from pyroclastic units for petrographic analysis.
Determine the absolute ages of representative lithologic units.
Study (in preliminary form) all possible reservoir and caprock units.
Analysis and interpretation of field and laboratory data at this time will help define
principal geothermal areas to be studied in detail and, if appropriate, selected for
geophysical surveys and exploratory drilling. Along with results of the regional
hydrogeochemical surveys, the preliminary data can be used to determine areas to be
evaluated for potential commercial development.
Step 3
Detailed Field and Laboratory Studies: Geology and Volcanology
Detailed field and laboratory studies begin with (a) interpretation of aerial photography,
(b) preliminary identification of faults and volcanic structures, (c) hypotheses concerning
the regional volcanotectonic setting, and (d) integration of information from existing
maps. Following this work is a detailed field study that comprises the aspects listed here.
(1) A search for thermal anomalies in the upper crust involves mapping and sampling
young volcanic eruption sequences, especially rock types indicative of shallow magma
bodies. All areas of hydrothermal manifestations, both fossil and active, are mapped and
sampled in conjunction with hydrogeochemical sampling. All volcanic structures are
mapped, including craters, domes, phreatic craters, and associated faults.
(2) In areas with surface hydrothermal manifestations, potential caprocks are mapped and
sampled, and their origin is determined. In volcanic zones, the search for phreatic
explosion craters is emphasized.
(3) The extent of potential geothermal reservoirs can be estimated through
Page 5
A study of lithic clasts (xenoliths) in pyroclastic deposits; these clasts provide
information on the nature of rock units underlying the volcano.
Identification and mapping of recent faults. This effort is essential because active
faults frequently represent zones of fracture permeability.
Determination of the degree of hydrovolcanic activity responsible for pyroclastic
deposits in the volcanic field. This work may identify aquifers beneath the volcano
during recent eruptions. These aquifers could be current hydrothermal reservoirs.
(4) In tropical countries where soils form rapidly and outcrops are soon covered by
vegetation, geological mapping is considerably more difficult. In these situations, several
additional approaches are necessary:
Landform mapping. These maps are based primarily on the interpretation of aerial
photographs and satellite images, especially in young volcanic fields. The
interpretations are field checked along road cuts, stream bottoms, and shorelines, as
well as in quarries.
Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) imagery. Such images are extremely useful in
mapping faults and volcanic landforms in tropical areas, although they may be
relatively expensive to acquire.
Basic Approach
In this book, we review some important advances in volcanology from the last several
decades and show how an understanding of volcanic systems can be applied to
geothermal systems. We have drawn considerable background information from
volcanological literature and combined it with our own research experience in
volcanology, which has been to a large degree in support of geothermal exploration.
This book is organized into seven chapters. The first three chapters review general
volcanological principles and aspects of geothermal reservoirs and manifestations. We
employ recent volcanological findings, emphasizing the importance of fragmental
products of volcanoes (tephra). Chapters four through seven discuss the main types of
volcanic fields, including calderas, silicic domes, basaltic volcanoes, and composite
cones. As well as exploring the pertinent geological structures and models of their origin,
we use known case histories as examples of geothermal exploration and development for
each field type.
The seven appendices provide practical background material, including volcanic field and
laboratory study techniques, rock classification schemes and data, engineering units and
conversions with abbreviated steam table data, a two-dimensional heat flow code for
personal computers, logging methods for cores and cuttings, and an extensive glossary of
volcanological terms.
Through a review of recent advances in volcanology, geothermal applications of
pyroclastic rock studies, and geothermal manifestations, we develop a more quantitative
approach than has commonly been used in volcanic fields. We hope this approach
stimulates readers to think about how previously studied volcanic geothermal areas might
benefit from more quantitative applications.
Page 7
Chapter 1
Recent Practical Advances in Volcanology
Quantitative methods for studying volcanoes and their products are gaining importance in
the evolving field of volcanology. Using increasingly more precise and accessible
laboratory techniques to determine chemical compositions of rocks and minerals,
petrologists have developed methodologies to understand the origins and evolution of
magma. The constraints on temperature and pressure estimated from chemical data are
enhanced by results of geophysical surveys; together, these efforts have led to a better
understanding of magma-chamber dimensions and locations. Simultaneously, the
development of computer capabilities has allowed volcanologists to systematically
quantify field observations that can be numerically modeled by using fluid mechanics.
Although these developments are still relatively immature compared to similar work in
other scientific fields, the advances constitute a tremendous resource for practical
application in geothermal energy exploration.
In this chapter, we briefly review advances in volcanology that we consider to be
fundamentally important for understanding geothermal resources:
documentation and interpretation of chemical zonation in large-volume pyroclastic
deposits and consequential implications concerning the nature of magma chambers,
development of quantitative approaches for describing and understanding eruption
dynamics and the emplacement of volcanic products, and
the hydromagmatic theory of eruption mechanics and its significance in the
interpretation of pyroclastic deposits.
Page 8
Although this list is incomplete if one considers volcanology as a whole, the topics
included here are those we have found to be significant for studies of geothermal systems
in volcanic areas.
As in many other scientific fields, rapidly changing technology is reflected in the evolving
terminology, and we stress this fact because of its importance in the communication of
ideas. Definitions of terms are presented in the Glossary (Appendix G). Terms used in
quantitative methods are especially vital because of their mathematical roots and because
they are widely employed in science and technology. With this concept in mind, it is
appropriate to describe briefly the common quantitative approaches taken in volcanology
before discussing in more detail the three advances mentioned above.
Quantitative Methodology and Volcanology
The consequence of maps as the fundamental method of data representation is perhaps
unique to the science of geology. Volcanology certainly relies heavily upon maps to
graphically portray research problems, their geographic locations, physical and chemical
trends, and hypothetical arguments. On a map, many types of quantitative data can be
portrayed. For example, mapping contours of deposit thickness (isopachs) or clast
diameters (isopleths) within the deposit is a common technique in tephra deposit studies.
The mathematical representation of these contours is a valuable method for locating vent
areas and estimating the volume of eruptive products as well as their emplacement
mechanism (see Chapter 2).
The first step in analyzing a map-oriented data setespecially if a hypothetical argument is
lackingis statistical analysis of data trends. Examples of geological data trends are
discussed extensively by Davis (1973), and specific cases include:
trend-surface analysis of stratigraphic units and topography,
rose diagrams of structural fabrics,
geographic correlation of absolute and relative rock ages,
areal density of specific surface features, and
cluster analysis of geochemical data to define major variations.
Following statistical analysis, hypothesis development and testing can be undertaken, and
these generally focus upon chemical and physical problems. Several recent text books
have employed quantitative approaches in their discussions of volcanology. Williams and
McBirney (1979), Araña and Ortiz (1984), and Fisher and Schmincke (1984) are
recommended reading for a general background in volcanology.
Statistical Methods
Data correlation and analysis, more than any other quantitative approach, have grown in
consequence as a result of enhanced computer techniques for handling statistics and data
bases. In both the chemical and physical aspects of volcanology, statistical approaches are
vital in the development of quantitative models.
Subsequent analysis of frequency distributions is particularly important in pyroclastic
studies because particle-size distributions are indicative of physical processes involved in
eruptionsprocesses such as the eruptive energy and the origin of volatile gases in the
magma system. Parameters describing particle sizes have typically been based on the
assumption of lognormal distribution, but this assumption might not be plausible and
might lead only to empirical interpretations (Wohletz et al., 1989). Because we discuss
tephra grain-size parameters and their interpretation throughout this book,
Page 9
a complete review of this subject is included in Appendix A.
Data correlation makes it possible to assess underlying physical or chemical controls in
cases where independent and dependent variables are hypothesized. Least squares,
regression, and Fourier techniques are commonly applied to correlated data. The use of
multivariate analysis is an issue of greater controversy, but the method may have
significant application in classification schemes (Sheridan and Kortemeier, 1987). The
following pages outline some fundamental physical and chemical relationships that
directly apply to geothermal systems.
Physical Processes
Energy transfer through the earth's crust (and heat flow in particular) is a basic
component of geothermal systems and volcanoes. In general, heat flow is influenced by
several processes that sum in the following equation (Shimazu, 1963).
where temporal heat flow ( = density, C = specific heat, T = temperature, and t = time) is
equal to the sum of the adiabatic temperature gradient ( = the coefficient of thermal
expansion, p = pressure), heat conduction (r = radial distance, kt = the thermal
conductivity), radioactive decay heat (Hi = heat liberated by decay of the ith isotope, i =
decay constant), and heat of reaction (Ji = the heat produced or liberated for the ith
chemical reaction).* To estimate heat flow for volcanic and geothermal systems, this
expression must be altered to include convective heat flow, which can be approximated
by replacing in the above equation several elements:
where uconv is the velocity of convection, which can in turn be approximated by a

function of Rayleigh number: uconv 3(Ra)1/3, where Ra = ( g TD3)/(dtµ), and µ =
viscosity, g = gravitational acceleration, D = a characteristic length of the flow, and dt =
kt/( C).
Studies of mass transfer associated with volcanism generally focus on movement of
magma and magmatic volatiles from the magma chamber to the surface of the earth. Two
extreme cases of these processes are (a) eruptions that result in effusions of lava, and (b)
explosive eruptions in which the expansion of gases determines mass transfer processes.
Incompressible approximations of mass and momentum conservation are useful
descriptive equations. For passive magma flow in conduits, the Bernoulli equation is
where subscripts denote values measured at two different levels in the conduit or flow
system, h1, h2, u = velocity, and fh = a term reflecting frictional losses and is a function of
conduit or substrate surface roughness and Reynolds number: Re = ( uD)/µ. Where the
expansion of volatile phases under conditions of changing pressure and temperature
causes both fragmentation of magma into tephra and rapid acceleration of a gas and solid
mixture from the vent, it is possible to write the Bernoulli equation to account for changes
in gas pressure. Two end-member processes of gas decompression are (a) the adiabatic
case in which no heat is exchanged between the gas and solid particles and (b) the
isothermal case, in which heat is continuously supplied to the gas from the tephra during
decompression. Both cases depend upon the gas weight fraction in the mixture:
*For this equation and those that follow, a complete notation list is provided in Appendix C.
Page 10
where g = the gas density, b = the bulk density of the mixture, and p = the solid
particle density. The adiabatic and isothermal cases are respectively:
where = the gas isentropic exponent (Wilson, 1980).

Various adaptations of Eqs. (1-5) and (1-6) can be applied to different eruptive conditions
(for example, Vulcanian, Plinian, and Strombolian) that are discussed in Chapter 2); they
are then useful in approximating the basic relationships among gas pressure, temperature,
and abundance as well as exit conditions such as ejecta velocity and column height (see
the section on explosive eruptions and quantitative models later in this chapter). However,
these approximations and calculations yield accurate results only when considered in light
of nonlinear relationships like those included in the full set of Navier-Stokes equations
written separately for gas and solid phases (Valentine and Wohletz, 1989; Wohletz and
Valentine, 1990).
Chemical Processes
During the past decade, volcanic petrologists have made great strides in understanding the
complex origins of magma chemistry as revealed by analyses of phenocryst and glassy
components of volcanic products. Because these analyses provide abundant quantitative
data, mathematical approaches are particularly suited for modeling the origins of chemical
signatures.
Magma composition generally evolves with time as a result of (a) initial melting from
source rocks, (b) fractional crystallization caused by cooling and the loss of volatile
constituents, and (c) comingling with magmas of different composition (Carmichael et
al., 1974). The behavior of chemical species during these three important differentiation
processes can be quantitatively modeled by using chemical data provided through bulk
and modal analyses in which trace-element behavior is most indicative of the
differentiation mechanism (Arth, 1976; Allegre and Minster, 1978).
The Rayleigh equation (Rayleigh, 1896; Gast, 1968; Greenland, 1970) applies to fractional
crystallization and predicts the concentration of a particular chemical species remaining in
the liquid (c1) after crystallization of a specific fraction of crystalline phase when the
original species concentration is co:
kd = the Nernst distribution coefficient, which expresses the fraction of the chemical
species in the liquid that enters the crystalline phase. F = the fraction of original melt
remaining. For cases in which the chemical species enters two or more phases, kd is
replaced by Do, the weighted average of solid-liquid partition coefficients of all the
phases. If crystallization is incomplete at some value of F, then c1 given by Eq. (1-7) must
be multiplied by kd or Do, depending upon the number of phases involved.
For conditions of partial melting, in which the liquid phase remains in equilibrium with
the residual solid phases until it is removed (Shaw, 1970), the Berthelot-Nernst equation
predicts c1 by
Page 11
Here P = the bulk partition coefficient for the phases that melt, and F = the fraction of
melted material. When only one phase is melted, P = Do.
Fractional crystallization and partial melting result in a logarithmic relationship between
species concentration in the solid/liquid phases and the degree of melting or
crystallization. When both fractional crystallization and partial melting occur and Do
approaches zero, Eqs. (1-7) and (1-8) reduce to c1 = co/F. If one assumes that fractional
crystallization occurs when there is equilibrium between the total crystallizing solid and
melt, its description takes a form analogous to that of partial melting [Eq. (1-8)].
For situations in which chemical trends are the result of mixing two magmas of different
compositions, a mass balance equation (Gast, 1968) predicts the resulting concentration in
the magma (cx) of some species; mm1, c1, mm2, and c2 are the magma mass and species
concentration of magma 1 and magma 2, respectively:
In contrast to fractional crystallization and partial melting, the concentration of a chemical

species in a mixed magma is linearly dependent on the degree of mixing.
Isotopic tracers are also very useful for determining the origin and evolution of magmas
(Taylor, 1971; Friedman and O'Niel, 1977; DePaolo, 1985). As in the case of stable
isotopes such as oxygen, the isotopic composition is related to a standard. For oxygen, the
heavy-isotope 18O abundance is expressed
where the subscripts s and smow denote the sample and standard mean ocean water
isotopic ratios, respectively. Whereas stable isotopes are considered excellent chemical
tracers, radiogenic isotopes are employed in dating techniques and are widely used in
geochemistry (Faure, 1977).
Magma Generation, Accumulation and Differentiation in Chambers, and Eruptions
Recent geochemical studies in igneous petrology have focused on the processes of
magma generation, evolution, and collection in subsurface reservoirs called magma
chambers. Although chemical reactions continue to change the composition of lava and
tephra after these materials reach the earth's surface, petrologists traditionally studied only
the history of volcanic rocks before their eruption. Major fields of interest have been the
tectonic setting and origin of magma, processes of chemical differentiation, and magma-
chamber dynamics. Recently, with the advent of powerful computers, heat flow,
seismicity, and fluid convective and diffusive processes have been used to develop
comprehensive models of magma chambers. Through geochemical analysis, field samples
of volcanic products yield vital clues about the parent materials of magmas, the depth of
their generation, and the differentiation processes that affected them on their path through
the earth's crust.
Tectonic Setting and Origin of Magmas
Because ~95% of all volcanoes occur at plate margins, their locations are consistent with
the theory of plate tectonics (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Wyllie, 1971), as illustrated by
Fig. 1.1. The magma sources of volcanoes that occur in intraplate areas, whether oceanic
or continental, are more difficult to explain (Christiansen, 1987). In these cases,
hypotheses that involve mantle
Page 12
Fig. 1.1
Tectonic setting of volcanism illustrated by estimated volumes of extrusive rocks found on the
surface of the earth. Magma volumes are expressed in cubic kilometers per year.
(Adapted from Fisher and Schmincke, 1984.)
dynamics, such as hot plumes associated with mantle convection cells (for example,
Clague and Dalrymple, 1987), continental rifting (such as Riecker, 1979), and lithospheric
thinning associated with extensional tectonics (for example, Christiansen and McKee,
1978) appear to be reasonable. Perhaps the most significant aspect of a tectonic setting is
its effect on observed magma compositions and chamber development. (Table 1.1
summarizes five tectonic settings and their volcanic characteristics.) A primary
characteristic for geothermal potential is the chamber depth, which provides information
about the magma source and stagnation depth (the geothermal heat source depth). For
mantle-derived magmas, which are mafic and bear mantle signatures of trace elements
and isotopic ratios (Yoder, 1976), source depths of > 50 km are expected andin the cases
of continental, intraplate volcanoesmay show no crustal reservoirs. On the other hand, in
rifts and extensional terrains, deep mantle magmas promote melting of crustal rocks so
that shallow silicic magma chambers can develop during long periods of magma flux
from the mantle (Hildreth, 1981). In contrast, arc-related volcanoes show the effect of
crustal thickness. Continental arcs have magmas that, having been generated at
intermediate depths of several tens of kilometers, may stagnate or become contaminated
by more siliceous crustal materials during their assent (Eichelberger, 1974).
Page 13
Magma Chambers
Volcanic products are generally classified by their major-element chemistry (Fig. 1.2) or
their modal phenocryst content (Fig. 1.3). These classification schemes (Appendix D) are
useful in relating volcanic rocks to magma types. Accordingly, the origin and evolution of
magma types can be interpreted in a general manner by considering igneous
compositional trends: tholeiitic, transitional, alkalic, potassic, and calcalkalic (Carmichael
et al., 1974). When the field geologist examines pyroclastic samples that do not lend
themselves to the above classification schemes, the color of glass shards can be simply
related to their refractive index as a function of silica content (see Appendix D as well as
Williams et al., 1982, p. 73). Rock classification has been a traditional exercise for
volcanologists, and today the results of this work can be used to determine the nature of
the magma source: its shape, depth, and longevityall of which are important components
when evaluating geothermal potential.
One of the most significant recent advances in volcanology is the development of a
system for relating the chemical aspects of volcanic rocks to magma-chamber dynamics.
This effort has been most fruitful in the cases of volcanoes that have developed calderas
(Williams, 1941). Smith (1979) shows a direct correlation between caldera area and the
volume of products expelled during the caldera-forming eruption (Fig. 1.4). Where
caldera eruptions produce ash flows of differentiated products, Smith and Shaw (1975,
1979) and Smith (1979) show that the volume of these products is ~10% of the volume of
the underlying magma chamber. This simple concept has profound implications in the
search for geothermal heat sources because by using eruption age constraints, cooling
models can predict the residual heat left in and around the magma chamber (Fig. 1.5).
Furthermore, there is growing evidence that zonation of magma chamber chemistry can
be documented by analyses of time-series chemical trends in eruption products (for
example, Hildreth 1979; 1981).
Nonbasaltic volcanic rocks are considered to be products of evolved magmas. Hildreth
(1981) stated, ''every large eruption of nonbasaltic magma taps a magma reservoir that is
thermally and compositionally zoned," and "most small eruptions also tap parts of
heterogeneous and evolving magmatic systems." One general hypothesis is that evolved
or otherwise differentiated magmas have a crustal reservoir. The volume of a crustal
magma chamber is directly proportional to the time required for it to evolve.
Consequently,
Table 1.1. Characteristics of Volcanic Systems and Tectonic Settings
Tectonic Regional Magma Chamber
Dominant Composition
Setting Stress Volumea Depth
Island Arcs MaficIntermediate Intermediate
Continental Arcs 25.6 IntermediateSilicic Shallow
Rifts Extensive 62.5 MaficSilicic DeepShallow
Intraplate Various 5.5 Mafic DeepShallow
a Magma volumes are expressed as a percentage of annual global production
(Schmincke, 1982); the volumes for island arcs and continental arcs are listed as a
combined total.
Page 14
Fig. 1.2
Classification of volcanic rocks by major-element chemistry as expressed in alkali-silica variation
diagrams; details for major oxide concentrations (at right) are shown weight percent.
(Adapted from Cox et al., 1979.)
differentiated volcanic productsespecially where they are several cubic kilometers in
volumeare good indicators of a crustal magma chamber (Fig. 1.5).
Smith's (1979) observation of the correlation between caldera area and ejecta volume
opened the door for interpretation of chemical zonation in silicic magma chambers. He
predicted that "all caldera-forming ash-flow sheets should, when studied in detail, show
some degree of chemical and/or mineralogic gradients inherited from the magma
chamber." Hildreth (1979) documented such gradients in the Bishop Tuff in eastern
California. Assuming that earlier erupted products originate from the top of a magma
chamber and later materials derive from lower portions, it is likely that the time-
sequenced chemical characteristics of
Page 15
Fig. 1.3
Classification of volcanic rocks by modal phenocryst content plotted on a quartz (Q) - alkali feldspar
(A) - feldspathoid (F) - plagioclase (P) diagram. Petrographic analysis may not always be sufficient to
determine the percentage of minerals present in volcanic rocks; a calculated mineral composition,
based upon normative (chemical) composition might be necessary. Williams et al. (1982) question
this approach to classification because it presupposes "the need to agree upon a single rational and
workable system . . ." and it incorporates both "igneous and igneous-looking rocks" in such a
way that it may conceal the natural association and relative abundances of rock types.
(Adapted from Streckheisen, 1967.)
volcanic ejecta depict an inverse order of the magma chamber's compositional
stratification (Fig. 1.6). This chemical stratification also is reflected by oxygen fugacity
and mineral equilibrium temperatures that increase with time in products from a large
eruption (Hildreth, 1981). Several other petrologic features of volcanic ejecta that suggest
magma chamber zonation are isotopic ratios, phenocryst abundances that increase with
SiO2 values (Fig. 1.7), and volatile component abundances. This latter feature is best
typified by stratigraphic relationships showing that early products resulted from more
explosive, gas-rich eruptions and later materials were from
Page 16
Fig. 1.4
Correlation between caldera area and volume of products (ash flows); diagonal lines plot the
model's draw-down depths of magma chambers.
(Adapted from Smith, 1979.)
Fig. 1.5
Conductive models of heat resource as a function of the age and volume of magma
chambers. Odd numbers refer to slab-like magma chamber shapes and even numbers
represent cubic shapes. Lines 1 and 2 take into account heat transfer effects of con-
vection within the magma body, whereas lines 3 and 4 ignore this effect. Systems in
which estimated magma bodies plot above line 5 and 6 have cooled to near ambient
temperatures; those plotting below lines 1 and 2 may still have near solidus tempera-
tures; and those plotting between lines 3 and 4 are at post magmatic temperatures
>300°C. (Adapted from Smith and Shaw, 1975.)
Page 17
Fig. 1.6
Plot of elemental enrichment factors as abundance ratios of early to late products of the Bishop
Tuff eruptions shows the overall difference in magma composition. The line drawn at an
enrichment factor of 1 demarks no enrichment or depletion; elements plotting above this line are
enriched in early products and those plotting below the line are enriched in late products.
These enrichment factors are interpreted to reflect magma chamber zonation, assuming
that the eruption taps different parts of the chamber with time.
(Adapted from Hildreth, 1981.)
gas-poor effusive extrusion. However, Eichelberger et al. (1986) suggested that this
apparent volatile zonation in rhyolitic eruptions might only reflect eruptive conditions. In
Eichelberger's model, the volatiles are not stratified in the magma. Early eruptions are
explosive because the volatile flux is confined within a narrow vent region, whereas later
effusive eruptions involve a gradual degassing of the rhyolite through permeable vent-
wall rocksa process that results in a volatile-poor magma by the time it reaches the surface
and is extruded as a lava flow.
Although major-element abundances do support hypotheses of magma-chamber zonation,
it is analyses of the trace elements that best portray the nature of the zonation and
mechanisms of differentiation as a result of their variable compatibility in various
phenocryst and liquid phases (Fig. 1.8). Petrologic studies of magma suggest that large
chambers are fundamentally basaltic because mantle melting supplies heat to the crust for
crustal melting, provides a mafic component to hybridize with the crustal melts, and
generates a thermal gradient to drive various differentiation processes in the crustal
magma reservoir (Fig. 1.9). This general evolution of crustal magma chambers may
depend upon tectonic environment (Fig. 1.10).
Page 18
Fig. 1.7
Plot of phenocryst abundances vs bulk-rock SiO2 of silicic magma for various
volcanoes. The decrease of phenocryst abundance with increasing SiO2 content is
interpreted to reflect liquidus depression caused by dissolved volatiles, which are
supposed to be more abundant in silica-rich magmas found near the tops of magma
chambers. A = caldera-forming eruption of Aniakchak (Miller and Smith, 1977);
FC = Fish Canyon Tuff (Lipman, 1975); FCM = Fish Creek Mountain Tuff (McKee,
1970); KN = Kneeling Nun Tuff (Elston et al., 1976); MT = Monotony Tuff (Ekren et al., 1971);
LC = Lava Creek Tuff (Christiansen and Blank, 1972); SM = Snowshoe Mountain Tuff (Ratté
and Steven, 1967); AS = Apache Springs Tuff (Rhodes, 1976); AT = Ammonia Tanks
(Byers et al., 1976); A-4 = Aso-4 (Lipman, 1967); BT = Bishop Tuff (Hildreth, 1979);
RM = Ranier Mesa (Christiansen et al., 1977b); S = Shikotsu caldera eruption
(Katsui, 1963); T = Tshirege (Smith and Bailey, 1966); TC = Tiva Canyon
(Christiansen et al., 1977b); TS = Topopah Spring (Christiansen et al., 1977b).
Explosive Eruptions and Quantitative Models

For reasons that will be discussed later in Chapter 2, explosive volcanic eruptions are
significant in the development of geothermal systems. Over the past two decades, our
general knowledge of explosive eruption mechanisms has evolved from the application of
theoretical models to quantitative field data. For example, a tripartite field classification
scheme shown in Table 1.2 is based upon the assumption that products of explosive
eruptions are emplaced as pyroclastic deposits by fallout, flow, and surge.
Fig. 1.8
Plot of rare-earth element (REE) partition
coefficients for clinopyroxene/glass in various
magma compositions. SiO2 content greatly
affects these values; similar trends towards
high partition coefficients with increasing SiO2
content are evident for other phases, including
Fe-Ti oxides, fayalite, and feldspars.
Walker (1973) showed how grain-size characteristics and dispersal area of a pyroclastic
deposit can be used to deduce the type of volcanic eruption from which it was produced
(Fig. 1.11).
A stylized explosive eruption system is depicted in Fig. 1.12. Although relatively little is
known about subsurface processes in the volcanic conduit, the behavior of eruption
columns has been deduced from observations; this information allowed Wilson (1976)
and Sparks and Wilson (1976) to formulate physical conditions in explosive eruption
columns (see also
Page 19
Fig. 1.9
Illustration of processes affecting magma chamber differentiation; idealized thermogravitational
column is at left. Early stage crustal heating by intermediate to basaltic volcanism triggers
crustal melting and buoyant rise of magmas (diapirism), followed by segregation of liquid
phases in a silicic magma chamber. Within the silicic chamber, convection enhances diffusion
processes such as that of Soret (between cold walls and hot center), volatile mass transport (dots),
and wallrock exchange. Stippled pattern depicts enriched zones in the magma chamber roof
and at both ends of the thermogravitational column. Such differentiation processes probably
last longer than the eruptive history of the associated volcanic field,
typically 106 to 107 years in large systems.
Wilson et al. 1980). The basic equations for the eruption are
which express conservation of mass and momentum, respectively, for one-dimensional

flow along the subsurface volcanic conduit. The h and rc = vertical distance and conduit
radius, respectively; g = gravitational acceleration, u = the magma's velocity, p = gRT
(perfect gas law pressure), and = bulk density. fh is the factor expressing frictional loses
along the conduit walls. The relationship among bulk ( b), solid ( p), and gas ( g)
densities is expressed as in Eq. (1-4).
Equations (1-5) and (1-6) earlier in this chapter are solutions for the conservation
relationships of Eqs. (1-11) and (1-12). This quantitative approach to understanding
volcanic phenomena is well summarized by Head and Wilson (1986) for a variety of
eruption types, including effusive processes, Strombolian (scoria cone), Hawaiian (lava
fountain), Plinian
Page 20
Fig. 1.10
Evolution of silicic magma chambers as a function of tectonic environment. These idealized
diagrams illustrate the profound effect of crustal stress on the size and geometry of evolving
magma bodies. The top diagrams depict basalt-rhyolite magmatism in regions of crustal
extension for (a) early and (b) advanced stages. The lower diagrams show two possible
stages of dominantly intermediate volcanism in convergent tectonic regions:
(c) early stage and (d) intermediate stage; the late stage shown in Fig. 1.9.
Page 21
Table 1.2. Tripartite Classification of Pyroclastic Materialsa
Emplacement Areal Deposit Grain-Size Eruption
Mechanism Dispersal Textures Characteristics Mechanism
Class
Fall
Mantles Well sorted
Symmetrical
Ballistic, topography; by terminal
along wind
aerodynamic normally velocity;
vectors; All
drag modified; and reversely coarse near
relatively
suspension (Plinian) vent, fines at
wide-spread
graded beds distance
Flow
Massive;
Directed,
confined to
Steady, lateral radial from
topographic Poorly sorted Plinian,
movement over vent,
lows; fine base fine to coarse Vulcanian,
substrate by grain following
with reverse ash with near Peléean,
flow, saltation, drainages up
pumice grading; vent breccia Merapian
suspension to tens of
some bedded
kilometers
intervals
Surge
Unsteady, lateral
Directed,
blast over Thinly bedded,
partially
substrate by showing variety Poor to
confined by Vulcanian,
pulsating of bedforms: moderate
drainages Surseyan,
saltation, dunes, plane sorting of fine
(some Plinian,
suspension, and beds, massive to coarse ash;
mantling), up phreatic,
grain flow beds, wet zones of fine
to several hydrothermal
locally sediment ash depletion
vent radii
accelerated by deformations
from source
shocks
a See Glossary (Appendix G) for definition of terms.
(pumice and ash columns), Vulcanian (cannon-like explosions), and Peléean (lava dome
destruction).
Pyroclastic Fallout
Pyroclastic fall deposits (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984) are characterized by their relatively
well sorted size characteristics, topography-blanketing dispersal, and graded bedding, but
lack of other internal bedforms. The emplacement characteristics of these deposits are
controlled by the terminal fall velocities of individual pyroclasts (Walker et al., 1971;
Wilson, 1972). One important component for this modeling is the assumption that
eruption columns behave as thermal plumes in which the height of the plume (ht) is
proportional to the quarter root of the mass flux (dm/dt):
The constant of proportionality (kh) is ~43.7 for steady columns and 7.22 for discrete
explosions when dm/dt is expressed in kilograms per second (1 kg/s 1.1 kW) and ht in
meters. For a convecting eruption column, a second important assumption is that vertical
velocities (uv) fit a gaussian function of distance from the plume axis (Carey and Sparks,
1986):
Page 22
where uc = the centerline velocity at height h as determined from solutions of Eqs. (1-5)
and (1-6) (Wilson, 1980); x = the radial distance from the plume axis, and be = the e-
folding distance of uc; 2be is the approximate distance from the plume axis to the visible
edge of the plume (Sparks and Wilson, 1982). Superimposed upon uv is ur, the radial
velocity of lateral plume spread, which is defined as
where rp = the plume radius, a = the mean air density between ht (the plume height) and
hb (the height at which the plume is neutrally buoyant and begins appreciable lateral
movement). Figures 1.13 and 1.14 illustrate the features of this fallout model.
Pyroclastic Flows
Pyroclastic flows (ignimbrites) comprise some of the most voluminous explosive
products in the geologic record, and one possible emplacement model is that for the
gravitational collapse of an eruptive column (Sparks and Wilson, 1976; Wright, 1979).
Based upon Prandtl's (1949) theory of turbulent fluid jets, in which ambient air is
incorporated into the jetthus changing its bulk density, the equation of motion for an
eruptive column (Wilson, 1976) is written:
where q = a ratio of the average column velocity to its centerline velocity, b = the bulk
density of the column, rv = the vent radius, and a = the density of the ambient air.
Numerical solutions to this equation, summarized by Sparks et al. (1978), relate column
height to gas velocity, vent radius, and water content (Fig. 1.15). Column collapse is
predicted for columns that do not continue their upward motion because buoyancy forces
can no longer offset drag forces on the margins of the column.
Fig. 1.11
Classification (Walker, 1973) of eruptive mechanism by grain size and dispersal characteristics of
fallout deposits. Ft is the weight percent of tephra finer than 1 mm found along the dispersal axis
where the deposit thickness is 10% of its maximum. Ad is the area of the deposit where its
thickness is at least 1% of its maximum.
(Adapted from Wright et al., 1981.)
Page 23
Figure 1.16 depicts the onset of gravitational collapse predicted by solutions to Eq. (1-16).
Plinian eruptive column collapse can be precipitated by increases in vent radius or
decreases in the water content of erupting materials; either condition decreases the initial
velocities of the column and leads to its collapse.
Sheridan (1979) and Malin and Sheridan (1982) modeled the runout of pyroclastic flows
and surges by employing an ''energy line" concept (Fig. 1.17) derived by analogy to rock-
fall debris streams (Hsu, 1975), which are dominantly gravity-driven flows. The
maximum distance of runout is computed as the loci of points at which the potential
energy surface of the flow intersects the topographic surface. The velocity of the flow at
any increment (i) along its flow path [v(i)] is simply modeled as its gravitational potential
velocity path: v(i) = [2g h(i)]1/2, where h(i) = height of the energy surface above the
local topography; in general, this value is initially determined by height above the vent
from which the pyroclastic flow collapses. For directed blasts (for example, Hoblitt et al.,
1981), the initial velocity [v(0)] can be taken as a calculated gas-dynamic velocity such as
the blast's sound speed. The flow accelerates with incremental runout distance:
for which (i) = the local slope and µh = the tangent of the energy surface slope ( e),
called the Heim coefficient (Heim, 1932). This number can vary from 0.06, for highly
mobile, large pyroclastic flows, to 0.74, for small pyroclastic flows with low mobility
(Sheridan, 1979). The flow accelerates and decelerates depending upon the local slope, in
such a way that it flows over a total runout distance (Lf) to where its velocity v(i) = 0; v(i)
= [vo + 2a(i)Le(i)]1/2, where Le(i) is measured from topographic maps and t(i) =
2Le(i)/v(i)].
Fig. 1.12
Schematic of an idealized volcanic eruptive system.
Although analytical solutions for subsurface
flow of magma and volatiles can be made,
the exact physical conditions of this flow are
unknown, and this lack of information limits
the calculation of mass and energy transport
within the erupted jet and plume.
(Adapted from Wilson et al., 1980.)
Page 24
Fig. 1.13
Clast trajectories from the umbrella region of a Plinian eruption column; clast sizes
are given in centimeters. Note that the dispersal is greater for the 35-km-high
column than for the 21-km-high column.
(Adapted from Carey and Sparks, 1986.)
Pyroclastic Surge
Relatively thin bedding (generally less than a decimeter), and a multiplicity of bedforms
distinguish the deposits of pyroclastic surges (Fisher and Waters, 1970; Wohletz and
Sheridan, 1979). These textural features are thought to indicate unsteady flow and rapid
variations in particle-to-gas volume ratiosflow conditions that are especially prevalent
during eruptive blasts such as those that may occur during the initial moments of Plinian
eruption (Kieffer, 1981; Wohletz et al., 1984) and explosive hydrovolcanic activity
(Waters and Fisher, 1971).
Kieffer (1984b) showed that some volcanic blasts have a jet structure when they emanate
from the vent orifice. The conditions of the jet can be initially supersonic and will vary
with decompression of the magma reservoir. As Kieffer (1977) showed, the sound speed
of multiphased fluids (cs), such as steam loaded with solid particles found in volcanic
columns, can be substantially less than that of the constituent phases (Marble, 1970). The
sound speed may be several tens to several hundreds of meters per second for steam and
tephra mixtures. Because observed velocities of volcanic ejecta are in the range of 100 to
500 m/s, their flow is internally supersonic and the effects of gas compressibility are
important. The Bernoulli Eq. (1-3) can be written to show the effect of Mach number (M
= u/cs):
in which po = the stagnation pressure (the pressure of the erupting mixture at zero
velocity; for example, the chamber overpressure), ps = the static pressure, and , the
isentropic exponent (ratio of heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume),
expresses the degree to which the erupting mixture approaches isothermal expansion ( =
1.0). In contrast to the incompressible Bernoulli Eq. (1-3), in which the pressure is a
function of velocity only, the compressible form shows that pressure is also a function of
thermodynamic parameters. For eruption columns modeled by incompressible equations,
the pressure along the axis of the column is nearly atmospheric, but for columns erupted
as supersonic jets, the effects of compressibility cause pressure and density to vary by
large factors along the column's axis.
Page 25
To understand flow conditions for surge-producing blasts, it is necessary to solve non-
linear forms of the equations of motion. In simplified form (Kieffer, 1984b), these
equations express
where = density, = the velocity vector, and = the nabla operator that signifies spatial
differentiation. Unlike previous models of eruption columns (for example, Wilson et al.,
1980; Wilson and Walker, 1986; Woods, 1988), these equations cannot be solved
analytically, which is the main reason previous researchers used incompressible
approximations. However, using the classical method of characteristics, Kieffer (1984b)
obtained solutions for the continuous ranges of the equations to show their profound
effect upon the flow of tephra and gas during blast eruptions (Fig. 1.18). A more
complete formulation of this problem (Fig. 1.19) involves the complete set of multiphase,
Navier-Stokes equations and employs a high-speed computer (Valentine and Wohletz,
1989). However, the emplacement of pyroclastic surges, a topic of great importance in
volcanic hazard analysis, has not been so completely analyzed that quantitative models
can predict field relationships.
The above discussion of important quantitative models includes those that have had wide
applications in recent years and are frequently cited. With improved modeling approaches
and close development of theory in conjunction with field observation, it will be possible
to use field measurements to constrain eruptive mechanisms and subsurface conditions
that are needed to understand the thermal regime and hydrothermal
Fig. 1.14
Plots of maximum clast isopleths show the
effect of crosswind velocities (v) of 30, 20,
and 10 m/s on a 28-km-high eruption column.
The isopleth contours are for clast diameters (in
centimeters) and clast densities of 2500 kg/m3.
(Adapted from Carey and Sparks, 1986.)
Page 26
systems associated with volcanoes. Progress towards these latter goals has been greatly
aided by the development of a hydrovolcanism theory that links quantitative models of
explosive eruption with the hydrological character of the volcano. Through this theory,
both the heat resource and water necessary for a geothermal system can be simply
assessed by characterization of explosive eruption products.
Hydrovolcanism
Hydrovolcanism is a broad term that encompasses the role of external (nonmagmatic)
water in volcanic activity; synonyms include phreatomagmatism and hydromagmatism.
This topic may have its roots in the 18th Century Neptunists' theory about the origin of
basaltic rocks in oceans (which was later formalized by Abraham Werner). After the
eruption of Krakatau in 1883, world attention was focused on the dynamic potential of
oceanic volcanism (Verbeek, 1885). Because water plays such a fundamental role in
geothermal systems, we will briefly describe some research efforts that have unraveled
the complexities of water/magma interactions in volcanic settings. This research has led to
the development of systematics for inferring the existence of external water in volcanic
areas. Such systematics concentrate on the interpretation of volcanic landforms and
tephra deposits, which is viewed as a first step toward finding areas in which both a heat
source and water exist. The study and characterization of hydrovolcanic features is chiefly
used to make quick estimates of the abundance of water in a hydrothermal system.
Detailed studies of water/magma interaction constrain subsurface conditions that have
evolved within a geothermal system; for example, depth and lithology of aquifers and
permeable formations, temperature of hydrothermal alteration, and spatial and temporal
variations in subsurface hydrothermal behavior.
Fig. 1.15
Velocity/height profiles for the lower part of a Plinian eruption column. Calculated by the method
proposed by Wilson (1976), the plots show consecutively the effect of (a) variable water content
(n = 1.5, 2, 3, and 10 wt%), with a constant initial velocity of 400 m/s, and a constant vent radius
(rv) of 200 m, (b) variable initial velocity with n = 3.0 wt% and rv = 200 m, and (c) variable vent
radius (rv = 200, 400, and 600 m) with constant initial velocity and water content (n = 3.0 wt%).
(Adapted from Sparks et al., 1978.)
Page 27
A host of natural phenomena are produced by the interaction of magma or magmatic heat
with an external source of water. Because the earth's crust is, in general, saturated with
water, most volcanic fields have at least one feature produced by hydrovolcanic
phenomena. Most widely recognized are phreatomagmatic and phreatic explosions (see
Appendix G for definitions). Many hydrovolcanic phenomena, such as the gradual
fracturing of country rock around magma intrusions and the alteration of rocks in
hydrothermal systems are neither explosive nor readily observable. In their review of
hydrovolcanism, Sheridan and Wohletz (1983a) discuss various aspects of research,
including
geologic environments where systems occur,
the range of physical phenomena,
the wide variety of classical eruption types and landforms,
experimental modeling,
petrography of hydrovolcanic products,
textural analysis and indicators of water abundance in deposits, and
hydrovolcanic cycles.
During recent years, hydrovolcanism has developed as a field theory that applies to a
range of physical as well as chemical processes (for example, magma differentiation by
fluid and vapor transport, dynamic magma alteration during eruption, and contamination
of magma bodies by external water). The brief review included in this chapter serves as
an introduction to more detailed considerations of hydrovolcanism and geothermal
energy that are provided in later chapters.
Fig. 1.16
Prediction of column collapse as a function of (a) increasing vent radius, (b) decreasing exsolved
gas content and increasing vent radius, and (c) decreasing gas content with constant vent radius.
These scenarios can be used to interpret emplacement of Plinian falls and pyroclastic flows
under changing eruption conditions.
Page 28
Fig. 1.17
Illustration of the "energy-line" concept for a Plinian eruption from a hypothetical composite cone.
The gas and convective thrust regions of the eruption column (Wilson, 1976; Sparks et al., 1978)
are shown with a pyroclastic flow that is initiated by collapse near the top of the gas thrust
region (hc) with the vent at a height of h(0). The initial potential velocity of the pyroclastic flow is
constrained by v(0) = [2g h(0)]1/2, where h(0) = hc - ho. Flow acceleration a(i) and runout are
a function of the local topographic slope [ (i)] and the Heim coefficient (µh) shown by Eq. (1-17).
The general slope of the energy line ( e) is given by arctan (hc/Lf) for which Lf = the distance from
the vent where v(i) vanishes (that is, where the energy line intersects the topographic surface).
(Adapted from Sheridan, 1979.)
Page 29
Fig. 1.18
Schematic of (a) an idealized overpressured jet and (b) the jet structure calculated for
conditions of supersonic flow [overpressure of 12.5 MPa; Mach number (M) = 1.02] as
they occurred during the lateral blast and pyroclastic surge of Mount St. Helens on
May 18, 1980. Dimensions x and y are scaled to vent diameter (d 0.5 km).
An overpressured jet rapidly expands through rarefaction waves [lines that extend from
the conduit vent sides in (a)] that form a rarefaction fan. As the fluid expands, its atmospheric
boundary initially diverges from axial flow, giving the jet a flaring structure. With substantial
overpressure, the jet may overexpand, developing a subatmospheric pressure zone in the
center of the flow [shaded zone in (b)], which allows the atmosphere to cause downstream
constriction of the jet. Reflections of rarefaction waves from the atmospheric boundaries of
the jet form compression waves that coalesce into weak (intercepting) shocks, which in turn
coalesce downstream to set up a Mach disk shock. Zones of supersonic and subsonic flow are
designated by Mach number. Across the intercepting shocks, the flow velocities decrease,
whereas pressure increases and streamlines (dashed lines with arrows) are deflected.
The supersonic area of the jet, upstream from the Mach disk, corresponds approximately to
the zone of directed blast devastation and pyroclastic surge deposits.
Page 30
Environments of Hydrovolcanism
During its ascent to the surface, magma commonly encounters groundwater; connate
water; marine, fluvial, or lacustrine water; ice; or rain water. The subaqueous
environment includes all activity beneath a standing body of water (Kokelaar, 1986);
products of this activity have been called subaquatic (Sigvaldason, 1968), aquagene
(Carlisle, 1963), hyaloclastite (for deep marine; Bonatti, 1976), hyalotuff (for shallow
marine; Honnorez and Kirst, 1975), and littoral (Wentworth, 1938). Volcanism that heats
groundwater to produce steam explosions that do not eject juvenile magma fragments is
called phreatic (Ollier, 1974) or hydrothermal (Muffler et al., 1971; Nairn and Solia,
1980). Subglacial volcanism (Noe-Nygaard, 1940) is noted by its products, including
massive floods (jökullaups), table mountains (stapi), and ridges (mobergs).
The wide variety of hydrovolcanic phenomena underscores the fact that interaction
between water and magma or magmatic heat should be expected in any volcanic setting.
One long-held theory suggests that the depth below surface at which dynamic,
water/magma interaction is possible is limited by the critical pressure of water or water-
rich fluids, and that above this pressure, the phase change from liquid to gas upon heating
does not involve large-volume changes (Lorenz, 1986). Accordingly, depths of 0.8 to 2.2
km were considered limits to explosive magma/water interaction. However, more recent
work suggests that the critical point need not be a limitation to dynamic interaction and
that expansion of water through its two-phase field is not required for rapid volume
changes (Wohletz, 1986).
Nature of Hydrovolcanic Phenomena
The physical phenomena of hydrovolcanism belong to a class of well-studied physical
processes termed fuel-coolant interactions (FCI). Fig. 1.20 depicts a hypothetical
geologic
Fig. 1.19
illustration of the calculated pyroclastic surge
generated during initial moments of Plinian
eruption. (a)An overpressured burst propagates
a bow shock into the atmosphere ahead of
lithic-rich ash as a rarefaction wave recedes
into the magma reservoir. (b and c) Reflected
rarefactions from the reservoir and flow margins
form weak shocks that accelerate ash in surges.
Together, these phenomena constitute a blast
wave that precedes (d) the flow of
juvenile ash from the vent.
(Adapted from Wohletz et al., 1984).
system in which magma (fuel) explosively interacts with water-saturated sediments
(coolant). This process occurs in stages of (a) initial contact and steam-film development,
(b) coarse mixing of magma and water or water-rich rock, (c) vapor expansion and flow,
and finally (d) explosion and fine fragmentation of the magma. The process does not
necessarily evolve through all these stages and may be arrested, for instance, before
mixing or explosion.
Page 31
Fig. 1.20
Hypothetical setting of subsurface hydrovolcanic activity, showing (a) initial contact of magma with
water-saturated sediments, (b) vapor film growth, (c) mixing of magma with the sediments, and
(d) expansion of the high-pressure steam in an explosion.
(Adapted from Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a.)
Much of our theoretical-understanding of hydrovolcanism has developed from laboratory
experiments (for example, Wohletz and McQueen, 1984). This approach has made it
possible to quantify some controlling parameters by using field and laboratory
measurements of hydrovolcanic products. Figure 1.21 shows results from early
experiments (Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a), in which the mass ratio of water and magma
(thermite analog) interacted and confining pressure controlled the explosive efficiency of
the system.
The thermodynamics of heat transfer is also a significant aspect of hydrovolcanic systems
and their physical and chemical effects. The mechanical work produced by interaction of
magma with external water is partitioned into many possible modes, including
fragmentation of the magma and country rock; excavation of a crater; dispersal of tephra;
seismic and acoustic perturbations; and chemical processes such as solution and
precipitation, mass diffusion, and magma quenching and crystallization.
Page 32
Fig. 1.21
Some results of experimental studies (indicated by number) by Wohletz and McQueen (1984)
showing explosive efficiency as a function of water-to-magma mass ratio and confining pressure.
Note the apparent maximum near 0.5 and the increased explosivity of high-confinement
pressure tests. Explosive interaction occurred at 5200 psi (~350 bars) confining pressure,
which is well above the previously assumed limit at water's critical pressure.
This work, Wsys, is the sum of changes in kinetic energy ( Ek), potential energy ( Ep),
and volume-change work (p Vsys), which is given by
There are several ways by which to evaluate the above expression, but one of the most
direct methods is to estimate the change in the internal energy of the water/magma
mixture ( Umix); by definition Wsys - Umix, where
and m = mass, U = internal energy, and subscripts w and m denote water and magma,
respectively. Wohletz (1986) demonstrated a method for evaluating Eq. (1-23) that
requires data from extended steam tables (Burnham et al., 1969; Haar et al., 1984).
Further consideration of the mixing and explosion stage (Wohletz, 1986) yields
information on particle velocities and sizes. Heiken et al. (1988) extended these
calculations to explain country rock fracture by hydrovolcanic processes.
Experimental investigations of water/magma interactions have displayed a variety of
explosive and nonexplosive behaviors that are analogous to natural volcanic activity.
These results support observations of hydrovolcanic eruptions in which a wide variety of
classical eruption types (for example, Strombolian,
Page 33
Surtseyan, Vulcanian, and Plinian) have involved external water. There is additional
evidence of hydrovolcanism in a variety of landforms that range from small maar/tuffring
craters to some large caldera outflow sheets of tephra. Such features as peperites, mud
volcanoes, hydrothermal explosion pits, pillow lavas and breccias, and parts of composite
cones can also be attributed to hydrovolcanic activity. These eruptive behaviors and
resulting landforms are, in a general fashion, related to the degree of water interaction, as
is shown in Fig. 1.22.
Hydrovolcanic Products
Hydrovolcanic solid products are generally fragmental and are termed hydroclasts by
Fisher and Schmincke (1984), instead of pyroclasts, which refers solely to the fragmental
products of magmatic eruption. Hydrovolcanic solid products include tephra, explosion
breccia, pillow lava, palagonitic and zeolitic tuff, lahars, blocks and bombs, silica sinter
and travertine, and intrusive breccia and tuff. Some of these materials involve
posteruptive processes (for example, hydrothermal) in which water interacts with
volcanic products.
Petrographic studies of hydrovolcanic products involve determining the grain-size and
textures of tephra and the chemical signatures caused by rapid and slow alteration. These
data are indicators of the degree and type of water interaction. For example, the grain size
of hydroclasts is a function of the mass ratio of interacting water and magma; grain
textures are indicative of the type of interactionpassive, explosive, extensive, or transient.
Field characterization of hydroclastic products focuses on (a) analysis of various ejecta
deposit characteristics, including textural analysis of bedforms, lithification, and deposit
thickness vs distance from the vent, and (b) correlation of these observations with vent
type (for example, composite cone, tuff ring, or caldera).
A correlation can be made between the median grain diameters of hydrovolcanic products
and the water/magma mass ratio (Fig. 1.23); this correlation was developed from both
experimental and field applications. In general, hydrovolcanic tephra are distinguishable
from magmatic tephra by their much finer grain size. Microscopic examination of grain
shapes and textures also reveals hydrovolcanic features (Fig. 1.24). Quantitative analyses
of these features can document the relative importance of hydrovolcanic (wet) and
magmatic (dry) mechanisms in samples from deposits of mixed origins. Hydrovolcanic
grain textures are also indicative of the type of water/magma interaction (for example, wet
vs dry; Wohletz, 1983).
Hydrovolcanic Cycles and Geothermal Energy
Hydrovolcanic phenomena occur in regular patterns at some volcanoes and thus can assist
in defining cycles that in turn are useful in both predictions of future activity and
estimates of subsurface hydrological conditions. The eruptive cycles portrayed in Fig.
1.25, for example, show the changing availability of groundwater during periods of
activity at several volcanoes. Cycles can be documented by careful field and laboratory
analyses of volcanic products in which the abundance of erupted steam and its
temperature are constrained by textural indicators of grain cohesion, deposit mobility as a
function of moisture abundance, and degree of clast alteration. Cycles are characterized as
''wet" when the volcanic products indicate an increase of water during the eruptions; "dry"
cycles produce tephra that indicate decreasing water abundance throughout the eruption.
The nature of these water indicators also demonstrates whether the erupted steam is
saturated (wet) or super-heated (dry). As a general rule, locations that show wet cycles
might be better candidates for geothermal exploration because
Page 34
Fig. 1.22
Relationship of eruptive phenomena, deposit type, and landform to water-to-magma interaction ratio.
Page 35
Fig. 1.23
Correlation of deposit texture and grain size to water-to-magma ratio.
(Adapted from Frazzetta et al., 1983 and Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a.)
Page 36
Fig. 1.24
Sketches of pyroclast textures resulting from hydrovolcanism. These textures include
(a) a characteristic blocky and equant glass shard, (b) a vesicular grain shard with cleaved vesicle
surfaces, (c) a platy shard, (d) a drop-like or fused shard, (e) a blocky crystal with conchoidal fracture
surfaces, and (f) a perfect crystal with layer of vesicular glass.
Page 37
they prove that water is sufficiently abundant in the volcanic system to quench the magma
to water-vaporization temperatures. When estimating the volume of erupted hydroclastic
products, this general rule constrains the volume of water involved in the eruptions and
thus provides a measure of water abundance in the volcanic system.
Funiciello et al. (1976) pointed out the correlation between geothermal localities and
phreatomagmatic volcanoes in Italy, especially those showing wet cycles. In addition,
these authors demonstrated how the study of phreatomagmatic products helps locate and
characterize a geothermal reservoir with respect to its lithology and fracture permeability,
topics that Heiken et al. (1988) discussed in further detail. These studies provide an
excellent background for our discussion of hydrovolcanism in Chapter 2.
Fig. 1.25
Various cycles of hydrovolcanism displayed by several type of studied volcanoes. Temporal
variations of water-to-magma mass ratios are shown for (1) Crater Elegante, Mexico;
(2) Kilbourne Hole, New Mexico; (3) Peridot Mesa, Arizona; (4) Taal volcano, Philippines;
(5) Ubehebe crater, California; (6) Zuni Salt Lake, New Mexico; (7) Cerro Colorado, Mexico;
(8) Diamond Head, Hawaii; (9) Koko Crater, Hawaii; (10) Pavant Butte, Utah; and (11) Surtsey,
Iceland. These cycles illustrate general trends (see Sheridan and Wohletz, 1983a, Fig. 5), including
wet to dry (well demonstrated by Vulcano in the Aeolian Islands, Italy) and dry to wet
(activity characteristic of Vesuvius). Some volcanoes show reversals in cyclic activity
(7, 9, and 10 here are tuff cone structures), whereas repeated cycles between dry (Strombolian)
and wet (Surtseyan) occur at others (5).
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983a.)
Page 39
Chapter 2
Pyroclastic Rocks as a Tool to Evaluate Geothermal Systems
Our approach to exploration for geothermal systems in volcanic fields is based primarily
on an understanding that the volume and characteristics (both physical and chemical) of
pyroclastic rocks (tephra) are fundamental indicators of the presence, size, and location
of a potential hydrothermal system. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) distinguished two
primary types of tephra: those produced by expansions of magmatic gasestermed
pyroclasticand those caused by expansions of water from external sourcestermed
hydroclastic (or hydrovolcanic). Where we can be certain of the difference, we will use
this terminology, but where the distinction is not clear or where both processes are
involved in the formation of a tephra sequence, we use pyroclastic in a general sense. In
this chapter, we describe important relationships among pyroclastic rocks, their parental
magma body, and the potential hydrothermal reservoir in the vicinity of the magma body.
Several important issues should be considered.
The existence of pyroclastic rocks implies that explosive eruptions have occurred. The
volume of these rocks can be used to estimate the size of their parental magma chamber.
Some of this explosive energy will have had important effects on fracture permeability
surrounding the vent.
Many explosive eruptions and their pyroclastic/hydroclastic products resulted from
vaporization of groundwater (hydrovolcanism). This process can indicate both host rock
permeability and existence of water in the thermal system below the volcano.
Page 40
For hydrovolcanic (hydroclastic) tephra, the deposit bedforms, particle types, and vent
structures are a function of the thermodynamic state of water during eruption and
therefore are indicative of the abundance of meteoric water in the vent area.
Lithic constituents in tephra deposits can be used to reconstruct the host rock lithology
and stratigraphy beneath the volcano, the location of aquifers at depth, andthrough
secondary mineral assemblagesthe thermal regime of the country rock and the
composition of hydrothermal fluids at depth.
By using the information gathered from these considerations, it is possible to make an
integrated appraisal of tephra deposits and help constrain the existence, location, size,
depth, and reservoir character of a potential geothermal system in a volcanic field. Topics
involving pyroclastic rocks that were introduced in Chapter 1 will be discussed here with
emphasis on their importance to geothermal exploration.
Explosive Eruptions and Geothermal Energy Sources
Pyroclastic rocks are the products of explosive volcanism. Many different types of
volcanoes exhibit explosive behavior, as discussed by Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
Table 2.1 summarizes the major types of volcanoes and their explosive behavior.
In his review of significant explosive eruptions, Wilson (1980) discussed Plinian,
Strombolian, and Vulcanian models (for example, Self et al., 1979), and showed the
relationships among observed kinetics, such as ash ejecta velocity, eruptive plume over-
pressure, and volatile content, by using forms of the energy equations explained in
Chapter 1 of this book [Eqs. (1-5) and (1-6)].
Figure 2.1 shows an idealized Plinian eruption in which ejecta dynamics are directly
related to the fragmenting magma dynamics in the throat of the volcano. The isothermal
form of the energy equation is appropriate for Plinian eruptions because most
Table 2.1. Pyroclastic Geology
Magma
Volcano Type Pyroclastic Activity
Composition
Strombolian fallout;
Composite
Intermediate Vulcanian surges and lahars;
Cones
Plinian sector collapse, nuées ardentes
Plinian, Peléean, and Vulcanian fallout,
surges,
nuées ardentes, and lahars;
Silicic Domes Silicic
Initial phreatomagmatic and phreatic
fallout,
surges, and lahars
Calderas Intermediate to Plinian large-volume pyroclastic flows;
Silicic Phreatomagmatic fallout, surges, and
pyroclastic flows fallout and surges;
Phreatomagmatic
Tuff
Mafic to Silicic Strombolian fallout;
Rings/Cones
Plinian (rare) fallout
Page 41
pyroclasts are small enough to transmit their thermal energy to expanding gases within the
time frame of the eruption.
where n = the weight percent of water in the magma, = the average density of the solid
and gas mixture, pi and pf = the initial and final (atmospheric) gas pressures, and uf is the
ejecta velocity at height (h) in the ejecta plume. Other parameters are those defined in
Chapter 1 and summarized in Appendix C.
For Strombolian eruptions (Fig. 2.2), ejecta velocities are related to magma gas
overpressure by an adiabatic form of the energy equation.
Fig. 2.1
Idealized Plinian eruption conduit and column. This diagram shows magma (cross hatch)
rising up the volcanic conduit, the growth of vesicles (circles) before complete disruption
(dashed line), and the ejection of gas and tephra mixture (stippled) from the vent.
The initial pressure (pi) and velocity (ui) of the gas and tephra mixture within the vent,
which are primarily functions of the gas content of the magma and the vent radius,
are related to the final pressure (pf) and velocity (uf) by an isothermal form of the
energy equation [Eq. (2-1)] because the gas draws heat from the entrained tephra and
maintains a nearly constant temperature during expansion. (Adapted from Wilson, 1980.)
where a = the air density, = the ratio of specific heats for the gas, ri = the vesicle radius
before burst, and n 0.2 for erupted materials (Blackburn et al., 1976).
In the Vulcanian mechanism (Fig. 2.3), which applies to eruptions where the expanding
gas may be either or both magmatic and hydromagmatic, a motion equation can relate
pressure and velocity.
Fig. 2.2
Idealized Strombolian eruption model. Individual
centimeter-to-meter size gas bubbles burst at
the surface of the magma within the vent,
propelling scoria in ballistic trajectories. An
adiabatic form of the energy equation [Eq. (2-2)]
relates ejecta velocities to the initial pressure,
temperature, and radius of the gas bubbles.
(Adapted from Wilson, 1980.)
Page 42
where Av = the vent area, Lp = the plug thickness, p = pi[xs/(xs + ym)]g, xs = the
thickness of the steam cap for which the ratio xs/Lp is related to weight fraction water (n)
by xs/Lp = [( gRTi)/Pi][n/(1-n)], g = the steam density, and Cd (the drag coefficient) 1,
and ym is the vertical distance over which the rock mass is moved. In Eqs. (2-1) through
(2-3), our observations of ejecta velocities allow us to estimate the explosion
overpressure, which we can assume is the volatile overpressure (magmatic or
hydromagmatic). The thermal energy involved in the explosion (Et) is related to the bulk
isentropic exponent = [(Cp + mfCm)/(Cv + mfCm] by
where b = the bulk density of the erupting mixture of vapor and tephra fragments, Cp
and Cv = the heat capacities of the vapor at constant pressure and volume, respectively,
Cm = the magma heat capacity, and mf is the mass fraction of fragments in the mixture of
vapor and ash. On the other hand, the kinetic energy (Ek) of the eruption is some fraction
( c) of Et because not all the available thermal energy is converted to the kinetic energy of
cratering and ejection of tephra. The exact value of c, often called the thermodynamic
efficiency or conversion ratio, is generally <0.1 but can vary over an order of magnitude
depending upon eruption circumstances (Wohletz, 1986). Ek can be estimated from
observed ejecta velocities (ve) as , but often ve is not easily measured. In those
circumstances, an upper limit (usonic) can be estimated from a gas dynamic sound speed
(cs = [ p/ b]1/2) by
The above relationship between thermal energy and estimates of eruption energy
Fig. 2.3
Idealized Vulcanian eruption model, in which
magma (cross hatch) is covered by a steam
pocket of thickness xs, which is in turn
capped by a plug of solidified lava of
thickness Lp in a vent of area Av. An
equation of motion [Eq. (2-3)] relates these
dimensions to the pressure and density of
the gas pocket and acceleration of the
tephra after failure of the lava plug.
(Adapted from Wilson, 1980.)
depends on observations of actual eruptions and their ejecta. In cases where necessary
ejecta masses and velocities are unknown but a crater is preserved, it is possible to
empirically estimate explosion energy by using explosive-testing analogs for which there
is data to relate crater dimensions to explosion energies. Assuming that the cratering
efficiency of high explosives is the same (within a factor of 10) as that of volcanic
explosions (Wohletz, 1986), crater dimensions scale as the cube-root of explosive energy.
Johnson (1971) plotted observed crater radius, depth, and volume with respect to
explosive yield, as is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Subsurface Thermal Energy Estimates
The most widely applied estimates for thermal energy in magmatic systems underlying
volcanic fields are based on the volume and age of the most recent volcanism associated
with these systems. As discussed in Chapter 1, Smith and Shaw
Page 43
Fig. 2.4
Scaling crater dimensions and depth of burial to the explosive energy
equivalent of TNT. English units have been used for dimensions to preserve
the original logarithmic scale. For reference, TNT releases about
4.6 MJ/kg of energy, which is about four times the enthalpy released
by cooling 1 kg of magma from 1473 to 273 K. For optimum thermal
conversion efficiencies of 10% (see Fig. 1.21), a ton of erupted magma is
roughly equivalent to 0.025 tons of TNT. Comparison of the plots for
explosions in (a) dry rock and (b) soil indicates that larger craters
typically form in soils.
(Adapted from Johnson, 1971.)
Page 44
(1975; 1979), have used this approach in estimating thermal energies of magmatic
systems. Volumes are inferred from caldera size, vent distribution, seismic shadows,
fracture patterns, topographic uplift, geophysical anomalies, and estimates of silicic ejecta
volume. If a volcano produces chemically evolved (nonbasaltic) productsespecially those
spanning andesite through dacitic and rhyolitic compositionsit is very likely that magma
has formed a crustal magma chamber and has differentiated on its path to the surface.
Because differentiation is a time-dependent process, evolved compositions can indicate
prolonged residence in the crust, during which a significant amount of heat flowed from
the magma into crustal rocks. The larger the magma chamber, the larger is the thermal
resource, which is a measure of the amount of economically useful energy.
The thermal resource (Htr) of a magmatic heat source is proportional to the volume of
rock (Vtr) that exceeds the minimum temperature for economic heat extraction ( tr)
Table 2.2 summarizes the parameters of Eq. (2-6), which outlines aspects of modeling
heat flow from a crustal magma body such as the silicic caldera depicted in Fig. 2.5. The
general nature of the function for Vtr in Eq. (2-6) is based on the solution of heat flow in
and around the magma bodya calculation that is discussed later in this chapter.
Because numerous petrologic experiments have shown that magma-chamber temperatures
range from about 900 to 1200°C, depending upon their composition, it is possible to use
heat content data (Bacon, 1977) and magma-chamber volume to calculate thermal energy.
Smith and Shaw (1975) based their conclusions about magma-chamber volumes on
models of magma and heat transport in the earth's crust, observations of exhumed
intrusive bodies, petrologic constraints on the production of evolved magmas, and
geophysical studies of active igneous systems. Smith et al. (1978) and Shaw (1985)
extended this approach to the study of volume-periodicity relationships for a wide variety
of volcanoes; their results, along with those of Crisp (1984) and Wadge (1984), support
the basic premise that extruded volumes as well as caldera areas and other geophysical
measurements can be related to magma-chamber volumes. For silicic eruptions,
conservative estimates of magma-
Table 2.2. Parameters for Modeling Thermal Resource
Thermal
Model Principal Source Data
Parameters
rmc, Magma chamber radius and thicknessfrom extrusive volume estimates,
hmc geophysical surveys, and geomorphology
Db Depth of burialfrom geophysical surveys and eroded analogs
e Time since eruptionfrom radicmetric dating techniques
Depth of hydrologically active zonefrom stratigraphic and drilling
zh
experience
zd Drilling depth limitdetermined as a function of cost where cost z3
Effective heat transfer coefficient as a function of rock thermal
kh conductivity and permeabilitydetermined by geophysics and in situ
measurements
Minimum temperature for economic heat extractiondetermined by
tr
engineering economics
Page 45
chamber volume are ~10 times greater than those for the dense-rock equivalent (DRE)
volume of silicic products erupted. For composite cones (discussed in Chapter 7), this
ratio of intrusive to extrusive volumes may range from <2 to >10. In the case of basaltic
volcanoes, the relationship is uncertain because these volcanoes may not have high-level
crustal magma reservoirs.
Pyroclastic Rock Volumes
Pyroclastic rock volumes provide the simplest method of estimating magma-chamber
volumes for eruptions of evolved magmas in many localities. Several methods can be
used to calculate the volumes of pyroclastic products. Froggatt's (1982) comparison of
three types of volume estimations is based on (1) mathematical models of aerial dispersal,
(2) field measurements of area and volume vs thickness, and (3) measurements of crystal-
to-glass ratios.
Fig. 2.5
Heat flow from a magma body beneath a silicic
caldera is modeled for situations in which the
rock is unsaturated. In such areas, the thermal
resource might be exploited by using the hot
dry rock (HDR) technology described later in
this chapter (Rowley, 1982). The light shading
denotes country rock, and the dark shading
represents caldera fill and outflow rocks
(mostly volcanic).
The first of these volume estimation methods is predicated on the general assumption that
pyroclastic deposits exponentially decrease in thickness with distance from the vent if
there is no significant ponding of the deposit in topographically low areas (Froggatt, 1982;
Pyle, 1989). Measurements of maximum thickness (Li) and distance over which the
deposit thickness halves (rh) are sufficient to characterize the volume of a deposit of
circular isopach distribution.
where ki = [ln(2)]/rh. For deposits of elliptical distribution, one may assume a constant
eccentricity ( e) given by e = (1- e)1/2, where e = ry/rx. For this case, rh is measured
along both the major and minor axes of the ellipse to give rx and ry, respectively, and ki =
[ln(2)]/ry. The volume integral reflects this ratio:
The second method requires many field measurements of thickness for logarithmic plots
of isopach area or volume vs thickness. These plots make it possible to extrapolate
volumes of deposits for which minimum thicknesses are not exposed in the field area.
For each isopach, a minimum volume is found by multiplying its thickness by its mapped
area. A sum for all isopachs gives the total volume. Froggatt (1982) found that plots of
log-volume vs log thickness were superior for extrapolations.
The third method was proposed by Walker (1980) to estimate eruptive volumes when a
significant proportion of ash (<2-mm diameter) has been carried great distances from the
vent and therefore cannot be measured in the field. This method is based on the
assumptions that all crystals, being
Page 46
denser than glass, fall out near the vent and that large pumices show average magmatic
ratios for glass to crystals. It is possible to calculate the proportion of vitric ash missing
from the deposit by measuring the crystal abundance in both ash and pumices and then
determining the difference in enrichment. Walker (1981) suggested, however, that this
third method may overestimate the deposit volume.
By recalculating the volumes of volcanic products, including tephra and lavas, to DRE
(Vdre 0.6 V for tephra and Vdre V for lavas) and by assuming that they represent some
fraction of the magma-chamber volume (for example, 0.1 for silicic volcanic fields), it is
possible to obtain a measurement of the thermal resource described in Eq. (2-6). For
instance, Fig. 2.6 depicts a young, silicic pyroclastic deposit for which V = 1.0 km3. The
thermal resource (Htr) of the magma chamber (volume = 6.5 km3) is shown as a function
of the kinetic energy of the eruption that emplaced the deposit. Assuming a conservative
1% recovery of the thermal resource, the potential electrical energy resource for this
system is estimated by tapping 250°C fluids from the associated hydrothermal or hot dry
rock system (discussed later). About 850 kJ/kg is available from the saturated vapor
produced; if one allows for a conservative 14% turbine cycle efficiency for saturated
vapor cooled to 50°C, then wells producing ~600 tons/hour would generate ~19 MWe
(see Appendix D).
Heat-Flow Calculation
There is one important limitation of the simple thermal resource estimation described
above: the volcanic products must be erupted from a crustal magma chamber that is
sufficiently young to retain much of its initial heat. This limitation has been studied in
detail by Smith and Shaw (1975; 1979) and applied to numerous volcanic fields where the
volume and age of underlying magma chambers have been estimated from both
geomorphological constraints (for example, caldera size, vent distribution, and volume of
silicic pyroclastic deposits) and geophysical anomalies. Thus, for the 1.0-km3 pyroclastic
deposit shown in Fig. 2.6, one can apply the cooling calculations of Smith and Shaw
(1975) as shown in Fig. 1.5. Assuming that (1) the pyroclastic deposit age reflects the time
over which the magma chamber has cooled from solidus temperatures, and (2) the
deposit represents about one-tenth of the magma-chamber volume, then it follows that the
deposit would have to be younger than ~10,000 yr for exploitable temperatures to exist in
and around the magma chamber. This estimate is conservative even if the magma
chamber has cooled as a result of hydrothermal convection in roof rocks above the
magma chamber. If cooling were solely conductive, the age limit could be extended to
nearly 20,000 yr.
In making a detailed estimation of thermal resource (Htr), the thermal resource volume
function (Vtr) of Eq. (2-6) can be modeled by heat flow calculations. A first-order model
assumes heat flow by conduction only, which requires solution of Fick's second law of
diffusion:
for which H = the heat content or enthalpy (which is directly proportional to temperature)
and t = the rock thermal diffusion coefficient, which can be directionally and spatially
dependent. Equation (2-9) can be conveniently solved with an explicit numerical
procedure (Appendix E) for a variety of geometric, initial temperature, and diffusivity
conditions. An approximation for convective transport is included in the numerical
procedure to better estimate heat flow in areas where hydrothermal convection is
important. The procedure, given in FORTRAN in Appendix E, can be adapted for
personal computers. It solves thermal diffusion in two dimensions for a variety of rocks,
geologic structures, and effective x and y diffusion coefficients. The problem
Page 47
Fig. 2.6
Thermal resource (total heat contained in a magma body) and tephra volume are related to explosive
energy [1 Megaton (Mt) equivalent] by the conversion efficiency ( c) of the magma's thermal
energy to explosive energy (kinetic) during an eruption. For this plot, it is assumed that
the tephra volume of an eruption represents 10% of the magma body volume (Smith, 1979),
the magma density ( ) = 2.5 × 103 kg/m3, and the magma body is young enough to have a heat
content (H) = 800 kJ/kg. This example (X) depicts a volcano that recently erupted a 1.0-km3
pyroclastic deposit (at 0.65 km3 DRE) with an explosive energy equivalent of about 24 Mt
( c = 0.077), which represents a magma chamber with a thermal resource (Htr) of 1.3 × 1016 kJ.
Assuming about 1% of the magma chamber's thermal resource can be exploited with ~14%
conversion to electrical energy, a geothermal plant could produce
nearly 19 MWe for 30 yr by either hydrothermal or hot dry rock methods.
for this calculation is set up in a manner similar to that outlined in Eq. (2-6). The results
of this calculation give a two-dimensional representation of Vtr for any time after
formation of a magma chamber. One should be cautious when using this routine to model
measured geothermal gradients; the case described here is considered mathematically ill-
posed because solutions may not be unique.
Figure 2.7 shows results of the above heat flow calculation for a cooling, subvolcanic
pluton 2.5 km wide and 4 km below the surface. The results are compared for 100 and
200 ka of cooling, with and without a convective zone above the magma chamber. At an
age of 100 ka, the two-dimensional thermal resource volume (Vtr) within the calculated
area ranges from 2 to 9 km2 (the latter value is for the model with convection). This result
is based on a volume of rock with temperatures above 150°C within 3 km of the surface.
From Fig. 2.7b, one can see from thermal gradients that Vtr would be slightly greater after
200 ka of heat flow. Although the convection model produces a higher near-surface
thermal gradient than the nonconvective model does, the gradient can not be reliably
projected to greater depths. Such modeled or measured geothermal gradients are an
significant initial step in evaluating the geothermal potential of an area. Figure 2.8 plots
several general types of thermal gradients and their general relationship to geothermal
potential.
Page 48
Fig. 2.7
(a) Results of heat flow calculation for a 2.5-km-wide magma body (dark shading) at a depth
of 4.0 km below a caldera filled and surrounded by volcanic rocks (light shading). This problem is
similar to that outlined in Fig. 2.5. The top plot depicts purely conductive heat flow;
the bottom plot includes the effects of a convective region (dark shading) below one side of
the caldera. The numbers in the grid show rock temperatures (°C) and temperature contours
after 100,000 yr of cooling.
Page 49
Fig. 2.7
(b) Plots of calculated thermal gradients at 100 and 200 ka of
cooling compare conductive and convective gradients for locations 5 km from the caldera
and within the caldera itself. Note the high gradient for convective heat flow in the upper 1.0 km;
if projected to greater depths, this gradient would give false predictions of maximum temperatures.
Page 50
Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy
Most of the geothermal heat associated with volcanic fields is contained in rocks some
distance from zones of formation and fracture permeability. For example, the Valles
caldera in New Mexico has an estimated resource base of 8,425 × 1018 J (Smith and
Shaw, 1975); of that resource base, the hydrothermal component is ~90 × 1018 J. This
component represents a great deal of energy, but it is only ~1% of the entire resource base
(Brook et al., 1978). In most geothermal systems associated with volcanic fields, ~95% of
the thermal resource is hot dry rock; exceptions are geothermal systems in carbonate
rocks where the permeability is high.
The world's very substantive hot dry rock resource can be developed if attempts to create
man-made hydrothermal circulation systems are successful. The basic concept involves
drilling a hole into a thermal anomaly, fracturing the rock by stimulation techniques, and
drilling a second hole into the fractured rock adjacent to the first well (Smith et al., 1975).
Water is circulated down one well, percolates through the mass of hot, fractured rock,
and is extracted at high temperatures from the second well. Hot dry rock experiments
have been studied in several countries, but the most extensive experiments are being
conducted at Fenton Hill, just outside the west rim of the Valles caldera in New Mexico.
These experiments were successful with a circulation loop through fractured rock at a
depth of 3 km, where the bottomhole temperature is 197°C; present experiments are
testing a similar loop at a depth of 5 km in rocks with a temperature of ~320°C. New
concepts being explored will develop this source of alternate energy, which is referred to
as heat mining (Armstead and Tester, 1987).
If a conventional hydrothermal well penetrates high-temperature zones with no fluids, an
attempt should be made to open existing pathways or create new fractures by using
stimulation techniques such as pressurizing the well with pumped fluids. If this procedure
does not work, a hot dry rock system can be realistically considered: the first well will
have provided a great body of data about the geology and thermal regime that can be used
to design a manmade geothermal system.
Water/Magma (Hydrovolcanic) Interaction: Field and Laboratory Aspects
Recognition and study of hydrovolcanic features in a volcanic field is an important step in
locating and characterizing a potential geothermal resource. These features indicate not
only a potential magmatic heat source but also the possible existence of groundwater.
Water is generally the dominant volatile constituent in volcanic systems. It is also the
chief geothermal ''working fluid" because its volume changes, which occur with varying
temperature and pressure, produce thermodynamic work. In this context, water is
required to transfer thermal energy from the earth to the point of exploitation, whether for
direct use or production of electricity. Thus, abundant groundwater is necessary for
development of a geothermal resource except in cases of hot dry rock resources, where
water is artificially supplied to the thermal reservoir.
Carbon dioxide is another common volatile substance in volcanic systems. Like water, it
may interact with magma, but because of its phase relationships, it cannot be considered a
condensible gas in most geological environments, and thus its heat-transfer qualities must
be addressed separately. The presence of carbon dioxide can greatly alter water/magma
interaction and the heat convection to the earth's surface.
In Chapter 1, we introduced hydromagmatism and hydrovolcanism as general terms to
describe the physical and chemical
Page 51
Fig. 2.8
Temperature-depth diagram depicting several thermal gradients and their corresponding influence
on geothermal gradients at the earth's surface. This diagram shows the range of typically observed
steam fields (hatched) and the near-surface perturbations of geothermal gradients that are caused
by groundwater and aquifers.
(Adapted from Rowley, 1982.)
Page 52
processes that develop where magma and magmatic heat interact with ground or surface
water in magmatic and volcanic environments, respectively. There are many geologic
terms that refer to specific aspects of these processes, such as hydrothermal, phreatic,
phreatomagmatic, and hydroclastic (see Glossary, Appendix G). In addition, the text of
Fisher and Schmincke (1984) explains in detail various terms that relate to the interaction
between water and magma, magmatic heat, and lava. In the following discussions, we will
review the aspects of hydrovolcanism that greatly affect development of a geothermal
reservoir. Hydrovolcanism, recognized for over a century, has recently been more widely
acknowledged in field relationships and as a theoretical basis for interpretation of
volcanic activity.
Basic Concept
Initial ideas about the role of ground and surface water in volcanism developed during
the last century. These perceptions were formed particularly through observations of
unusually explosive periods of Hawaiian volcanism, during which ground-water entered
rifts along which normal lava fountaining had occurred (Jaggar, 1949), as well as through
examination of fragmental basalts found where lava had entered water (Fuller, 1931).
Three well-documented eruptions during the late 1950s and early 1960s brought an
increased awareness of hydrovolcanism: Capelihnos, Azores (Tazieff, 1958; Servicos
Geologicos de Portugal, 1959), Surtsey, Iceland (Thorarinsson, 1964), and Taal,
Philippines (Moore et al., 1966). Fisher and Waters (1970), Waters and Fisher (1971), and
Heiken (1971) expanded the concept of phreatomagmatic eruptions characterized by
steam-rich eruption columns, base surges, and typical landforms such as maars, tuff
rings, and tuff cones. As a result of this work, numerous 20th century phreatomagmatic
eruptions are now recognizedmost of them have formed maar-like craters (for example,
Self et al., 1980). We also now realize that after cinder cones, phreatomagmatic vents
(tuff rings, tuff cones, and maars) are the most abundant terrestrial volcanic landform.
An interesting paradox has emerged in studies of hydrovolcanism: interaction between
magma (lava) and water can be passive, explosive, or even both in situations where all
other conditions are apparently the same. This anomaly is illustrated along the southern
coast of Hawaii, where in some cases lava flowing into the ocean quenched passively to
form pillow lavas and in other cases it was explosively fragmented during quenching to
form tephra cones along the beach (Fisher, 1968). Explanations of this paradox have
benefited enormously from information derived from analog phenomena such as
industrial accidents in which a molten substance such as iron has caused an explosion
when it was rapidly introduced to water. This type of situation is a potential safety
problem, for example at nuclear reactors (Witte and Cox, 1978). The term commonly
used for the industrial analog, fuel-coolant interaction (FCI), can be applied to volcanic
processes involving the interaction of two materials, one at a temperature above the
boiling point of the otherwhere the interaction varies from passive quenching and film-
boiling circumstances to explosive situations in which the two materials mix and
exchange heat at catastrophic rates.
Heiken (1971) studied a number of phreatomagmatic volcanoes in southeastern Oregon
and correlated the volcano morphology with abundance and depth of groundwater. As
summarized in Table 2.3, characteristic volcanic landforms range from low-profiled
tephra rings surrounding a wide crater to steep-sided tephra cones with relatively smaller
craters. The former type are termed tuff rings (or maars if the crater extends below the
level of the prevolcanic ground surface); the latter type are called tuff cones (Fig. 2.9).
Sheridan and Wohletz (1981; 1983a) extended this characterization
Page 53
of hydrovolcanic landforms by recognizing that they form parts of polygenetic volcanoes,
such as composite cones and calderas in which characteristic tephra accumulations of tuff
cones and rings may be found (see Chapter 1).
Of the various types of tephra deposits produced by hydrovolcanism, pyroclastic surge
(base surge) deposits are most distinctive (Fisher and Waters, 1970; Wohletz and Sheridan
1979). The four hydroclastic-tephra bedforms illustrated in Fig. 2.10 include (a) breccias
formed at the vent by explosions or in distal regions by laharic remobilization, (b)
sandwaves that show a variety of dune-like bedding structures ~1 cm thick (Crowe and
Fisher, 1973; Schmincke et al., 1973), (c) massive beds that may resemble small
pyroclastic flows, and (d) planar beds. In general, these tephra bedforms are deposited by
pyroclastic surges, but fallout and pyroclastic flows also contribute to deposition of
hydroclastic tephra. Identification of the depositional mechanisms requires careful
examination of features such as those listed in Table 2.4.
Because of the variety of possible textural features found in any hydrovolcanic deposit, it
is helpful to characterize the tephra facies described in Table 2.5. Some facies
relationships depend on the type of vent structure; for example, facies relationships for
pyroclastic surge deposits surrounding monogenetic tuff rings (Wohletz and Sheridan,
1979) include near-vent sandwave facies, massive facies at intermediate distances from
the vent, and planar facies at distal portions of the deposit. In contrast, Frazzetta
Table 2.3. Characteristics of Tuff Rings, Tuff Cones, and Cinder Conesa
Cinder
Character Tuff Rings Tuff Cones
Cones
Height-
1:10 to 1:30 1:9 to 1:11 1:9 to 1:11
Width Ratio
Tachylitic
Mostly sideromelane tuff and Palagonitic and
cinders and
lapilli-tuff, with substantial sideromelane tuff and
scoria, traces
amounts of palagonitic tuff tuff breccia, possibly
Lithology of
breccia containing blocks of scoria and lava within
sideromelane
lava and sediments; some the vent, abundant
ash, lava
accretionary lapilli accretionary lapilli
flows
Well-defined, relatively thin Massive
Poorly defined, relative
beds, massive bedding where bedding,
Bedding thick beds, some thin
base was below local water poorly
beds at the base and top
level defined
Well-developed graded
Graded bedding at base Crude
bedding with dune, massive,
and top, bulk of cone is inverse
Sedimentaryand plane-parallel structures,
nongraded massive grading in
Structures impact sags around ballistic
beds, soft-sediment avalanche
fragments, soft sediment deformations structures
deformations Water from deep Little or no
Water Water from aquifer or shallow
aquifer, deep lake, or water
Source lake
marine environment (magmatic)
Mechanism
Ballistic
of Pyroclastic surge, fallout, and Pyroclastic surge and
fallout and
Ejecta slumping flow, fallout, and lahars
avalanching
Dispersal
a From Heiken (1971).
Page 54
et al. (1983) showed that Vulcano, a composite cone with relatively steep slopes, has
near-vent planar facies, massive facies on cone slopes, and sandwave facies at distal
portions of the deposit at and beyond the base of the cone. In most cases, the positive
designation of a tephra facies in hydrovolcanic deposits will require a detailed analysis of
bedform textures (Fig. 2.11). Recognition of these facies relationships can help locate a
buried or exhumed vent structure, as related by Crisci et al. (1981).
Wet and Dry Facies Relationships
From field observations, we have realized a significant concept about the textural
relationships of various hydrovolcanic tephra deposits. Wohletz and Sheridan (1983)
discuss in detail the existence of two fundamentally different types of hydrovolcanic
tephra deposits: dry and wet. This designation reflects the physical state of the tephra
when it is emplaced: dry deposits show little textural evidence of the presence of
moisture, and wet deposits show sedimentary, textural, and diagenetic evidence of wet
emplacement. Table 2.6 summarizes the field observations that help characterize these two
types of deposits.
The significance of wet and dry characterization for hydrovolcanic tephra deposits will
become clear during the following discussions of field relationships, theoretical eruption
and emplacement models, and the development of hydrothermal systems in country rocks
surrounding vent areas.
Fig. 2.9
Hydrovolcanic landform vs geohydrological environment. In unsaturated environments, basaltic
volcanism commonly produces cinder (scoria) cones by eruptions of relatively low energy.
In areas of abundant water, eruptions vaporize the fluid, which results in explosive activity and
the formation of tuff rings and cones. In deep water, extrusions of basalt are passively
quenched and form pillow lavas.
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983a.)
Page 55
Hydrovolcanic eruptions disperse tephra in clouds of steam. Where water is abundant, the
expansion of steam occurs in the steam dome (a two-phase region), and an appreciable
amount of condensed water is emplaced with the tephra. Where water is less abundant,
the steam expands in its superheated region and is more readily separated from tephra
during emplacement so the deposits remain relatively dry. Observations of the eruptions
of Surtsey volcano illustrate this expansion process (Thorarinsson et al., 1964). Tephra
and high-pressure water vapor were erupted in plumes called "cock's tails" or
"cypressoid" jets. The water vapor was not visible until it reached lower pressure after the
jets had traveled several hundred meters from the vent. At that point, saturated steam was
visible in the jets of tephra, indicating that it condensed in the steam dome. This steam
was carried along with the tephra jets until their emplacement on the slopes of the
emerging volcano. Some of the water vapor separated earlier from the jets as optically
transparent, superheated steam. It later
Fig. 2.10
Four major textural types of hydroclastic deposits
produced by explosive hydrovolcanic eruptions.
Explosion breccias are typical of near-vent
tephra deposits, whereas sandwave (dunes),
massive, and planar bedded tephra deposits are
common to pyroclastic surges and flows (Wohletz
and Sheridan, 1979). Another textural type,
the laharic breccia, forms by liquefaction of these
deposits if there is an abundance of condensed
steam or rainfall.
Table 2.4. Characteristics of Common Hydrovolcanic Tephra Bedforms
Fallout Sandwave Massive Planar
Weak-to-
Normal Strong plane-parallel
Laminar structures nonexistent internal
grading stratification
structure
Angular Fine grain size Medium grain size
Coarse grain size (0 to -3 )
fragments (2 ) (0 to 2 )
Moderately Layers commonly
well sorted millimeters thick Poor sorting Beds average 2 cm in thickness
Internal
Scour features at
structure
Cross laminations base Inverse grading is common Long
generally
Festooned bedding Beds generally wavelength undulations (>10 m)
well
>20 cm thick
defined
Deflation
Ripple laminations
structures
Shoot-and-pool
Pebble stringers
structures
Antidunes
Bedding in sets
Page 56
Table 2.5. Common Hydrovolcanic Tephra Faciesa
Facies Characteristics
Explosion breccia, consisting of large blocks and bombs that are both
Vent framework and matrix supported; matrix of coarse ash, intercalations
of fallout lapilli, and surge beds
Predominantly sandwave to massive bedding transitions; low primary
Sandwave
dips; little alteration; fine grain sizes
Sandwave, massive, and planar bedding structures all presentmassive
Massive beds predominating and showing some alteration, up to 25° dips near
vent
Planar beds predominate, some massive beds; coarse grain sizes; may
Planar
have high primary dips near vent
Strong evidence of wet emplacement, including abundant accretionary
lapilli; high primary dips with soft-sediment deformations; poorly
Wet Surge developed stratification; palagonitization; induration; tuff-breccia
appearance; intergranular vesiculation; bedding consists mostly of
massive, planar, and laharic textures
Fresh deposits poorly indurated with little palagonitization; thinly
Dry Surge bedded, sandwave facies change to massive then to planar facies with
increasing distance from vent beds; low primary dips
Explosion breccia near vent at base; overlain by small amounts of dry
Tuff Cone
surge and abundant wet surge deposits and lahars
Mostly dry surge deposits overlying explosion breccia and fallout
Tuff Ring
beds near vent
Alternating dry and wet facies; dry surges show progression from
Composite
planar to massive to sandwave facies with increasing distance from
Cone
vent; wet surges change to lahars with distance from vent
Dry surges at base above Plinian fallout, becoming wetter as eruption
Caldera progresses and pyroclastic flows are deposited; pyroclastic flows can
be surge-like in caldera eruptions that are hydrovolcanic
a From Heiken and Wohletz (1983).
became visible as it cooled and condensed in the atmosphere, rising as billowing steam
clouds above the jets.
Other observations mentioned by Wohletz and Sheridan (1983) support the hypothesis
that the physical state of water/steam during eruption is determined by the mass ratio of
water to magma interacting in the vent. This hypothesis has evolved as detailed studies of
many hydrovolcanic vents around the world have documented the dependence of
eruptive energy, tephra dispersal, and the resulting vent landform on the water:magma
mass ratio (summarized earlier in Chapter 1). Figure 2.12 illustrates typical hydrovolcanic
bedforms and their deduced water:magma mass ratios.
Through the interpretation of deposits, one can show that many volcanoes demonstrate
cyclic eruptive behavior (Chapter 1), in which the water:magma mass ratio varies with
time. Sheridan and Wohletz (1983a) noted two trends at many volcanoes. A dry trend,
typically found in tuff rings, is indicated by deposits that show a decreasing abundance of
interacting water with time so that final eruptions can be entirely magmatic. A wet trend is
illustrated by tuff cones in which the initial eruption is magmatic and the final bursts are
so wet that tephra form lahars as they are emplaced. Using the information gained from
these observations, it is possible to place constraints on both the water:magma ratio
during the course of an eruption and the availability of water for potential hydrothermal
systems associated with the volcano.
Page 57
Fig. 2.11
Pyroclastic surge facies as designated by bedform statistics. Section S-7 represents the sandwave
facies with abundant dune bedforms; U-4 is a massive facies example showing planar, massive, and
dune bedforms; S-1 is an example of planar facies with mostly planar and massive bedforms.
Section U-8 is ambiguous; after detailed analysis of bedform transitions by Markov analysis
(Wohletz and Sheridan, 1979), it is classified as sandwave facies. Bedform types are shown as
P (planar), M (massive), or S (sandwave), as defined in Fig. 2.10. Occurrences of these types are
further numbered from the base of the deposit.
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1979.)
Polygenetic Volcanoes and Calderas
The phenomenon of hydrovolcanism is not associated solely with eruptions at small,
monogenetic volcanoes. The following descriptions illustrate the significance of
hydrovolcanic processes in (a) wide-spread tephra deposits from silicic calderas, (b) the
development of wet and dry cycles at composite cones, (c) the evolution of calderas, and
(d) pyroclastic episodes during the eruption of domes of intermediate to silicic
composition (see Chapter 5).
Taupo
The Taupo volcanic zone of New Zealand's North Island is one of the best studied
examples of silicic volcanism. An important hydrovolcanic feature of this volcanic field is
the extremely widespread, fine-grained silicic tephra deposits, especially those from the
Taupo volcanic center (Healy, 1962; 1964).
Page 58
Table 2.6. Characteristics of Hydrovolcanic Wet and Dry Tephra
Dry Wet
Abundant sandwave
Abundant massive, tuff-breccia beds
structures
Well-developed, thin
Poorly developed bedding; strata found in thicknesses of
bedding
10 cm to several meters
(1 to 5 cm thicknesses)
Low (<12°) initial dips High initial dips (up to 25°) are common
Young deposits poorly
Highly indurated young deposits
indurated
Little palagonitization High degree of palagonitization
Scarce accretionary
Abundant accretionary lapilli
lapilli
Low thickness-to-aerial- High thickness-to-aerial-extent ratio
extent ratio Wet sediment deformations
Self (1983) presented an extensively documented account of the Wairakei eruption

(20,000 ka), which produced the Oruanui Pumice Formation (Vucetich and Pullar, 1964)
and the Wairakei Breccia, both of which are part of the Wairakei Formation. Self
addressed the exceptionally fine grain size, wide dispersal, high content of accretionary
lapilli (up to 33 wt%), and irregular thickness distributionfeatures that Self and Sparks
(1978) noted as indicators of silicic, phreatomagmatic (Phreatoplinian) volcanism. Figure
2.13 illustrates the stratigraphy of the Wairakei Formation, which consists of interbedded,
fine-grained pyroclastic fall and flow deposits as well as two main phreatoplinian phases
that were followed by ignimbritic phases. Member 1 has a median diameter of 4.0
(0.064 mm) even near the source and is representative of the typical phreatomagmatic
materials shown in Fig. 2.14.
Heiken and Wohletz (1985) described volcanic ash samples and their phreatomagmatic
textures from this section. Through interpretation of tephra deposits, Self (1983)
illustrated the eruption sequence and phreatomagmatic factors of the Taupo eruption (Fig.
2.15). More detailed descriptions of geothermal studies in the Taupo region are given in
Chapter 4.
Vulcano
The Island of Vulcano in the Aeolian archipelago of Italy is a classic example of
hydrovolcanic activity. The Fossa cone of Vulcano has been historically active and poses
an ongoing hazard (Keller, 1980). Mercalli and Silvestri (1891) observed the most recent
eruptive episode and described the eruption phenomena now termed Vulcanian. Frazzetta
et al. (1983) built on the work of Sheridan et al. (1981) to interpret the detailed
stratigraphy of the cone and show how hydrovolcanism contributed to the five most
recent episodes of volcanism; their summary of the Fossa tephra stratigraphy is illustrated
in Fig. 2.16. These authors further proposed that all five episodes of volcanism were
characterized by a cyclic eruption pattern that consists of the four stages shown in Fig.
2.17.
(1) Initial quiet, fumarolic activity was stimulated by heat transfer from (possibly) two
magmas of differing compositions that rose below the volcano.
(2) A triggering event initiated a mixing of the two magmas, which was followed by
further rise of the mixed magma to the surface where it contacted ground-water. The
resulting hydrovolcanic eruptions of pyroclastic surges
Page 59
comprised chilled, nonvesiculated tephra that progressed from wet to dry.
(3) As the groundwater source was separated from the magma by a steam envelope, the
eruptions became magmatic, expelling vesiculated tephra interspersed with the chilled
tephra.
(4) The cycle's final stage is marked by eruption from the pumiceous cap of the magma
and, later, extrusion of an obsidian-cored lava flow. Frazzetta et al. (1983) interpreted the
products of the most recent eruptive cycle with respect to water:magma ratios, as shown
in Fig. 1.22.
Fig. 2.12
An idealized hydrovolcanic deposit section
illustrating typical bedding textures and
bedforms and their inferred water:magma mass
ratios (Rm). Initial eruptions, represented by
the basal pumice fall, involved little or no
external water; however, in later eruptions,
the stratigraphic section records bedforms
that indicate increasing water:magma ratios.
For ratios >1.0, caused by eruptions into a
standing body of water, pillow lavas/breccias
and peperites are usual, as are lahars, which
commonly occur in eruptions of high
water:magma ratios on land.
Vesuvius
The ejecta deposits of another long-active and much-studied volcano, Vesuvius, indicate
that hydrovolcanic activity is significant during its eruptive cycles (Barberi et al., 1981;
Rosi and Santacroce, 1983). The AD 79 eruptions of Vesuvius are among its best
documented in terms of actual observations (Pliny the Younger, 1763; Radice, 1972),
deposit descriptions (Sigurdsson et al., 1985), and interpretations of eruption mechanisms
(Sheridan et al., 1981). Figure 2.18 shows representative tephra stratigraphic sections
from archaeological excavations at three Roman sites that were devastated by
Fig. 2.13
Wairakei Formation tephra stratigraphy for
locations within 20 km of the vent in Lake
Taupo, New Zealand. Members 4 and 6 (m4,m6)
were previously named the Oruanui Pumice
Breccia and Wairakei Breccia, respectively.
(Adapted from Self, 1983.)
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Fig. 2.14
Grain-size characteristics of the Wairakei Formation (Self, 1983). (a)Median diameter (Md )) vs sorting
coefficient ( ) is shown for the various members (m1,m2,..) illustrated in Fig. 2.13; also noted are
textural types, including accretionary lapilli (crushed), lithic/pumice-rich ignimbrite, and base surge.
The dashed field represents pyroclastic flows. (Adapted from Wright et al., 1981.) (b) Grain-size
fractions for m4 and m6: the dashed field represents pyroclastic flows; coarse variant shown by
symbols. (Adapted from Walker et al., 1980.) (c) Grain diameter frequency curves for fallout products
of m2 and m6 show gradual loss of coarse products with increasing distances from the source
(curve numbers in kilometers). (d) Cumulative probability distribution of size fractions ( ) for Plinian
and phreatoplinian deposits is compared to the distribution of a representative m3 sample.
(Adapted from Carey and Sigurdsson, 1982, and Walker, 1981.)
the eruptions. Fallout deposits of white and gray pumice from early magmatic eruptions
were followed by hydromagmatic products emplaced as surges, pyroclastic flows, and
laharsall containing abundant lithic ejecta derived from carbonate aquifer rocks that
underline the Somma Vesuvius at a >2-km depth. Figure 2.19, the model presented by
Sheridan et al. (1981), interprets the stratigraphy and illustrates the effects of
hydrovolcanic activity during the devastating phases of the eruption. Accretionary lapilli,
abundant in the upper portions of the tephra stratigraphy, were studied in detail by
Page 61
Fig. 2.15
Wairakei eruption model showing the sequential stages or eruption of the various
members and periods of lake water/magma interaction.
(Adapted from Self, 1983.)
Sheridan and Wohletz (1983b), who described possible mechanisms for their formation
in wet eruption plumes.
Contrasting hydrovolcanic behavior is evident in the early-stage interaction with water at
Vulcano and the late-stage interaction shown at Vesuvius. One general explanation for
this contrast is the overall hydrologic setting of these volcanoes: Vulcano is an island
edifice characterized by abundant near-surface groundwater, whereas Vesuvius is built on
a sedimentary platform with a deep aquifer system. Access of water to the vent system at
Vulcano gradually decreases during eruptive episodes as magma congeals along vent
walls where water initially infiltrates. At Vesuvius, access of groundwater to the magma
chamber and vent conduit is initially limited by thermal metamorphic rocks that have
sealed fractures. However, as the conduit and chamber wall rocks are fractured by
expansion of magmatic gases early in Plinian eruptive episodes, groundwater gains access
to the magma, especially after overpressures in the magma body and conduit have fallen
below the local thermally perturbed hydrostatic
Page 62
Fig. 2.16
Composite stratigraphic section illustrates
the hydrovolcanic cycles of the Fossa volcano
at Vulcano, Italy. The Pietre Nere, Palizzi,
Commenda, and Pietre Cotte cycles all show
a progression from hydrovolcanic eruptions to
emplacement of lava flows.
(Adapted from Frazzetta et al., 1983.)
pressure. The behaviors exhibited at Vulcano and Vesuvius are generally termed shallow
and deep hydrovolcanic eruptions, respectively; the former becomes dryer and the latter
becomes wetter as eruptions progress.
Throughout the entire Latium volcanic province of Italy, hydrovolcanism has been a vital
component in the development of caldera complexes such as those of Vulsini, Vico,
Sabatini, Albani, and the Phlegraen Fields. Broad, low-profile calderas with widespread,
fine-grained silicic tephra characterize these volcanic areas. Because of their geothermal
importance, we will describe them in detail in Chapter 4.
Petrography of Hydrovolcanic Tephra Constituents
Hydrovolcanic tephra may show aspects of both magmatic and hydrovolcanic origin; in
such cases, petrographic inspection is necessary to determine the relative proportions of
the two endmember processes. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) used the terms pyroclastic
and hydroclastic to distinguish products of magmatic and hydrovolcanic explosions,
respectively. Table 2.7 reviews the salient features of hydroclastic products.
Hydroclastic tephra are generally distinguished from pyroclastic tephra by their fine grain
size. However, this distinction is not always apparent, especially in hydroclastic tephra
sampled at near-vent locations where fine fractions have not been deposited. Figure 2.20
shows plots of sorting vs median diameter for four characteristic tephra bedforms
produced by hydrovolcanic activity. Although these statistics are often
Page 63
Fig. 2.17
This schematic model of typical Vulcanian eruption cycles at Vulcano is based upon interpretation of
stratigraphic successions shown in Fig. 2.14. Activity progresses from (a) quiet fumarolic emissions to
(b) magma vesiculation and surge eruptions caused by primitive magma intruding into older evolved
magma and interaction with groundwater. (c) The development of a steam chimney above the magma
reduces direct contact between water and the melt; steam explosions eject comminuted older lavas and
some pumice, producing surge and fallout deposits. (d) The final stage is marked by eruption of a
pumice fall and emplacement of a lava flow from the chilled zone of the magma body.
(Adapted from Frazzetta et al., 1983.)
sufficient to characterize hydroclastic tephra, we advocate further analysis of size
distributions by the techniques described by Sheridan et al. (1987) to separate
subpopulations from the overall sample distribution. This method involves the detailed
analysis of wet and dry sieve data and sample separation procedures described in
Appendix A.
Constituents of hydroclastic tephra, including glass, crystals, and lithic fragments in
various proportions, are sensitive to the emplacement mechanism and magma
composition. Figure 2.21 illustrates the variety of tephra constituents that characterize tuff
rings and tuff cones. One of the most distinguishing features of these tephra is the amount
of glass alteration in samples of wet and dry hydrovolcanic facies. Basaltic glass readily
alters to palagonite, a complex combination of zeolites and smectites; rhyolitic glass alters
to hydrated glass, which can crystallize to fine-grained quartz, potash feldspar, and clays.
Although such alteration generally occurs in any tephra deposit through weathering and
diagenetic processes, stratigraphic
Page 64
Fig. 2.18
Representative stratigraphy of AD 79 pyroclastic deposits exposed in archaeological excavations
along the coastal side of Vesuvius; FA = pumice fallout, FL = pyroclastic flows, and S = surges.
The basal white and gray pumice fallout was from early magmatic eruptions, and the upper
pyroclastic flows and surges are products of later hydrovolcanic eruptions.
(Adapted from Sheridan et al., 1981.)
Page 65
Fig. 2.19
Model of AD 79 Plinian eruptions at Vesuvius. This model, temporally and phenomenologically
constrained by accounts of Pliny the Younger (Radice, 1972), shows (a) the initial Plinian column
eruption, (b) the decline to intermittent magmatic and hydromagmatic explosions, and (c) the
terminal hydromagmatic phase that produced wet pyroclastic flows and surges. The beginning
of hydromagmatism, during the intermediate stage, is associated with the failure of magma
chamber walls, which added a thermally metamorphosed lithic constituent to the tephra and
allowed aquifer waters to flow into the chamber.
(Adapted from Sheridan et al., 1981.)
Page 66
information supports the conclusion that the alteration can also result when abundant hot
water vapor is emplaced with the deposit.
Weathering and diagenetic effects, including the posteruptive saturation of tephra deposits
by rain or groundwater, make it difficult to evaluate the timing of palagonitization and
hydration; however, pertinent stratigraphic information can be useful (Fig. 2.22). Where
fresh and altered tephra appear in alternating layers above the groundwater table, a strong
argument can be made that alteration took place at the time of tephra emplacement.
Proximity of altered tephra to a vent or fault is indicative of postemplacement alteration
by hydrothermal fluids. Diagenesis below the groundwater table can be assessed for a
region by determining the lateral extent of altered tephra and the presence of alteration
zones that cross bedding planes.
Wet deposits can be distinguished from dry ones by the degree of glass alteration. Figure
2.23 shows that palagonitization of basaltic tephra is a function of median grain size, but
for diameters <0.1 mm, palagonitization is most prevalent in samples from wet facies
bedforms. This observation is not surprising if one considers the results of experiments
with palagonite formation that demonstrate a strong dependence on temperature (Fig.
2.24a). Palagonitization also has a significant effect on glass chemistry; bulk chemical
analysis of partly palagonitized tephra may show that its composition is considerably
different than that of its parent (Fig. 2.24b).
Analyses of clast morphology by optical and electron microscope also provide important
data for classifying tephra as pyroclastic or hydroclastic (Heiken, 1971; Heiken and
Wohletz, 1985). Table 2.8 summarizes clast morphologies that are useful in understanding
the eruptive mechanism (grain shape), transport or emplacement process (edge
modification), and water abundance (clast alteration/palagonitization). Wohletz (1987)
described these features for several examples of hydrovolcanic associations.
Table 2.7. Field and Petrographic Features of Hydroclastic Tephraa
Basaltic Basaltic (Littoral) Rhyolitic
Maar volcanoes;
Volcanic Tuff ring with central
tuff rings and cones; Littoral cones
features lava dome
explosion pits
Vitric ash; angular
sideromelane Most ash particles
fragments, generally Vitric to vitric-lithic equant or elongate
free of crystals ash; sideromelane colorless glass; traces of
Petrographyexcept phenocrysts; droplets; tachylite; rhyolite lithic fragments;
lithic component of fragments of aphanitic glass generally free of or
some ash depends on basalt contains very few
composition of microlites
basement rocks
Crystalline basalt;
Equant blocky glass equant lithic Sharply pointed
shards with few fragments; blocky or elongated shards and flat
vesicles; smooth, flat crescent-shaped elongate pumice
Shard
fracture surfaces or sideromelane grains fragments; conchoidal to
shape
scalloped where with few vesicles; irregular fracture
fractures intersect nonvesicular surfaces; smooth vesicle
vesicles pyramidal glass walls
fragments
a From Fisher and Schmincke (1984) and Heiken (1972).
Page 67
Fig. 2.20
Grain sizes of hydrovolcanic tephra deposits of different bedding textures are shown by plots of
sorting coefficient ( ) vs median diameter (Md ). Whereas pyroclastic surge bedforms (sandwave,
planar, and massive) range in median diameter from 2.0 to 0.063 mm, fine-ash beds demonstrate
the intense tephra fragmentation capability of hydrovolcanism with median
diameters of 0.063 to 0.022 mm.
Page 68
Fig. 2.21
This triangular diagram of hydrovolcanic tephra
constituents shows the relative contribution of
fresh glass, altered glass, and crystal and lithic
material. Fields for tuff rings and cones reflect
the relative proportions of these constituents in
different bedforms. The greater relative
abundance of altered glass for tuff cones
attests to the greater abundance of water in
the erupting system.
Fig. 2.22
Example of stratigraphic and structural settings for altered (palagonitized and hydrated) tephra
deposits. (a) Altered tephra (cross-hatched) may exist around a vent area as a result of hydrothermal
circulation. Such alteration is relatively insensitive to tephra bedding planes, but it does not show
lateral continuity away from the vent. (b) Palagonitization and zeolitization below a groundwater
table show lateral continuity and may cross bedding planes between tephra of different
depositional character. (c) Alteration may be structurally controlled along faults through which
hydrothermal fluids have migrated. (d) However, when tephra alteration occurs rapidly during
eruption and emplacement and before cooling, the altered tephra may be intercalated with
relatively fresh tephra layers. This alteration is relatively insensitive to
the groundwater table and initial dips of the strata.
Page 69
Experimental and Theoretical Aspects of Hydrovolcanism

Much of our qualitative and quantitative understanding of hydrovolcanic processes has
developed from experimental and theoretical studies of the water/magma interaction
mechanism. As a brief review, we summarize several studies that are applicable to
geothermal energy exploration.
Results from Experiments
Water/magma interaction belongs to a broad class of physical and chemical processes
termed fuel-coolant interaction (FCI). Our research has focused on applications of FCI
theory to water/magma interactions, and we describe results of our experimental studies
that bear upon interpretation of hydrovolcanic products.
In their experiments, Wohletz and McQueen (1984) and Sheridan and Wohletz (1983a)
used thermite as a basaltic magma analog because it readily fit experimental requirements.
The thermite reaction (Fe3O4 + 8/3Al 4/3Al2O3 + 3Fe + heat) produces a molten
mixture of crystals and liquid at temperatures in excess of 1000°C; the viscosity and
density are similar to that of basaltic magma. The molten thermite was brought into
contact with water within several different pressure vessels that were constructed in such
a way that variations of
Fig. 2.23
Percent of glass palagonitized vs median grain size for hydroclastic tephra. Trends are shown for
bedforms in both tuff rings and cones. In general, there is a decrease in palagonitization with
decreasing grain size, except in the case of massive and planar bedforms in tuff rings. This trend
reflects the decrease in porosity as a function of grain size; however, anomalous tuff ring samples
point to the likelihood that massive and planar bedforms are typical of wetter eruptions.
Page 70
pressure, temperature, and interaction energy (Buxton and Benedict, 1989) could be
quantified (Fig. 2.25).
The pulsating ejection of fragmental debris, which ranged from passive to explosive, was
studied for a variety of water:thermite mass ratios, interaction pressures, and contact
geometry. Figure 2.26 summarizes these experiments, which could be interpreted as
analogs to volcanic activity. One interesting observation was that the water:magma mass
ratio was a dominating factor of the interaction phenomena. By quantifying the energy of
the interaction as a ratio of measured mechanical energy to initial thermal energy (Fig.
1.21), Wohletz and McQueen (1984) developed Fig. 2.27 to summarize the spectrum of
hydrovolcanic activity.
Fig. 2.24
(a) Thickness of palagonite skin on basaltic glass
samples as a function of alteration time at
different temperatures. The rapid increase in
alteration with temperature argues that at high
temperatures (several hundred degrees), glass
alteration to depths of several micrometers may
take place in minutes or less.
(Adapted from Furnes, 1975, and Moore, 1966.)
(b) Chemical variations between basaltic
glass and palagonite samples are normalized
to titanium accumulation. Dashed lines
indicate idealized chemical losses expected from
passive gain of TiO2, which increases with
palagonite maturation. Data for glass/palagonite
pairs from submarine alteration ( ) and subaerial
conditions ( ) suggest a nearly isomolar
exchange of major element oxides
with H2O and K2O.
Grain sizes of fragmental debris from these experiments show a strong relationship to
explosive energy: with more efficient interaction between water and melt, finer explosion
debris (experimental tephra) is produced (Fig. 2.28). By assuming simple conductive heat
transfer between the melt and water, it is possible to make some interesting predictions
about hydrovolcanic activity. Figure 2.29 shows the quenching time for tephra as a
function of median diameter. By assuming that conductive heat transfer in these
experiments reflects the more complicated process that occurs in nature, one may infer
from hydrovolcanic bedforms some aspects of the energetics of eruptions that produced
the tephra. For example, tephra deposited as sandwave
Page 71
beds likely resulted from more explosive interactions than those that produced other
bedforms.
Size and shape studies of experimentally produced tephra have also provided some
insight into the mechanisms by which magma and water come into close contacta
necessary condition for the explosive exchange of thermal energy. Wohletz (1983) used
inferences from grain-shape analysis to describe some of these mechanisms, many of
which are driven by dynamic instabilities that grow at interfaces between the magma and
water. These instabilities develop from differences in density, surface tension, viscosity,
and the relative velocity of the water and magma. Growing instabilities, caused by rapidly
fluctuating steam-film jackets at the water/magma interface, mix the two and gradually
fragment the magma. This quasistable mechanism increases the contact surface area
between magma and water, and the subsequent heat transfer is enhanced to rates that can
sustain an explosion.
Some of the characteristic grain shapes of experimental tephra shown in Fig. 2.30,
including blocky shapes, irregular and convoluted fluidal shapes, spheres, ribbons, and
shell-like shards, can be used to interpret interaction and mixing mechanisms.
Because chemical alteration of tephra is a characteristic feature of hydroclastic products,
Taylor and Wohletz (1985) conducted experiments to investigate the chemical processes
in hydrovolcanism. An interesting but perhaps not surprising aspect of these experiments
concerned oxygen isotope exchanges. Like magma, thermite is relatively rich in heavy
oxygen ( 18O 160/00). During interactions between thermite and water typical of the
meteoric composition of groundwater ( 18O -120/00), Taylor and Wohletz expected that
some exchange of the oxygen isotopes would deplete the 18O composition of the
experimental tephra (based on previously measured diffusion constants of 10-4 to 10-9
cm2/s); however, results (shown in Fig. 2.31) revealed considerable depletion of 18O.
These results indicated an exchange of up to 30% of the oxygen in the thermitea very
dynamic chemical reaction considering the length of the experiments (several seconds or
less).
As discussed by Heiken and Wohletz (1987), enhanced oxygen isotope exchange can be
expected for water/magma interactions in which the surface area of the magma is
increased by many orders of magnitude. The behavior of oxygen suggests that other ionic
species may also diffuse at effectively high rates, rapidly altering the chemical
composition of finely fragmented magma during a
Table 2.8. Clast Morphologies for Hydroclastic Tephra
Grain Shape Edge Modification Clast Alteration
Blocky, curviplanar surfaces Grain rounding Vesicle filling
Vesicularor fused skin
Droplike Grooves fractures
Steplike and scratches Solution
Skin cracks
and precipitation
Deformation planes Dish-shaped fractures Microcrystalline encrustations
Adhering particles Chipped edges
Platy Cracks
Upturned plates
Mosslike
V-shaped depressions
Page 72
Fig. 2.25
Five experimental designs were used by Wohletz and McQueen (1984) to simulate hydrovolcanic
activity with a thermite (Al2O3 + Fe) magma analog: (a) sand burial, (b) confinement, (c) water box,
(d) central vent, and (e) bottom vent (lift-off). The basic design promoted contact of molten thermite
with water within a confined vessel after the thermite melted through the aluminum partition that
initially separated the two. A burst valve, designed to fail when pressure exceeded a specified limit,
allowed venting of the high-pressure steam and fragmented thermite. Pressure transducers recorded
vapor production in the vessel, and high-speed cinematography documented
the ejection of fragmented melt through the vent.
Page 73
Fig. 2.26
In this summary of hydrovolcanic experiments, four basic interaction phenomena, consisting of melt
fountaining, unsteady blasts, steady production of steam and ejecta, and the nonexplosive quenching of
melt into globular shapes (blobs), are correlated to volcanic activities and the water:melt mass ratio (Rm).
(Adapted from Wohletz and McQueen, 1984.)
hydrovolcanic eruption and thereby producing altered tephra deposits. Studies by Hildreth
et al. (1984) and Lipman and Friedman (1975) documented such behavior in large silicic
systems during caldera-related eruptions. Smith (1988) found that fresh, pumiceous
samples of postcollapse rhyolite of the Long Valley caldera, California, show 18O
00/00, in contrast to +6.7 to +7.40/00 values for obsidian, which are typical of most
unaltered volcanic rocks. This result indicates about a 33% exchange of oxygen between
meteoric water and the rhyolite in the formation of pumicea conclusion supported by field
evidence of a gas-rich and relatively low-viscosity extrusion. A conclusive piece of
evidence for the hydrovolcanic origin of tephra is their oxygen composition if they are not
affected by weathering and diagenesis.
Page 74
Fig. 2.27
Scaled kinetic energy relative to the initial melt thermal energy is shown as a function of
water:magma mass ratio. Ranges are indicated for Strombolian, Surtseyan (hydrovolcanic), and
submarine activity as well as for corresponding landform and deposit bedforms.
(Adapted from Wohletz and McQueen, 1984.)
Predictions Based on Theory
It is evident from our experiment results that one can employ theoretical physics to make
accurate predictions for hydrovolcanic explosions (for example, Buchanan, 1974). One
prediction that is strongly supported by the energy measurements shown in Fig. 1.21 is
the relationship of explosive energy to water:magma mass ratios. In Chapter 1, we
outlined a method for quantifying explosive energy that is based on thermodynamics: the
method assumes that magma and water reach thermal equilibrium before explosive
expansion of the water. By using a temperature-entropy diagram (Fig. 2.32), one finds
thatdepending upon the temperature and entropy of the initial equilibrium pointexpansion
of water can follow one of several thermodynamic paths. The most complex of these
paths occurs during its expansion, when water maintains a temperature similar to that of
the hot magma fragments. In this case, the simple isentropic expansion of water is not
followed; instead expansion has a strong isothermal component that is determined by the
mass ratio of magma fragments entrained and in thermal contact with the water during
expansion.
As is shown in Fig. 2.32, expansion of a high-pressure mixture of water and magma may
take place in the steam dome, the
Page 75
Fig. 2.28
Log efficiency (the ratio of steam mechanical energy to melt thermal energy) as a function of the
median grain diameter in fragmented melt. Small-scale (several grams of melt) laboratory
experiments ( ) from Buxton and Benedict (1979) exhibited lower efficiency [heat flux (Hq)]
and coarser grain sizes than large-scale (100 kg of melt) experiments (hatched) performed
by Wohletz and McQueen (1984). Data fall within theoretical ranges of heat flux to steam from
thermite melts (bold lines). Maximum measured laboratory heat fluxes (Buchanan, 1974) indicate
resulting grain diameters between 0.125 and 0.004 mm.
Fig. 2.29
Log reciprocal cooling time vs grain diameter
and log specific surface area. The shaded area
represents times predicted by conductive cooling
models; the circular fields show ranges of median
grain diameters for common hydrovolcanic
bedforms: F = fallout, P = planar, M = massive,
and S = sandwaves. Median grain diameters for
magmatic eruptions are commonly in the lapilli
range, and the onset of vapor-explosion
decrepitation of grain size is idealized near grain
diameters of 1.0 mm.
(Adapted from Wohletz, 1983.)
Page 76
Fig. 2.30
Sketches of four types of grain shapes observed during experiments in hydrovolcanism. Blocky and
plate-like grains are thought to be produced by brittle failure of the melt when it is subjected to
strong stress waves. Moss-like, drop-like, and spherical grains are likely produced by fluid
instabilities at water/melt interfaces:
Page 77
Fig. 2.31
Oxygen isotopic ratio [Eq. (1-10)] vs Rm
(water:melt ratio) shows the strong depletion
of heavy oxygen (18O) observed in experimental
products ( ) after interaction of the melt ( )
with water ( ) in times <1 s. These results suggest
that if the oxygen isotope ratio can be confidentially
measured for hydrovolcanic materials, Rm can be
constrained. However, the effects of
weathering and the temperature at which
isotopes are exchanged in volcanic products
can complicate isotope measurements.
(Adapted from Taylor and Wohletz, 1985.)
superheated steam field, or both. Expansion within the steam dome (saturated) results in
wet-steam explosions, which are of lower energy than those in the superheated field.
Wohletz (1986) showed that for saturated expansions, the steam fraction (x2) of the
ejected water in the eruption (which forms eruption columns and pyroclastic flows and
surges) is calculated by
where xe = the steam fraction at initial thermal equilibrium, Te = the temperature of that
equilibrium [Te = (mwCvwTw + mmCmTm)/(mwCvw + mmCm)], mw and mm = the mass
of water and magma, respectively, Cpw and Cvw = water's specific heats at constant
pressure and constant volume, respectively, Cm = the magma specific heat, T2 = 373 K
(assuming saturated expansion to
Fig. 2.32
Temperature-entropy diagram for vapor expansion in hydrovolcanic eruptions. From
its initial state ( ), water is heated to a higher temperature and pressure (e) where
it is in thermal equilibrium with magma. With decompression, the water expands
along one of several paths, maintaining thermal equilibrium with fragmented magma,
to its final state ( ) at lower temperature and 1 bar atmospheric pressure. Water's
liquid, two-phase (2 ), and vapor fields are indicated, as are points a'[where a super-
critical water and tephra mixture expands into the two- phase (steam dome) field] and
b' [where the mixture expands out of the two-phase field into the superheated steam
(vapor) field]. The four expansion paths shown constrain the amount of magma heat
converted to steam expansion work; these paths are determined by the initial water:
magma mass ratio. (Adapted from Wohletz, 1986.)
1 bar), and Hlv = the enthalpy of water vaporization. For superheated expansions, the
final temperature (T2) is given by
where f = (mwCpv + mmCm)/mwR, R = the gas constant, and expansion occurs from the
initial pressure of thermal equilibrium (pe) to p2 = 1 bar (atmospheric) pressure.
In practice, one finds that expansion might proceed from the superheated field into the
saturated fieldor the reversemaking the calculation more complicated. The conversion
efficiency or ratio ( c) of the magma's thermal energy to explosive kinetic energy (the
explosive efficiency) is found by dividing
Page 78
the change in the water/magma mixture's internal energy ( Umix) by the magma's initial
thermal energy [mmCm(Tm-298)], where
for superheated expansion, xe = x2 = 0.0 and Vlv = the volume change from liquid to
vapor. This calculated value gives the maximum theoretical efficiencies for the semi-
isothermal cases (Wohletz, 1986) of water expansion, in which the expanding water
maintains the same temperature as the entrained pyroclasts. Figure 2.33 shows a plot of
those efficiencies as a function of water:magma mass ratios (logarithmic) in which
maximum explosive efficiencies are reached where ratios are between 0.1 and 1.0 (about
equal volumes of water and magma). Figure 2.33 also provides a comparison of this
efficiency curve in which the mass fraction of water condenses from the expanding
mixture (1-x2). It is apparent that for eruptions of maximum energy, all water is converted
to superheated steam, but with increasing amounts of water, energy gradually decreases
and saturated liquid content rises sharply. For mass ratios >2.0, eruptions are very wet
and most of the high-pressure vapor condenses to liquid as pressure decreases to
atmospheric levels. At that point, the erupted tephra, usually wet and sticky, forms lahars
during emplacement.
Building on the theoretical arguments of Colgate and Sigurgeirsson (1973), Wohletz
(1986) described how growth of what are termed Rayleigh-Taylor and Kelvin-Helmholtz
instabilities controls the heat transfer rates and grain sizes of magma fragments during
hydrovolcanic eruptions. The interface between water (liquid and vapor) and magma can
be unstable if the lighter fluid accelerates toward or across the heavier one. In the case of
Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities, when the interface becomes perturbed, wavelets grow in
amplitude ( t) with time as t = cosh(nat), where na is a function of acceleration, wave
number, fluid densities, surface tensions, and viscosities. This instability growth occurs
only when the wavelet size is greater than a critical wavelength ( crit; Bellman and
Pennington, 1954):
where s = the surface tension of the magma, a = the acceleration of the water toward the
magma surface (imparted by collapse of a vapor film), and w and m = the water and
magma densities, respectively. If a spectrum of larger than crit grows and detaches to
form magma fragments, the most abundant fragment sizes are 3 crit, and a
characteristic bell-shaped size-frequency distribution results.
After an initial period of instability during which water and magma are mixed, vapor
explosion may occur by superheat vaporization (Fauske, 1973) or thermal detonation
(Fauske, 1977; Board et al., 1975; Rabie et al., 1979). Superheated water may remain in a
metastable state until it attains its spontaneous nucleation temperature at ~570 K (Reid,
1976). After heat transfer raises the water temperature to that point, homogeneous
vaporization causes a spontaneous vapor explosion. In the case of thermal detonation, a
shock wave propagating through the coarsely mixed magma and metastable water leaves a
fine fragmentation of magma and sudden vapor expansion in its wake; this sequence of
events is analogous to classical Chapman-Jouguet detonation (Courant and Friedrichs,
1948).
During thermal detonation, the shock wave differentially accelerates the water and magma
phases and fragments the magma in proportion to the relative velocity (urel) between the
two phases. For a particular combination of density, initial magma fragment size, drag
coefficient, and surface tension, the differential acceleration causes magma fragmentation
in less time than is
Page 79
Fig. 2.33
Theoretically calculated condensed water fraction and maximum isothermal efficiencies vs Rm.
The fraction of initial water that condenses to liquid after magma/water interaction increases with
Rm,, and at Rm = 3.0, little or no steam remains after interaction with magma and
expansion to atmospheric pressure.
required for the two phases to reach velocity equilibrium. If this situation occurs, the
detonation is sustained; however, several factors can mitigate this process, including
divergence of the shock wave, mixture inhomogeneities, and reflected waves. Wohletz
(1986) approximated final magma fragment sizes (rm) resulting from thermal detonation
during water/magma interaction as
for which urel is predicted by Chapman-Jouguet theory (Landau and Lifshitz, 1959) and
Rm is the absolute value of the difference between the water:magma mass ratio and its
optimum explosive ratio (~0.3). In general, both the fluid instability/superheating and
thermal detonation theories predict the fine grain sizes observed in hydrovolcanic tephra
(Fig. 2.20).
The tephra deposit textures of dry and wet surges, pyroclastic flows, and lahars strongly
depend on the wetness of erupted materials. Figure 2.34 is a plot of the water volume
fraction of hydroclastic deposits as a function of the initial mass ratio of water interacting
with magma during the eruption. The plotted curve is based on the assumption that all
condensed steam is emplaced with the tephra. Eppler (1984), Pierson (1986), and
Arguden and Rodolfo (1990) recently reviewed lahar formation with specific attention to
the tephra deposit water contents required. Where the pore water content of deposits
increases beyond 20 to 30% by volume, tephra deposits are very cohesive and can
maintain the steep bedding planes typical of wet surge deposits. If deposit water content
nears saturation (within a few percent of total pore space50 to 60% by volume), tephra
deposits behave like a Bingham fluid and move as lahars (Eppler, 1984). This behavior is
predicted for hydroclastic tephra that are produced by eruptions whose water:magma
mass ratio is >1.0. Because a great deal of steam can separate from the tephra in the
eruption plume before tephra emplacement, the Rm values on the x-axis of
Page 80
Fig. 2.34
Volume fraction of liquid water in tephra deposits of hydrovolcanic origin as a function of Rm.
Where Rm is <0.4 deposits are dry; where Rm is >0.4 but <1.0, deposits are wet and very cohesive;
and where Rm is >1.0, tephra deposits can contain enough liquid water to behave like lahars.
Fig. 2.34 are the minimum required for the observed tephra deposit texture.
Because the steam formed during hydrovolcanic eruptions progressively decompresses,
cools, and condenses during tephra emplacement, tephra in flows and surges become
wetter with increasing runout distance (time) from the vent. Whereas most dry,
superheated steam might separate from tephra during emplacement of surges and flows,
saturated steam gradually condenses on individual pyroclasts; therefore, tephra emplaced
with saturated steam is likely to become wet and stickyas field observations verify. This
hypothesis suggests that some hydroclastic tephra deposits might show facies changes
with increasing distance from the vent: dry surges near the vent, wet surges at
intermediate distances, and lahars in distal parts of the deposit. This facies distribution
and the corresponding runout distance of tephra deposits should be sensitive to the
wetness of the eruption and the water:magma mass ratio. At one extreme, dry eruptions
are expected to produce surges and flows of dry facies types over the total runout
distance; at the other extreme, very wet eruptions, such as those observed at Surtsey,
might expel laharic tephra.
To evaluate this wet/dry facies hypothesis, we calculate the temporal change in water
vapor density with expansionfrom an initial high-pressure, high-temperature state
(denoted by the subscript e in above calculations) to saturated or superheated steam at
atmospheric pressures. This change in water vapor density is further promoted by the
cooling that occurs as surges or flows entrain cold air. From the continuity equation, we
write:
for one dimension (r) in which g = the water (liquid or gas) density, ve = the ejecta
Page 81
velocity, and t = time. The approach taken to solve Eq. (2-15) is analytical to make use of
as much field data as possible. We calculate the first term (the temporal derivative) on the
left side of this equation by using the chain rule to evaluate four related derivatives. A
solution for mass conservation is achieved when the product of these derivatives is
balanced by the value of the second term (the advective derivative) in this equation.
A numerical procedure was written to calculate the solution for various initial mass ratios,
erupted volumes, and runout conditions. The runout is based on energy line
approximations (Sheridan, 1979; Malin and Sheridan, 1982); initial velocities are
constrained by the collapse height of the erupted column or, in the case of blast eruptions,
the multiphase sound speed of the steam/tephra mixture (Kieffer and Sturtevant, 1984).
The partial derivatives required for the temporal term of Eq. (2-15) include
In the expressions of these derivatives, b and p = the bulk density of the pyroclastic
flow (or surge) and particle densities, respectively; p = the particle volume fraction; the
gas density = g = ( b - p p)/(1 - p); a and vo = the flow acceleration and initial
velocity, respectively; and rr = the radial runout of the flow (rf = the final runout
distance), which is dependent on the flow volume (V). The flow volume is, in turn,
temporally dependent upon ideal behavior of the gas, for which pV = = constant; =
the isentropic exponent that varies with p (Kieffer and Sturtevant, 1984); and p is
assumed to decrease linearly with time.
Equation (2-16) models the expansion of gas as a function of p: the gas attains
atmospheric pressure as p increases to a level at which grains are in continuous contact
( p = 0.6). Equation (2-17) models the radial increase of p, as discussed in Wohletz and
Sheridan (1979) and as numerically modeled by Valentine and Wohletz (1989). The radial
runout distance of the flow is given as a function of flow volume in Eq. (2-18); b cannot
be greater than 1.5 Mg/m3. Finally, the flow volume shown in Eq. (2-19) is an expanded
differential form of the ideal gas equation.
The product of [Eqs. (2-13) through (2-16)] can be integrated with time for solutions
converging to equal - gve/ r (note: gve/ r = g/ g r + ve/ve r) for continuity. The
results of such an analysis are considered only semiquantitative, but they provide a
conceptual model for water vapor condensation in a pyroclastic flow or surge. Figure
2.35 illustrates the results for pyroclastic flow deposits of 1 and 10 km3 volumes. This
model has only been field tested qualitatively, and two important assumptions are implicit
in the above analysis: (a) the bulk density of the flow or surge is always dependent upon
the local water (liquid/vapor) density, which ignores depositional effects, and (b) p
decreases from a minimum near the vent to a maximum of 0.6 at the distal reaches of the
deposit.
Page 82
Fig. 2.35
Conceptual results of condensation calculations, based upon solution of Eqs. (2-16) through (2-19),
depict the runout distances of tephra deposits of 1- and 10-km3 volume from respective
vents of 0.1- and 0.5-km diameter as a function of Rm. The transitions from dry to wet to laharic
deposits occur at varying distances from the vent, depending on the amount of steam
that cools and condenses within pyroclastic flows and surges.
The preceding discussions have outlined some of the predictions theory provides for
water/magma interaction. Water: magma ratios are strongly tied to the energy of
hydrovolcanic eruptions and are manifested by volcanic landforms, the degree of tephra
dispersal, tephra grain sizes and alteration, and textural features of deposit wetness.
Quantification of these manifestations serves to constrain the thermal energy and water
abundance in a volcanic system. These factors are fundamental criteria for evaluating the
likelihood that a geothermal system has developed within and/or near a volcanic area. The
following discussions illustrate geothermal applications of hydrovolcanic theory.
Geothermal Importance of Hydrovolcanism
Field, experimental, and theoretical aspects of hydrovolcanism profoundly influence our
understanding of the development, location, and nature of geothermal reservoirs in
volcanic fields. Tephra stratigraphy, bedform analysis, and grain size and textures are
pertinent geological information that can be interpreted to help determine the hydrologic
conditions in a volcanic field. Detailed petrographic analyses of lithic constituents in the
ejecta can also reveal the nature of the stratigraphic and thermal regime below a volcano;
some examples of geothermal studies in Italy provide excellent documen-
Page 83
tation of the ways pyroclastic rocks have been employed to locate hydrothermal
reservoirs. Finally, with knowledge of basement stratigraphy and aquifer locations, the
theory of hydraulic fracture can be developed to show how a secondary permeability
developed in basement rocks allows convection to prolong the transfer of residual
magmatic heat to aquifers.
Tephra Stratigraphy: Geometry and Depth of Reservoir Rocks
The availability of groundwater and its depth have significant influence on the
stratigraphy of hydrovolcanic tephra deposits (Heiken, 1971; Barberi, 1985; Barberi et al.,
1988). In general, where drilling information has located aquifers in volcanic fields, the
aquifer depth can be correlated to types of volcanic eruptions. Figure 2.36 shows a
hypothetical basin in which the aquifer is shallow or nonexistent at its margins and
located at great depth near the basin's center. Eruptions of basic magma through the
shallow aquifer form monogenetic structures such as single maars or tuff rings; the
aquifer is gradually depleted until eruptions are no longer explosive. The magma then
tends to congeal in the conduit, which eventually stops activity. If magma intersects a
deep aquifer, it interacts with water under greater pressures; this delays the formation of
vapor until the mixture approaches the surface, where it forms frothy ejecta that erupts in
a Plinian fashion. The deep mixing does not deplete the aquifer, so repeated eruptions can
occur before the magma solidifies. The surface expression of such hydrovolcanism might
be a caldera complex with numerous
Fig. 2.36
An idealized cross section of a basin in which magma has erupted through rocks of varying
saturation. Where aquifers are shallow, monogenetic landforms such as single maar craters
probably form. However, if the aquifer is deep enough to surround a magma chamber, prolonged
interaction between the magma and water produces polygenetic landforms such as calderas with
numerous tuff rings and cones. In contrast, at locations where magma erupts without interacting
with an aquifer, lava flows and cinder (scoria) cones are the usual volcanic landforms.
Page 84
tuff rings and tuff cone structures (however, we emphasize the fact that not all calderas
are related to hydrovolcanism). Where erupting magma encounters no groundwater,
activity is confined to lava-flow emplacement and perhaps some Strombolian scoria cone
eruptions.
In shallow hydromagmatic eruptions (interaction within several hundred meters of the
surface), the characteristic eruption shown schematically in Fig. 2.37 develops. The
idealized stratigraphy illustrated in Fig. 2.38 reflects a gradual decrease in the amount of
water interacting with the magma. With initial abundant water supplies (water:magma
ratio >1.0 by mass), hydroclastic eruptions might begin with phreatic bursts that produce
mud slurries, lahars, and peperite deposits. As the eruption progresses, less water feeds
the rising magma (water:magma ratio 0.5 to 1.5), and discrete explosions of wet steam
and tephra deposit cool, wet pyroclastic surges. Later the water:magma ratio reaches
levels (water/magma < 0.5) appropriate for very energetic eruptions of superheated steam
and tephra that produce highly inflated, hot and dry pyroclastic surges capable of
depositing sandwave beds. Final eruptions deposit fallout tephra and lava flows as the
water supply is cut off from the magma conduit.
Deep hydromagmatic eruptions (interaction at depths from several hundred meters to
several kilometers) follow a different pattern; the one described here develops a Plinian
eruption sequence. Figure 2.39 depicts a Plinian eruption conduit passing at depth
through an aquifer and displaying a magma fragmentation level that is receding down the
conduit with time. Barberi (1985) hypothesized that in this eruption water/magma
interaction will not begin until the fragmentation level has receded below the depth of the
aquifer and conduit pressure falls to values less than hydrostatic. Before this stage,
overpressure in the conduit is greater than hydrostatic so aquifer water does not flow into
the conduit; however, after the fragmentation level passes through
Fig. 2.37
When magma erupts through a shallow aquifer (dots), the aquifer is quickly depleted;
consequently, the eruption becomes dryer in character and forms monogenetic,
maar-tuff ring structures.
Page 85
the aquifer, pressure in the conduit may fall below hydrostatic and water/magma
interaction will begin. Proof of this hypothesis depends upon whether the aquifer water is
really at hydrostatic pressure and whether the erupting gas-pyroclast mixture above the
fragmentation level has a pressure gradient below hydrostatic.
Delaney (1982) demonstrated that when saturated rocks are heated by nearby magma,
pore pressures increase sufficiently to drive hydrologic flow in the direction of least
resistance (see Table 2.9). In cases where the magma is more permeable than the aquifer,
the heated pore water might be forced into the magma. This hypothesis fits many
observed tephra sequences in areas where information is available from drilling (Barberi,
1985; Barberi et al., 1981). Barberi (1985) illustrated his model for deep water/magma
interaction with a series of diagrams that
Fig. 2.38
This idealized depositional sequence for a shallow hydromagmatic eruption shows tephra
deposits of decreasing water abundance; such an eruption may end in solely magmatic
eruptions of pumice, scoria, or lava.
(Adapted from Barberi, 1985.)
Page 86
Fig. 2.39
In deep hydromagmatic eruptions, strong magma interaction with a deep aquifer begins after
the fragmentation surface recedes down the conduit to the depth of the aquifer. Decreased
gas pressure in the conduit above the fragmentation surface allows pore pressures in the aquifer
to drive water into the conduit. At right, the sequence of eruption styles is correlated with
the gradual migration of the fragmentation level (expansion waves) down the conduit.
Table 2.9. Pore-Pressure As a Function of Porosity, Permeability, and
Temperature at a Depth of 1.0 Kma
Permeability (m2)
10-18 10-16 10-14 10-12
Temperatures (K)
Porosity (%) 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000
20 88 19 37 3.3 5.6 0.4 0.6
10 58 16 23 1.9 3.2 0.2 0.3
5 38 78 9 18 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.2
1 16 23 2.1 3.5 0.2 0.4 <0.1 <0.1
a Pressures in MPa; dashes indicate pressures in excess of 100 Mpa. From
Delaney (1982).
Page 87
show the progression from a Plinian over-pressured eruption column (Kieffer, 1984a,
1984b) to a pressure-balanced eruption column to a Phreatoplinian eruption phase; during
this process, the fragmentation level in the conduit has receded to the depth of the aquifer
(Fig. 2.40).
Figure 2.41 illustrates the idealized tephra depositional sequence from a deep
hydrovolcanic eruption. Initial tephra deposits are magmatic Plinian pumice falls that
blanket topography. At the intermediate stage, the eruption enters its hydrovolcanic phase
(Phreatoplinian), which is marked by surge and blast deposits filled with lithic fragments
from the aquifer. The final stage is characterized by emplacement of pyroclastic flows that
may show many features similar to those of wet surges (such as accretionary lapilli). It is
possible for the pyroclastic flow stage to be marked by periods of dry and wet expulsions
of tephra that feed the pyroclastic flows, so some parts of the deposit may show entirely
dry products and others may show more influence of water/magma interaction. An
example of such behavior can be interpreted from the pyroclastic flow and surge deposits
of the Laacher See volcano in Germany. The repeated phreatomagmatic depositional
cycles found by Fisher et al. (1983) within the pyroclastic ejecta at Laacher See are
attributed to varying degrees of water/ magma interaction. The degree of water/ magma
interaction in our present interpretation is a function of the fragmentation level depth in
the conduit: when it fluctuates above and below an aquifer, eruptions cycle between wet
and dry.
Pyroclastic rocks can be used to interpret the geometry of aquifer rock units at depth
below a volcanic field, as is depicted in Fig. 2.42. In this hypothetical case, the aquifer
rocks are a potential geothermal reservoir. A crescent-shaped caldera wall is exposed on
one side. The caldera-forming pyroclastic flow shows two major facies: (a) a coarse-
grained tuff with pumiceous and a few lithic fragments in the northern portions of the
outflow sheet, and (b) a fine-grained lithic-rich phreatomagmatic (hydrovolcanic) tuff in
the southern portions of the outflow sheet. Tuff ring and cone vents are found along part
of the caldera wall and along fault trends that extend southeasterly out of the caldera. In
addition, lava flow vents are evident outside the caldera in the outflow sheet. Using the
distribution of hydrovolcanic products, it is possible to infer the geometry of a saturated
basement rock unit. Apparently, the caldera erupted at the intersection of an east-west
fault structure and a northwest-southeast-trending one. Ring vent eruptions to the north
of the fault were dry and dispersed magmatic products northward; eruptions south of the
fault must have involved water from the aquifer to produce hydrovolcanic eruptions that
dispersed phreatomagmatic tephra southward. The limits of this saturated reservoir rock
can be further constrained along the northwest fault trend between the smaller
hydrovolcanic vents and those that extruded lavas. Examples of such interpretations from
the Sabatini and Albani volcanic fields of Italy are described in the following section.
Summarizing hydrovolcanic eruption sequences and aquifer depths, Fig. 2.43 is a plot of
the water:magma ratio as a function of median tephra grain size. Very fine grained tephra
deposits are an earmark of hydrovolcanic activity; theoretical arguments supported by
field observations have determined that the finest grain sizes correlate to water:magma
rations near 1.0, which are best suited for development of economically significant
hydrothermal systems. Further support for this argument is developed in the following
sections, which discuss such features as country rock fractures and thermal
regimesinformation that can be derived from detailed analysis of the lithic fragments
contained in tephra deposits.
Pag
Fig. 2.40
Sequences of pressure gradients around the conduit for a Plinian eruption involving a deep aquifer. (a) Ini
eruptions are highly overpressured at the vent, causing blast conditions that involve both a
supersonic jet with a Mach disk structure (Kieffer, 1984b) and the eruption of ground surges.
(b) As the fragmentation level recedes down the conduit, the transition from a choked, sonic-speed flow
(M 1) to one at supersonic speed (M > 1) occurs at depth, allowing eruption of a jet near atmospheric
pressure and development of a Plinian column that produces fallout deposits. For these first two eruption st
conduit pressure (dotted line) is greater than hydrostatic, which precludes the flow of much water from
the aquifer into the conduit. Wherever the conduit pressure is greater than lithostatic, conduit erosion wi
add lithic fragments from that stratigraphic level to the erupted mixture. (c) When conduit pressure falls
below hydrostatic, water from the aquifer mixes with the magma to produce deep-seated hydrovolcanic
eruptions; abundant lithic fragments from the aquifer rock are emplaced in pyroclastic flows and surges fr
a now-collapsing eruption column.
Page 89
Fig. 2.41
Idealized stratigraphy of deep hydromagmatic
eruption products, showing transitions from
early magmatic eruption of pumice fallout to
intermediate stages of hydromagmatic eruptions
of surge blasts to dry or wet eruptions of
pyroclastic flows (with accretionary lapilli).
Lithic Ejecta: An Important Geothermal Prospecting Tool
Lithic ejecta can provide information about the (a) subvolcanic stratigraphy, (b) aquifer
depth and physical properties, (c) aerial extent of the fluid reservoir in a volcanic region,
and (d) chemical and thermal regime of rocks at depth. An in-depth study (for example,
Barberi et al., 1988) involves the collection of tephra samples, petrographic microscopic
point counts of lithic constituent abundances, comparisons of the abundances with the
stratigraphic position in both the tephra deposit and the regional rocks, and x-ray analyses
of alteration assemblages found in lithic fragments.
Figure 2.44 schematically illustrates a hydrovolcanic eruption upward through a varied
stratigraphic section that consists of three principal rock units. The interaction of water
and magma occurs in aquifer rock unit 2, and subsequent eruptions excavate rock unit 1.
Through analysis of the resulting tephra deposit, depicted in Fig. 2.45, the basement
stratigraphy can be reconstructed. In this casean eruption sequence that becomes wetter
with timethe lowest tephra units contain mostly lithic fragments from the upper rock unit
(unit 1) because it is excavated as the crater is formed. Later magmatic pumice-fall units
might contain a small percentage of lithic fragments (< 10% by volume); lithic fragments
from the deepest unit (unit 3) are most abundant because that unit is fractured by magma
intrusion. When the hydrovolcanic dry eruption begins, lithic abundances increase by 5 to
20 vol%; those from the aquifer unit (unit 2) nearly equal those from the other two
stratigraphic units combined. Final, wet eruptions produce the greatest abundance of lithic
fragments (10 to 50 vol%), most of which are from the aquifer unit.
A good example of the correlation between basement stratigraphy and lithic fragments
comes from geothermal investigations on the island of Nisyros, Greece (Barberi, 1985).
Figure 2.46 shows the eruptive sequence and a correlation between its lithic constituents
and the basement lithology encountered in a geothermal well. The hydromagmatic phases
of the eruption produced dune-bedded pyroclastic surge deposits in which lithic
fragments came from deep, permeable rock units, whereas the magmatic pumice fall units
have lithic fragments from units higher in the basement stratigraphy in which little
permeability was found. In this case, the hydroclastic tephra provide evidence of
permeable rock units at depth. In addition, the lithic constituents of the hydroclastic units
show alteration mineral assemblages that indicate elevated temperatures existed in the
permeable strata.
The thermal regime of basement rocks is also reflected by lithic constituents found in
pyroclastic strata. By careful study of the paragenesis of alteration minerals in lithic
fragments, including stable isotope variations (for example, 18O and 13C) and fluid
inclusion analysis (such as Cl-, SO4, B, NH4, and SiO2), it is possible to surmise not only
the geochemical nature of hydrothermal fluids at depth but also their evolution with
Page 90
Fig. 2.42
Hydrothermal reservoir geometry (dotted line) inferred from a geological map showing
areas underlain by dry (pumiceous) and wet (phreatomagmatic) volcanic products.
A pyroclastic flow has been erupted from a caldera; it is pumiceous in its northern
regions but lithic-rich and fine-grained in its southern portions. Tuff ring and tuff
cone vents exist within the region underlain by the hydrothermal reservoir, whereas
lava flow vents are outside that region. The caldera lies at the intersection of two fault
systems. The east-west fault system marks the northern boundary of the hydrothermal
reservoir, presumably as an aquitard, and the southeast-northwest-trending fault
apparently localizes the aquifer along its southern extent. Because the caldera straddles
the northern boundary of aquifer rocks, eruptions from its northern side are dry,
whereas those from its southern side are of a phreatomagmatic character.
Fig. 2.43
Hypothetical water:magma mass ratio (Rm) as
a function of the near-vent median grain size of
pyroclastic rocks. Where median grain sizes of
tephra are finest (between 0.1 and 1.0 mm),
the inferred water: magma mass ratio is
between 0.3 and 1.0. In this range of Rm,
the hydrothermal potentialand therefore
the economic significanceis greatest.
Page 91
Fig. 2.44
Sketch of a hydromagmatic eruption through basement stratigraphy consisting of three rock types:
1 and 3 are of arbitrary lithology, and rock 2, a limestone aquifer where the water/magma interaction
occurs, is thermally metamorphosed near the volcanic conduit. The abundance of lithic fragments
carried within the ejecta are shown by rock type. Type 2 is most abundant, because of the
explosive fragmentation that occurs in the aquifer. Lithic type 1 is greater than lithic type 3
because it represents near-surface rocks eroded from the conduit walls by
the pressurized mixture of steam and tephra. Lithic type 3 is least abundant
because its deep lithology is little affected by the erosive power of upward migrating magma.
time and thermal regime. In the example from Nisyros (Fig. 2.46), the four zones of
secondary minerals found in the geothermal well includewith increasing depthargillic,
argillic-phyllitic, phyllitic-propylitic, and propylitic mineral assemblages, the lowest three
of which show up in lithic fragments from the tephra deposit. Figure 2.47 reviews basic
hydrothermal alteration facies and equilibrium temperatures represented by the mineral
assemblages that characterize each facies. Secondary mineral assemblages in
volcaniclastic rocks are also good indicators of burial depth (Viereck et al., 1982). Glass
shards commonly alter during diagenesis to zeolites, feldspars, opal-ct, and quartz as well
as smectite clays and consequently can indicate temperature and burial depth (Fig. 2.48).
Excellent examples of the use of hydrovolcanic tephra and lithic constituents in
exploration for geothermal reservoirs are provided by studies in the Latium volcanic
province of Italy. This area (shown in Fig. 2.49) includes the Vulsini (Latera) volcanic
complex, Vico volcano, the Sabatini volcanic complex, and the Albani volcanic complex,
all of which exhibit important hydrovolcanic features (De Rita et al., 1983).
Page 92
Fig. 2.45
An idealized stratigraphic section produced by
the eruption illustrated in Fig. 2.44. The basement
stratigraphy is represented by lithic fragment
abundances that are sensitive to eruption
sequence. Initial, dry pumice eruptions promote
nearly equal abundances of types 1 and 3 as
a result of vent widening and the relatively
large area of contact between the magma
and type 3. Conduit pressure is too great to
allow much cavitation of rock type 2. As
eruptions become hydromagmatic, the
abundance of type 2 increases significantly.
Funiciello et al. (1976) and Funiciello and Parotto (1978) described the correlation
between sedimentary lithic ejecta in pyroclastic deposits of the Albani and Sabatini
regions. Figure 2.50 is a sketch geologic map of the Alban Hills south of Rome. The
dominant feature of this area is the Tuscolano-Artemisio caldera and the distribution of its
phreatomagmatic ejecta, which is mainly to the west of the caldera. In surrounding areas,
the sedimentary basement rock, consisting of Mesozoic to Cenozoic marine rocks, is
exposed and is also represented by lithic fragments in the tephra of the volcanic field. The
abundance of these lithic fragments and the locations of hydrovolcanic vents allowed
Funiciello and Parotto (1978) to reconstruct the substrate below the volcanic complex
(Fig. 2.51). The hydrovolcanic vents are located above a structurally high block of water-
saturated continental shelf and basin rocks. North-northwest faults crossing this block
have contributed to fracture permeability.
A second example from Italy is the Sabatini/Cesano region described by Funiciello et al.
(1976). In the eastern part of the volcanic field, the authors were able to distinguish both
shallow and deep aquifers. In shallow interactions, hydrovolcanic vents were
monogenetic maar craters with a diameter of 1 km or less, whereas deep interactions
produced poorly defined maar structures and complex caldera structures. These caldera
structures appear to represent the coalescence of several maar vents that eventually
collapsed together to form a single caldera. An example of this sequence of events is the
Baccano caldera, whose walls expose hydrovolcanic tephra from numerous vents (see
also Fig. 4.21). Fine tephra, exposed in ridges of phreatomagmatic tephra agglomerates,
have a high chloride and sulfate content that is inherited from the deep hydrothermal
reservoir fluids involved in water/magma interaction. In addition, ejecta analysis by
scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray
Page 93
Fig. 2.46
An example of lithic stratigraphy determined by correlations with a geothermal well in Nisyros,
Greece. The eruptive sequence shown is a magmatic-phase pumice fallout on a paleosol
substrate that is overlain by dune- and massive-bedded hydromagmatic tephra capped
by a lava. Lithic fragments from the magmatic-phase deposits correspond to impermeable strata
that are logged in the geothermal well, whereas the lithic fragments in the hydromagmatic-phase
deposits correspond to deeper, increasingly permeable strata. Hydrothermal alteration observed in
the geothermal well increases downward from argillic (A) through argillic-phyllitic (AF),
phyllitic-propylitic (FP), and propylitic (P) to thermally metamorphosed rock (TM).
Fig. 2.47
Review of hydrothermal alteration facies
and characteristic mineral assemblages shown
as a function of depth and temperature.
Page 94
Fig. 2.48
Burial diagenesis of zeolites and clays. (a) This flow diagram shows the development of authigenic
zeolites (shaded boxes) and silicates from silicic glass during burial diagenesis and metamorphism.
(b) In this chart of mineral assemblages in a thick section of marine silicic volcaniclastic rocks,
zones I to IV indicate increasing burial depth. Zone I is characterized by partial alteration of silicic
glass to montmorillonite and opal-A/opal-CT. Zone II shows additions of alkali zeolites formed by
reaction of silicic glass with interstitial water. The transition to Zone III (where alkali zeolites are
transformed into analcime, heulandite, and laumontite) occurs at temperatures of 84 to 91°C.
The transition to Zone IV (analcime transformed to albite) occurs at temperatures of
120 to 124°C and marks a gradation into the thermal metamorphic regime.
(Adapted from lijima, 1978.)
Page 95
analysis allowed Funiciello et al. to classify secondary mineral paragenesis and determine
the most recent temperature and chemistry of deep reservoir fluids involved in the
hydrovolcanic eruptions. Their schematic geologic map (Fig. 2.52) was created from lithic
ejecta analyses, which show excellent agreement with geophysical studies of regional
gravity, electrical resistivity, and heat flow (Fig. 2.53).
The Funiciello et al. (1976) study constitutes a major step toward the application of
volcanology to geothermal prospecting. They stated that
''As a first approximation, we assume that the surface covered by products of recent
phreatomagmatism, rich in ejecta from the deep sedimentary basement, delimits the minimum
dimensions of a potential geothermal field. As a second approximation, the study of the sedimentary
ejecta allows [us] to reconstruct the stratigraphic and structural characters of the sector where the
phreatomagmatism occurred. This [study] makes it possible to interpret the paleogeographic and
tectonic evolution of the area and to fit it within the regional geology."
With respect to thermal regimes, Funiciello et al. (1976) added:
"Furthermore, if a sequence of phreatomagmatic products in several layers is available, the
comparative investigation of the mineralizations in the different layers supplies indicators on the
evolution of the hydrothermal field in the time."
Volcanic Hydrofractures
The concept of hydraulic fracturing (hydrofracture) was introduced to the petroleum
industry as a technique to increase the fracture permeability of oil and natural gas
reservoirs (Clark, 1949). Because of its successful application in the increasingly
important secondary petroleum recovery from tight formation rocks, Hubbert and Willis
(1957) cited the technique as a major development in petroleum engineering. Although
hydrofracture is historically an artificial means of stimulating a well, there is growing
geological evidence that essentially the same process happens naturally in certain geologic
situations where fluid over-pressures at depth are sufficient to cause either the widening
of preexisting fractures or the failure of rock in the direction of greatest principal stress.
These geologic conditions can occur near sites of magma intrusion and extrusion. Such a
volcanic hydrofracture is geothermally significant where it increases the effective
permeability of host rocks near a heat source and thus allows significant hydrothermal
circulation (Knapp and Knight, 1977; Norton, 1984).
Numerous publications have suggested that hydrofracture occurs naturally during some
magma intrusions in the earth's crust. Fehler (1983), Julian and Simpkin (1985), Chouet
and Julian (1985), and Chouet (1986, 1988) attributed long-period seismic events and
harmonic tremor to fluid-driven fracturing. Foulger and Long (1984) observed tensile
crack formation in geothermal areas of
Page 96
Fig. 2.49
Sketch geological map of the Latium volcanic area in central Italy. The sedimentary basement rocks
consist of the Latium-Abruzzi carbonate platform rocks, the Umbria-Sabina successions and Tuscan
Nappe, and the allochthonous Liguridi and Subliguridi complexes. The volcanic section includes
acidic and K-alkalic volcanic rock units and the major caldera associations of the Alban Hills,
Sabatini, Vico, and Vulsini areas. Widespread hydrovolcanic units are found in each of
these caldera areas.
(Adapted from De Rita et al., 1983.)
Page 97
Iceland, and West et al. (1978) attributed ground tilt around La Soufrière de Guadeloupe
in 1976 to hydrofracturing by pressurized phreatic fluids. Leet (1988) modeled harmonic
tremor caused by the hydrothermal boilinga source mechanism that does not require
movement of magma. Thus, some geophysical evidence strongly supports the concept of
volcanic hydrofracture.
Theoretical Background
Hubbert and Willis (1957) discussed the mechanism of hydraulic fracture and emphasized
the importance of regional stress. Failure that results in faulting occurs at a critical
relationship between the greatest and least principal stresses ( 1 and 3, respectively),
where
is the normal stress and s is the shear stress acting across a plane perpendicular to the
1 and 3 planes at some angle s to 3. Using a Mohr diagram, one can then determine
a combination of and s at which failure occurs. Mohr envelopes of rock failure (Jaeger
and Cook, 1976), given by s/ = tan f, where f = the internal angle of friction, must be
experimentally determined; however, at lower pressures, brittle failure envelopes are
approximated by
where o = the zero normal-stress shearing strength of the rock. Where rock pores are
occupied by fluids, the effective normal stress ( eff) is decreased so that eff = - pp,
where pp = the pore-fluid pressure. Hubbert and Willis (1957) noted that under normal
hydrostatic conditions the effective vertical stress ( z) is slightly more than one-half the
overburden pressure (Sz = gh). In regions experiencing normal faulting, 1 is nearly
vertical and equal to z; 3 is horizontal and probably between one-half and one-third z
( 3 = /(1- ), where = Poisson's ratio for rock. On the other hand, in compressed
regions that are characterized by thrust faulting and folding, 3 is vertical and equal to z;
1 is horizontal and between two and three times z. Hydraulic fractures generally
propagate in the direction of greatest principal stress. Horizontally oriented fractures will
form only where the fluid injection pressure (ppi) is greater than the effective vertical
stress ( z); vertical hydrofractures can form in regions of extension where ppi (Sz +
2pp)/3.
Zoback et al. (1977) conducted laboratory experiments on hydraulic fracturing of rocks
to find the breakdown pressure (pb) of various rocks:
The tensile strength of rock (Ts) should equal pb - 2 3 for nonporous rocks, but in fact,
pb must be corrected for viscous hydrodynamic losses controlled by pressurization, flow,
and leakage rates (along preexisting fractures). For example, Zoback et al. measured pb in
triaxial experiments that ranged from 27 to 54 MPa for gabbros and 20 to 34 MPa for
Page 98
Fig. 2.50
Sketch geologic map of the Alban Hills volcanic group and the Tuscolano-Artemisio caldera.
The oldest volcanic rocks are associated with a composite cone, dated at 0.5 to 0.7 Ma, which
overlies upper Pliocene to Recent sedimentary rocks, Mesozoic and Cenozoic shelf-to-basin
successions, and Mesozoic shelf-edge facies rocks. Of major interest to geothermal studies
are the phreatic craters and ejecta (peperini), which contain lithic fragments that
reveal the basement structure. The youngest volcanic rocks are lavas and
pyroclastic rocks in the caldera center, dated at 0.28 Ma.
(Adapted from Funiciello et al., 1976.)
Page 99
Fig. 2.51
Alban Hills sedimentary basement geology was reconstructed from the distribution of sedimentary
lithic fragments observed in hydroclastic tephra. This reconstruction was useful in siting geothermal
exploration wells, which located a permeable, saturated rock strata that could contain a hydrothermal
system. Numbers refer to volcanic centers: (1) Procula-Pomezia, (2) Ciampino, (3) Albano, (4) Nemi,
(5) Vivaro, (6) Doganella, (7) Valle Marciana, (8) Prata Porci, (9) Gabi, and (10) Campidoglio.
Page 100
Fig. 2.52
Schematic of Sabatini basement geology reconstructed from distribution of lithic fragments in
hydroclastic ejecta. The map shows a northwest-southwest-trending horst (outlined by strike and
dip symbols) of Triassic flysch bounded on both sides by Miocene sedimentary rocks.
sandstones when the pressurization rate was varied from 0.2 to 3 MPa/s, respectively. For
the sandstones, pb increased to a range of 33 to 55 MPa when the rock was prefractured,
which demonstrated the effect of fracture leaks. In all cases, fracture initiation pressures,
which were measured at the onset of rock acoustic emissions, were less than pb (Fig.
2.54).
Howard and Fast (1970) reviewed other theories of hydraulic fracture and the results of
oil-field studies, including the effects of fluid viscosity and pressure, pressurization time,
and injection rate on the fracture width and area around well bores (Figs. 2.55 and 2.56).
Solid materials such as sand and organic materialscalled proppantsare added to fracturing
fluids to increase viscosity and to hold fractures open. By tunneling into fractured areas,
Warpinski et al. (1981) observed the effects of proppants on hydrofractures. Contrary to
theory, the fractures were neither restricted nor terminated by rock interfaces, even where
Young's modulus varied by a factor of 15 for a rock contact. However, fractures did
propagate away from regions of high in-situ stress such as layers of tuff that were more
highly compacted and altered. When different colors of sand proppants were used in
sequences of hydraulic fractures, some fractures showed bedding and cross stratification.
Kern et al. (1958) experimented with the movement of sand as a proppant in fractures.
They found that beds are formed as sand accumulates by cohesion on the fracture
surfaces. The nature of the bedding depends on the changes in fluid velocity with time, in
a manner similar to that of
Page 101
sedimentation in flume studies. Bedding sets at various orientations to the fracture wall
are evidence of multiple pulses of fluid. These observations have been supported by
geological studies of intrusive fracture fillings (Heiken et al., 1988) and pyroclastic dikes
(Curtis, 1954).
Knapp and Knight (1977) considered the effect of a temperature rise in saturated, porous
rock around a hot pluton. Pore fluids change volume with varying temperature and
pressure:
where = the isobaric coefficient of thermal expansion and = the isothermal coefficient
of compressibility. Because the for fluids is much greater than the for rocks, these
authors studied the effects of differential thermal expansion between pore fluids and
enclosing rocks. For pores of fixed volume, the derivative of fluid pressure with respect
to temperature is
/ , termed the pressure coefficient, ranges between 1 and 3 MPa/°C for water in the
earth's crust; it reaches a maximum at temperatures between 100 and 300°C at lithostatic
pressures <800 MPa (Fig. 2.57). By plotting pore fluid pressure vs depth for various
geothermal gradients (Fig. 2.58), one finds that eff may fall to values less than zero;
fracturing of rock is expected if eff is less than the tensile strength of rock [from Eq. (2-
23)]. In regions near a cooling intrusion, a zero effective pressure front will propagate
away from the intrusion, which results in fracture of the host rock, increased rock
permeability, and increased convective heat transport. This zone of fracturing and strong
convection moves upward because of buoyancy forces, as was explained by Williams
(1936) and McBirney (1959; 1963) for occurrences of breccias and tuff-breccias in and
around volcanic necks and intrusions. Knapp and Knight (1977) used this
Fig. 2.53
Geophysical structure of the Sabatini area is
reflected by heat flow, gravity, and electrical
resistivity maps (Baldi et al., 1975). These maps
demonstrate similar structural interpretations,
which support those obtained by studying
the lithic ejecta (Fig. 2.52).
Page 102
Fig. 2.54
Graph of pressure vs time for sample deformation
measurements during triaxial loading experiments
in which rock specimens were hydraulically
fractured. Sample deformation and acoustic
emission activity begins when the borehole
pressure reaches pi, the initial fracture pressure;
sample breakdown occurs when the borehole
pressure reaches pb. Acoustic emissions in
fluids correspond to the seismicity typical
during hydraulic fracturing events in the earth.
(Adapted from Zoback et al., 1977.)
model to show how thermally induced hydraulic fracturing can produce micro-
earthquakesa characteristic feature of geothermal areas and active volcanoes.
Norton (1984), in his theory of hydrothermal systems and related rock fracturing, showed
how variations in the transport properties of water can result in apparent discontinuities in
the physical state of convection and secondary mineral deposition. For example, in Fig.
2.59, rapid changes are visible in the water's heat capacity, kinematic viscosity, and
coefficient of thermal expansion near its critical point. Heating at this range of
temperatures might result in (a) rapid solution and precipitation of various minerals, (b)
oscillations in fluid heat and mass transport, and (c) rapid rock failure. Where
hydrofractures occur around intrusions, as described in the theory above, convective heat
transfer is augmented by the fracturing. If the fracturing front propagates away from the
intrusion with time, convective hydrothermal systems manifested at or near the earth's
surface may not indicate hotter, more active systems at depth. As we pointed out earlier in
our discussion of heat flow, it is not possible to project to depth with confidence the
thermal gradients affected by convection. Norton (1984) pointed out that behind the
fracturing front/convective zone, which migrates away from the intrusion, thermal decline
is accompanied by secondary mineral deposition that seals fractures. As a result of these
hydrothermal processes, the last vestige of hydrothermal activity is close to the earth's
surface and there is only minor activity near the intrusion.
The above discussions about pore-water pressurization and heating around an intrusion
cover the long-term effects of rock fracture and subsequent development of a
hydrothermal system. In contrast, when Delaney (1982) modeled the short-term effects of
heat transfer to porous saturated rock, he found that pore water is not heated along a
constant-volume pressure path because water diffuses more rapidly than heat does. He
tabulated solutions for pore-pressure increases as a function of porosity and permeability.
He also considered situations in which magma intrudes into near-surface rocks (Table
2.9); phase transitions from water to steam generally occur, the pressure increases exceed
lithostatic pressure, and host rock failure is likely. Figure 2.60 depicts a case in which the
magma is more permeable than the host rock. Where the magma volatile overpressure is
low, the pressure gradient near the intrusion is negative and water mixes into the magmaa
situation that leads to intrusion brecciation and hydrovolcanism.
Page 103
Fig. 2.55
Graph of fracture area vs fluid viscosity
predicted for an assumed set of reservoir and
hydraulic fracturing conditions, where
permeability ( ) = 10 mD, porosity ( p) = 20%,
pumping rate (Qf) = 25 BPM, total
volume = 20,000 gal. 75.7 m3, fracture
clearance (W) = 0.2 in. ( 5.1 mm). Two curves
show the effects of differential pressures ( p) of
1000 psi (Curve 1) and 500 psi (Curve 2). The
fracturing fluid coefficient (Cf) is the fluid's
temporal variation in velocity divided by the
square root of time and is a function of viscosity
and relative permeability. The use of English
units is common to petroleum literature.
(Adapted from Howard and Fast, 1970.)
Fig. 2.56
Effect of pumping rate and fracturing fluid coefficient (Cf), as defined in Fig. 2.55, on fracture
radius. Solid curves show observed fracture radius at volume fluxes of 2.5 and 25.0 BPM
(0.0066 m3/s and 0.066 m3/s, respectively). Dashed curves show the percentage of fluid volume
lost to the formation. Fracturing conditions are constant for total volume of 20,000 gal. (75.7 m3)
and fracture clearance (W) of 0.2 in. (5.1 mm).
(Adapted from Howard and Fast, 1970.)
Page 104
Fig. 2.57
Plots of pressure coefficient [ / = (dp/dt)v]
(a) over a range of water temperatures and
pressures and (b) as a function of geothermal
gradients and depth. The in (a) denotes
the critical point of water and its attached
line going to lower temperatures is the two-
phase boundary curve. In (b) an + marks the
depths at which the critical value of / is
reached and where effective pressure vanishes.
(Adapted from Knapp and Knight, 1977.)
In addition to brecciation and rock fracture, surface ground tilt is a well-documented
phenomena in hydrofractured well bores. Studying the size of hydraulic fractures, Sun
(1969) showed the relationship between surface uplift and the thickness of a grout sheet
that was injected into a horizontal hydraulic fracture at depth around a well bore (Fig.
2.61). Pollard et al. (1983) examined surface deformation above near-surface intrusions
and modeled the rock displacement. In Fig. 2.62, their model is compared to measured
data from the Kilauea rift zone in Hawaii. The topographic expression of magma injected
as dikes at depth is a surface uplift with an axial depression. Calculated contours of
maximum principal stress around a buried dike (Fig. 2.63) show that the regional stress
field is perturbed in such a way that 1 is horizontally directed near the sides of the dike.
This prediction explains why hydrofractures can extend horizontally from some
intrusions even though the regional 1 is vertical.
Fig. 2.58
Pore-fluid pressure vs depth for several
geothermal gradients; the lithostatic pressure
gradient for a rock density of 2.75 Mg/m3 is
indicated by the dashed line.
(Adapted from Knapp and Knight, 1977.)
Page 105
Fig. 2.59
Variation of physical properties of water at (a) 30 MPa (300 Bars) and (b) 60 MPa (600 Bars) pressure
as a function of temperature; sharp inflections and discontinuities appear near critical temperatures.
Vertical axis is nondimensional; units of measure are shown for each curve. Cp = heat capacity at
constant pressure, µ = kinematic viscosity, = isobaric coefficient of expansion, = isothermal
coefficient of compressibility, and / = pressure coefficient [(dp/dt)v].
(Adapted from Norton, 1984.)
Size of Hydraulic Fractures
Using the assumption that rocks deform as linear elastic bodies, several theories have
evolved for predicting the width and length of hydraulic fractures. Figure 2.64 is a
schematic representation of a hydrofracture propagating from a fluid reservoir such as a
well bore or a magma body. Two important aspects of fracture calculations are (a) the
pressure required to overcome rock compressive stresses and rock strength and (b) the
pressure losses resulting from viscous fluid flow in the fracture.
Geertsma and Haafkens (1979) calculated a simple relationship of fracture size [width (W)
and length (L)] from fracturing fluid pressure (ppi), based on the theory of England and
Green (1963):
for which W is a function of distance (x), the point where the fracture narrows into a tip
at a distance L [L - x = the length of the fracture tip; a measure of fracture tip asperity is
included in the last term on the right-hand
Page 106
Fig. 2.60
Solutions to transient heat flow from magma to wet sediments. Top: Illustration of fluid flow lines
(arrows) as well as thermal, pore pressure, and water density gradients for (a) a short-term thermal
pressurization flow that occurs shortly after initiation of heat transfer (a); and (b) a long-term
buoyancy flow that occurs when pressure gradients caused by gravitational forces are dominant.
Bottom: (c) pressure; and (d) normalized pressure gradients for three possible boundary conditions
between the magma and the host rock. p = pressure, p = pressure at infinite distance,
pi = initial pressure, m = magnitude of thermal expansion, Dd = ratio of penetration depths for
thermal ( t) to hydraulic ( ) diffusivities, = Boltzmann variable, and x = distance.
(Adapted from Delaney, 1982.)
Page 107
Fig. 2.61
Map and cross section showing vertical and aerial extent of experimental hydrofracture around well
bore. (a) Plot shows surveyed data and curve calculated by Sun (1969). = survey points along
northwest-southeast traverse, = points along west-northwest traverse, and = northeast-
southwest traverse. (b) Plan view of surface uplift shows contours in millimeters (dashed lines),
the extent of grout sheet injected during hydrofracturing (solid line, survey traverse points ( ),
and core hole locations ( ).
(Adapted from Sun, 1969.)
Page 108
Fig. 2.62
Calculated and measured surface deformation over buried dikes on Kilauea summit and southwest
zone. (a) Data ( ) with fitted dashed curve for rifting event of August 10, 1981 is compared to
results of theoretical vertical uplift. (b) Plot of theoretical horizontal stress vs distance
shows regions of compression and tension. (c) Data from Duffield et al. (1976) for intrusive
event of May 15-16, 1970, showing measured stations ( ) and contour extrapolations ( ), which
are projected on a trend of N37°W (solid line). Duffield calculated that the intruded
dike is 3000 m long, 0.8 m thick, 400 m high, and 400 m below the Earth's surface.
(Adapted from Pollard et al., 1983.)
Fig. 2.63
Calculated contours of maximum principal
stress around a vertical dike that cuts a vertical
plane. The dike is 100 m high and its center is
at -75 m; it is subjected to a driving pressure
of 1 MPa under a lithostatic gradient of
0.025 MPa/m intrusion. Dashed curves are
trajectories of minimum principal stress along
which secondary fracturing might occur. At
depth, hydrofractures extending out from the
dike would propagate perpendicular to
the principal stress contours.
(Adapted from Pollard et al., 1983.)
Page 109
side of Eq. (2-26)]. v = Poisson's ratio; µs = the shear modulus; and p = ppi - eff.
Although this formulation is designed for vertical fractures, it also applies to horizontal
fractures where 1 is horizontally directed. However, this solution does not account for
viscous losses of fluid flow in the fracture and fluid losses to the host rockproblems that
require complex treatments and yield relatively small dimensional differences.
Sun (1969) solved for fracture dimensions by calculating ground surface uplift caused by
hydraulically induced fractures around well bores. By assuming a thin, disk-shaped
fracture and an equilibrium distribution of stresses and displacements in a semi-infinite
medium, he built on Green's (1949) analysis of fracturing in an infinite medium. Using an
image method to represent the boundary conditions at the free (ground) surface, Sun
(1969) calculated displacementsand therefore, fracture dimensionsfrom general equations
of equilibrium for an isotropic elastic body (Love, 1939). The resulting solutions for the
relationships among fracture dimensions, fluid pressure, and host rock elastic properties
are
In these equations, E = Young's modulus; v = Poisson's ratio; and Q = the fracture

volume. In the analysis of fracture volumes, four unknowns (pf, x, L, and Q) can be
found by simultaneous solution of Eqs. (2-26) through (2-29), providing one can obtain
the host rock properties and depth at which fractures are found (h).
Spence and Turcotte (1985) provided a more rigorous solution to a fluid-driven fracture.
They considered fracture of an elastic medium, which is sensitive to the critical stress
intensity at the fracture tip, as well as viscous losses of fluid flow in the fracture
(approximated by lubrication theory), where the fluid viscosity is sufficiently large and
the flow is laminar (Schlicting, 1979). The spatial and temporal fluid pressure distribution
pf(x,t) must be such that the faces of the fracture close smoothly at its tip (Barenblatt,
1962):
where µs = the shear modulus; v = Poisson's ratio; Wh = the crack half-thickness; s = a

point on the crack surface a small distance from the crack's end; and = a measure of the
crack length. Assuming the elastic theory of crack propagation, ppi increases towards the
fracture tip, where it must equal the fracture resistance of the rock; this calculation
requires specification of the stress intensity factor (Ki) (Irwin, 1957):
Stress intensity factors have been tabulated for various rocks (for example, Clifton et al.,
1976, and Schmidt and Huddle, 1977). Combining expressions for fluid flux and mass
conservation produces the Reynold's equation for flow in the crack:
where µ = the fluid viscosity. Spence and Sharp (1983) found solutions by using a
numerical similarity technique to model the combined effects of elastic behavior and fluid
flux. Spence and Turcotte (1985) found two sets of solutions, depending upon whether a
nondimensional stress intensity factor ( k) is large or small:
where Qf (the fluid volume flux) is expressed for two dimensions rather than three.
Page 110
Fig. 2.64
Schematic illustration of a hydrofracture includes dimensions important to hydrofracture calculations:
depth in well bore (h), well-bore radius (rw), fracture width as function of distance and time
[W(x,t)], fracturing fluid velocity (vx), and total length of fracture (L).
(Adapted from Geertsma and Haafkens, 1979.)
Figure 2.65 illustrates the fracture-tip asperity as required by specification of k. Large k
corresponds to situations in which the rock's fracture resistance is large compared to the
viscous resistance to fluid flowas it is in the case of a wide elliptical crack profile. Small
k is generally applicable to geologic systems in which the fracture resistance is negligible
compared to viscous resistancesas is the case if viscous fluids are forced through a
narrow crack with a sharp tip that can easily split the rock. The solutions for this latter
situation, in which Af expresses the two-dimensional, fracture-fluid flux, are
Page 111
Fig. 2.65
Fracture tip asperity as a function of the
nondimensional stress intensity factor ( k)
depends on whether fracture resistance of the
host rock is large ( k >> 1) or small ( k <<1)
compared to viscous resistance of fluid flow
(Spence and Turcotte, 1985).
Results obtained by using the above equation set show good agreement with those
obtained from Eqs. (2-26) through (2-29).
Field Examples
The relationships between hydrofracture features discussed above have been used to
interpret tephra-filled fractures surrounding a buried dike that was cored near Obsidian
Dome in California (Heiken et al., 1988). Hulen and Nielson (1988) studied hydrothermal
brecciation encountered in a well that was cored on the southern margin of the Valles
caldera in New Mexico. These examples illustrate two different approaches to
understanding volcanic/hydrothermal fracturing.
The Inyo Domes are a recent chain of rhyolitic tuff rings, phreatic pits, and domes on the
edge of Long Valley caldera in eastern California (Miller, 1985). The US Continental
Scientific Drilling Program explored the possibility that two of the domes, Obsidian
Dome and Glass Creek flow, are connected by a buried dike. In addition to proving the
dike hypothesis, the core hole intersected several sets of fractures containing juvenile
magmatic fragments at various lateral distances up to 130 m from the dike (Figs. 2.66 and
2.67). The fractures, found in quartz monzonitic country rock, were filled with as much
as 20% poorly vesiculated, rhyolitic shards, most of which were <1 mm in diameter. The
rest of the fillings were mineral clasts and fragments of the quartz monzonite. The
fractures ranged in width from millimeters to 8 cm; 0.4 cm was the average width. The
ubiquitous cross bedding of clasts, the likelihood of preexisting sheet fractures, and
similarly filled fractures found in bedded basalt intersected by a core hole under Obsidian
Dome suggest that these fractures are horizontally oriented (Fig. 2.68).
Heiken et al. (1988) used the analysis of a stress field around a dike (Fig. 2.63), as
presented by Pollard et al. (1983), and Eqs. (2-26) through (2-36) to calculate
hydrofracture conditions at Obsidian Dome (Fig. 2.69). The calculated overpressures of 5
to 10 MPa and fluid viscosities of 0.20 to 0.8 Pa-s correlate with either phreatomagmatic
or magmatic fragmentations that produce slurries of steam, water, and solid-particle
mixtures. The overall blocky, poorly vesicular textures of the pyroclasts, their dominantly
rhyolitic composition, and surface alteration features strongly support the
phreatomagmatic origin: late-stage phreatomagmatic eruptions that preceded dome lava
extrusion.
Hulen and Nielson (1988) found breccias at a depth of 826 to 856 m in VC-1 core hole,
which is located along the intersection of the Jemez fault zone and the ring-fracture zone
of the Valles caldera. The tectonic
Page 112
breccias are contorted, crushed, and sheared, unlike the hydrothermal breccias, which
lack frictional textures but show matrix flow foliation and clast roundingfeatures
characteristic of fluidization (Wolfe, 1980; Kents, 1964)as well as intense alteration.
Evidence of five stages of secondary mineral paragenesis to a quartz-illite-phengite-pyrite
assemblage (typical of temperatures in excess of 200°C) and a fluid inclusion
homogenization temperature of 189 to 283°C were used to model the hydrothermal
brecciation.
Fig. 2.66
Map of Obsidian Dome scientific drilling project.
Rhyolite lava domes of Obsidian Dome and
Glass Creek Flow are shown in shaded pattern;
lava flow front scarps are designated by
hachured line. The dashed line connecting the
two lava domes is the projection of the dike
found by drilling to pass at depth between
the domes. Core samples and hydrofracture
calculations discussed in the text are for the
(1) dike core hole that is located between the
two domes and slanted down to intersect the
dike at depth, and (2) the conduit core hole
that is slanted down to intersect below
Obsidian Dome's central depression.
(Adapted from Heiken et al., 1988.)
An extensional state of stress can be inferred for the formation of the VC-1 core hole
breccias found along the well-studied Jemez fault zone (Aldrich and Laughlin, 1984; Dey
and Kranz, 1988). Hydraulic rupture in such a case is expected where pp exceeds 3 by an
amount equal to the rock's tensile strength, as was discussed earlier. Hubbert and Willis
(1957) show that this situation can be approximated by
Assuming that ph (hydrostatic pressure) approximates that of the boiling point at depth
and that pp = pb (the formation break-down pressure), Hulen and Nielson (1988)
estimated pb at 7.5 MPa, which is similar to the fluid injection pressure (ppi) used in the
hot dry rock hydraulic fracturing experiments recently conducted at nearby Fenton Hill
(Murphy et al., 1983). Figure 2.70 shows the results of this model in a plot of depth vs
temperature for boiling under hydrostatic and lithostatic loads; this plot also contains the
homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions. Either fluid temperature increases or a
transient confining pressure decrease during fault movement might cause fluids to reach
p b.
Summary: Volcanological Interpretation
Several different but naturally related processes might stimulate fracturing of potential
geothermal reservoir rocks: (a) magma intrusion, (b) hydrothermal circulation, (c) magma
degassing, and (d) hydrovolcanic processes. For the hydrovolcanic (phreatomagmatic)
case, the series of schematic illustrations in Fig. 2.71 depicts the formation of a
hypothetical fractured geothermal reservoir underneath a volcano.
Fig. 2.67
Cross section of dike and conduit core holes showing natural hydrofractures as wavy horizontal lines at dep
Fig. 2.68
These sketches of cores containing clastic fracture fillings were made by mapping core surfaces on velum w
the core.(a) Orientation of core segments taken 5 and 1 m west of the conduit that was intersected by the con
The gray, cross- and convolute-
bedding fillings range in thickness from 7 to 40 cm. Of the two possible orientations shown,
the lower of each set best fits the bedding texture. (b) Core maps showing fracture fill,
host quartz monzonite, obsidian clasts, and void space.
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This scenario combines aspects of all four processes listed above. The initial intrusion of
a gas-rich magma moves upward along a fracture, opening the fracture with its fluid-rich
top. This slow mechanism of crack propagation (termed ''stress corrosion" by Anderson
and Grew, 1977) is related to rock breakdown by the corrosive crack-tip fluids and
rapidly varying pressure brought on by nucleate boiling along the crack walls. At some
point, degassing of the magma might drive a hydrofracture into near-surface, poorly
competent aquifer strata. The initial Plinian eruptions are driven by exsolving gases under
high pressure. With increased fracturing, the aquifer rock fails catastrophically and allows
water to mix with the magma, which results in dry phreatomagmatic eruptions. The
eruptions gradually become wetter as more water is supplied by the increasingly fractured
aquifer. At some stage, the extrusion of magma ceasesperhaps in response to chilling by
the aquifer. By this time, hydrothermal circulation is well developed, and fluid from the
aquifer continues to transfer heat from the intrusion below the volcano.
The geothermal potential of such a system has only been tested in a few areas (for
example, Funiciello et al., 1976; Barberi, 1985), and its overall importance depends upon
a number of geologic controls:
age and size of the subvolcanic intrusion,
presence of a sufficient aquifer,
porosity and permeability of basement rocks,
fracture strength of basement rocks,
tectonic regime and location of preexisting fracture systems, and
clay content of host rocks and the degree of hydrothermal alteration.
In conclusion, we offer the simple model illustrated in Fig. 2.71 as an example of one of
several different volcanic processes that develop fracture permeability in basement rocks
and promote hydrothermal circulation.
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Fig. 2.69
Solutions for hydrofracture at Obsidian Dome, illustrating a model for volcanic hydraulic fracturing.
(a) Hypothetical contours of maximum principal stress (Pollard et al., 1983; see Fig. 2.63) indicate
the horizontal propagation of hydrofractures from the dike as they intrude into the granodiorite
(quartz monzonite) host rock. (b) Calculated values of fluid overpressure required to form
hydrofractures as a function of depth for the upper and lower set of fractures observed in the dike
core hole. (c) Calculated fracture dimensions and average observed fracture widths for several
different depths. (d) Calculated fluid viscosities required to form the observed fractures.
(e) Calculated fracture formation velocities. Fracturing may have occurred in spurts, causing the
fractures to propagate several meters at a time.
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Fig. 2.70
Hydrothermal brecciation model of Hulen and Nielson (1988). This depth vs temperature plot shows
the boiling point curves under hydrostatic (ph) and lithostatic (pl) pressure, as well as that
required for hydrofracture (pb). For hydrofracturing that begins at 515 m, path AB follows
pressure buildup and subsequent fracturing as a response to increased temperature; path AC
represents hydraulic rock rupture in response to a rapid pressure release.
Pa
Fig. 2.71
Schematic sequence illustrating the six-
phase development of a fractured geothermal reservoir under a phreatomagmatic volcano.
Phases 1 through 3 are hypothesized from the studies of Obsidian Dome discussed in the text (Heiken et al
Phases 4 and 5 reflect the findings of Barberi (1985) for phreatomagmatic eruptions through a deep aqui
the tephra deposits record increasing water interaction as the eruption progresses, presumably as a respons
increased fracture permeability of aquifer rocks induced by hydrofracturing. Phase 6 illustrates posterup
cooling of magma intruded below the volcano. Hydrothermal circulation in the aquifer around the intrus
greatly enhanced by the magma-induced hydrofracturing, may develop a geothermal reservoir.
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Chapter 3
Surface Manifestations of Geothermal Systems
The surface manifestations of a geothermal system in a volcanic area are generally the
features that first stimulate exploration. Consequently, the recognition, mapping, and
evaluation of these features are important in the second stage or prefeasibility study,
during which the geothermal potential is evaluated. The prefeasibility stage also involves
sampling fluids and gases to be studied by hydrogeochemical techniques that help
estimate the temperatures and compositions of hydrothermal reservoir fluids.
The most obvious expression of a geothermal reservoir occurs when fluids leak to the
surface along faults and fissures or through permeable rock units. Depending on the
reservoir temperatures and discharge rates, these surface manifestations take the form of
seeps, fumaroles, hot springs, boiling springs, geysers, phreatic explosion craters, and
zones of acid alteration. In addition, there are deposits of silica sinter, travertine, and/or
the bedded breccias that surround phreatic craters. In this chapter, we describe the most
common geothermal features seen in hot-water systems and vapor-dominated systems;
Appendix A presents in detail the methods for mapping these features.
Hot springs are the most visible manifestation of hot-water geothermal systems that
transfer heat to the ground surface (White, 1973). Some spring groups directly overlie a
geothermal system and therefore may be used to locate drilling sites. However, springs
may also discharge at the surface after flowing many kilometers down gradient from a
hydrothermal reservoir; such outflow plumes can be misleadingthey have a finite
thickness, perhaps 0.5 to 1.0 km, and they overlie colder groundwater. Drillholes that
penetrate these hot-water plumes show an increasing temperature
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with depth in the upper part and then a rapid temperature decline at the bottom.
Chemical analyses of spring waters, considered along with the volcanic structure and
hydrologic regime, will provide the data needed to interpret the degree of mixing between
cold groundwater and an outflow hot water plume from a geothermal reservoir (Ellis and
Mahon, 1977; Goff and Shevenell, 1987). Hot springs can act as an excellent guide for
geothermal drilling if (a) the water analyses indicate there is minimal mixing with cold
groundwater and (b) the geologic structures (for example, a crater) imply that the hot
springs overlie a thermal source and maximum reservoir temperatures can eventually be
reached through drilling.
Reservoir temperatures for hot-water systems show a considerable range: <90°C (low
temperature), 90 to 150°C (intermediate temperature), and 150 to 240°C (high
temperature) (White and Williams, 1975). The temperature of a hot spring will not exceed
that of the boiling temperature of water at the altitude of that spring. The salinity of hot
water systems can range from 0.1 to 3% (Renner et al., 1975).
Vapor-dominated reservoirsgenerally more than 85% steamare ideal geothermal resources
but, unfortunately, they are less numerous than hot-water systems (Truesdell and White,
1973; Ingebritsen and Sorey, 1988). Although such systems have been developed in many
parts of the world (for example, the Geysers geothermal area of California), little is
known about what lies under them; one known possibility is high-chloride brine. Usually
these reservoirs occur where there is very high heat flow but low water recharge.
Near-surface gases from vapor-dominated reservoirs condense to form acids, which leach
rocks in the spring area. These areas are characterized by bleached rock, acid-sulfate
springs, and no chloride waters; acid springs may be accompanied by mudpots, geysers,
and fumaroles (Renner et al., 1975).
Hot Springs and Geysers
Very few hot springs on this planet have not been developed in some way. As spas, hot
springs have offered comfort to mankind throughout the millennia; as an alternate energy
source, hot springs are increasingly being considered for more practical uses. Hot springs
range in size from seeps that produce barely enough hot water for bathing a few
individuals to the awesome thermal areas of Yellowstone and the North Island of New
Zealand, where hot water and steam are used for heating domestic buildings, heating
greenhouses, and generating electricity.
Employed in geothermal exploration, hot springs provide a useful glimpse of the buried
reservoir of hot water and/or steam. The thermal energy output (Et) from a spring or
group of springs can be calculated as noted by Goff et al. (1987):
where Vf = the volume fraction of geothermal water downstream from the hot springs (if
all water issuing from a spring group is from hot springs, Vf = 1); Cpw 4.2 MJ/m3 or 4.2
kJ/l; Hr = the enthalpy of reservoir fluid; Tf = temperature (°C) of the hot springs; Ha =
the enthalpy of water at ambient temperature; and Ta = ambient temperature. If cold
spring water is mixed with geothermal fluids, one must know the chemistry of those
waters to estimate the percentage of geothermal fluids. [For hydrogeochemical analysis
and interpretation, see, for example, Henley et al. (1983) or Ellis and Mahon (1977).]
Although they are geologically rare manifestations of geothermal systems, geysers are
spectacular. In his book on geysers and geothermal energy, Rinehart (1980) points out
that a geyser is essentially a hot spring that periodically becomes hydrodynamically and
thermodynamically unstable. These features have traditionally been classified as
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either (a) fountain or pool geysers of hot water from which blobs of superheated water
suddenly rise to the surface and explosively flash or (b) column or cone geysers that form
cones or protuberances of silicic sinter above narrow subsurface tubes; these tubes are
filled with water that periodically flashes to steam and emptying the tubes, which are later
refilled.
Similar in mechanism to several types of hydrothermal eruptions, column or cone geysers
are distinct because of their cyclic behavior. Only a rare set of hydrothermal
circumstances provides the required combination of an underground water chamber with
a conduit leading to the surface, water temperature and flux, and a surface opening of the
size necessary for a geyser eruption.
Kieffer (1984a; 1989) has studied Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park,
Wyoming, to better understand geyser eruption mechanisms and the associated
microseismicity. Eruptions at Old Faithful produce a column of steam and water up to 50
m high that lasts from ~1.5 to 5.5 min. These eruptions, which occur every 40 to 100
min., emanate from a flared fissure ~1.5 by 0.6 m wide that is surrounded by a mound of
silica sinter 4 m high and 50 by 70 m wide. The water reservoir is ~22 m below the
ground surface. Hot water fills the conduit to within 6 m of the surface before an
eruption. Apparently, the hydrostatic pressure of water in the conduit subdues its boiling,
but growth and collapse of steam bubbles generates acoustic noise that resonates in the
conduit, producing microseismicity that is similar to harmonic tremor. An eruption begins
when vigorous boiling at the top of the conduit spills the water over the vent rim. This
boiling unloads underlying water and triggers its vaporization. As steam is ejected, deeper
levels in the conduit are unloaded in a feedback process until the conduit is emptied and
recharge begins again.
Siliceous Sinter Deposits
Deposits of siliceous sinter are common to many high-temperature hydrothermal areas.
The mound-like or terraced deposits are associated with boiling hot springs and serve as
excellent indicators of the presence of hydrothermal reservoirs with temperatures of
>175°C (Fournier and Rowe, 1966). To form siliceous sinter deposits, fluids from
alkaline hot springs must have enough silica in solution to become saturated with
amorphous silica as they cool from 100 to 50°C. Rimstadt and Cole (1983) described
three steps in the formation of siliceous sinter:
(1) quartz-saturated hydrothermal fluids in the reservoir rise to the surface where they
cool and become supersaturated with amorphous silica;
(2) amorphous silica particles nucleate to produce a colloidal suspension; and
(3) amorphous silica particles are agglomerated and cemented as amorphous silica
precipitates between particles, as is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
White et al. (1964), in a classic study of the Steamboat Springs thermal area, Nevada,
devised the classification of sinters summarized in the next two sections.
Single-Stage or Primary Sinters
Thin-bedded opaline sinters are thought to have been formed by primary deposition of
silica on broad discharge aprons (Fig. 3.2). The fluids have a high content of dissolved
silica, were discharged at near-boiling temperatures, and evaporated quickly.
Geyserite or banded opaline sinters, most abundant on sinter cones, are deposited either
by geysers or by vigorously spouting springs. Water with a high silica content at or above
boiling temperatures is ejected; it cools and evaporates quickly, precipitating silica at the
moment the water reaches the ground surface. These deposits are characterized by fine
banding and a botryoidal or "knobby"
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Fig. 3.1
Amorphous silica solubility at 25°C as a function of the radius (r) of the particles.
For particles with a positive radius of <0.05 µm, the solubility is noticeably greater
than the bulk solubility. If the negative radius of curvature in the embayment be-
tween two particles is <0.05 µm, the silica solubility is less than the bulk solubility
and the rate of silica precipitation will be acceleratedcementing them together.
(Adapted from Rimstadt and Cole, 1983.)
habit. White et al. (1964) noted that this sinter type is particularly useful in geothermal
exploration because it is always deposited close to former spring vents and fissures.
Bedded opaline sinter with plant casts that lie parallel to bedding indicate that the plants
were dead when incorporated into the sinter. In some situations, the casts are
perpendicular to the bedding planes, implying that there was cooler water in the pools and
plants continued to grow during silica deposition.
Cellular opaline sinter is deposited on the algae-covered discharge aprons of active hot
springs. The rounded or oval cells are formed when gas is released from algae and other
organisms. When a spring stops discharging, algal growth dries up and the deposit
disintegrates into dust, and therefore cellular opaline sinter is rarely preserved in older
deposits. Other types of cellular sinter are associated with filamentous bacteria that
survive at temperatures of 70 to 90°C.
Flocculated silica deposits are soft and usually poorly preserved.
Multiple-Stage Sinters
Fragmental sinter, the most common opaline sinter, breaks easily into fragments when
deposits dry out and are exposed to weathering and frost action. This fragmental debris
may remain in place or be transported by wind and water. If younger, sinter-depositing
springs flow over or through these deposits, they may become a cemented sinter breccia.
Opaline sinter is formed when opal is deposited by percolating thermal water. All of the
previously described sinter types decrease in porosity after they are buried by younger
deposits through this deposition. In some sinters, the process produces massive, glassy
opal. On a microscopic scale, the cavities are filled with banded opal, which leaves
geopetal structures.
Chalcedonic sinter is the most common within older deposits. During late-stage solution
and deposition, chalcedony and quartz are deposited and earlier opal phases are at least
partly recrystallized.
Sinter cement is an intermediate stage between clastic sediments and sinter deposits.
Because hot springs often occur along rivers, sinter-cemented alluvial gravels are fairly
common.
Form and Extent of Siliceous Sinter Deposits
Where hot springs issue from point sources, sinter deposits are cone-like or mounded. If
water issues from a line of springsmost likely along a fault tracenearly flat-lying, terrace-
like deposits are formed downslope, becoming thinner with distance from the springs, as
is depicted in Fig. 3.3. The terraces are topped by scattered sinter cones or ridges; ridges
mark hot spring locations and are commonly associated with open fissures that break the
terrace surface. Grey, white, or tan sinters that are bedded to massive and friable to dense
and hard make up these terraces. By mapping layered sinters at
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Fig. 3.2
Layered and knobby silica sinter terrace at San Ignacio, Honduras, deposited as overlapping low fans
from springs located along a fault. Springs are issuing from fractures developed in the hard, brittle sinter.
Beowawe, Nevada, Rimstadt and Cole (1983) found that each sinter terrace is composed
of overlapping delta-shaped deposits and that each delta begins at a spring. These beds
are nearly flat (dipping <10°). As each spring becomes choked with sinter, water begins
to flow laterally through the sinter terrace to discharge at its flanks. The flank deposits dip
more steeply (10 to 20°).
Siliceous sinter deposits range in magnitude from small mounds that cover a few square
meters to terraces that comprise many square kilometers; thicknesses range from a few
centimeters to tens of meters.
Travertine
Meteoric water, heated either around magma bodies or during deep circulation along
faults, reacts with carbonate rocks and liberates CO2. The hot waters are subsequently
cooled as they mix with cooler groundwater and reach chemical equilibrium with the
aquifer rocks at ~70°C (Bargar, 1978). If the water reaches the ground surface through
fractures, CO2 escapes and the water becomes supersaturated with CaCO3; precipitation
of the carbonate forms travertine near or above the ground surface. Distinctive mounded
travertine deposits form around these springs, which have temperatures ranging from ~30
to 100°C.
Travertine deposits are indicators of geothermal reservoir temperatures that may be too
low to generate electricity but may have direct-use applications such as for greenhouses
or hot-water heating for nearby communities. Ellis and Mahon (1977) described potential
problems with well-scaling that these deposits may also represent.
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Fig. 3.3
(a) Simplified map of the youngest opaline sinter terraces at Steamboat Springs, Nevada, showing
the relationship between the elongate, narrow terrace complex and the parallel Steamboat Springs
fault (dotted line). (b) Cross-section through Steamboat Springs geothermal area.
(Adapted from White et al., 1964.)
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Although the hydrothermal reservoir immediately below travertine deposits might not
have impressive temperatures, it could point toward a much hotter reservoir nearby. For
example, Goff and Shevenell (1987) found that waters of the carbonate-depositing
springs at Soda Dam, New Mexico, originate as outflow from a hotter intracaldera
hydrothermal system located 10 to 12 km northeast of the dam. The outflow plume is
diluted by groundwater, and therefore cooled, before it surfaces at Soda Dam.
Travertine ranges from a dense, banded rock, in which the banding is parallel to the
fissure/spring orifice, to a porous, layered carbonate that dips away from the orifice.
These outward-dipping layers may decrease in thickness with distance: from banded
layers several meters thick near the spring orifice to laminae less than a millimeter thick
hundreds of meters downslope from the spring. On close examination, travertines consist
of mostly fine-grained (2- to 20-µm) sparry calcite, but they may also contain micrite
(muddy calcite), chert, and clays. Ooids are common. These deposits vary from white to
dirty gray but can also have a yellowish or reddish hue as a result of limonite or hematite
staining. Travertine deposits sometimes preserve records of other geologic events in
forms such as interbeds of clastic sediment or volcanic ash.
Most travertine structures fall into one of the three categories described here.
Hot-spring cones or towers are formed through deposition by a spring flowing from a
single point;
Fissure ridges are elongate deposits that occur along springs that issue from faults or
joints (as shown in Fig. 3.4). These ridges can cross drainages and act as dams behind
which flat travertine terraces may be deposited (Bargar, 1978).
Terraces build up through the accumulation of travertine and clastic sediment behind
fissure ridges or as ''terracettes" where hot springs flow down steep slopes.
The size and thickness of travertine structures will depend on the length of the spring
orifice, flow volume, rate of deposition, and time that the spring has been active. These
deposits range from thin coatings to fissure ridges nearly 100 m thick; fissure ridges can
be as much as several kilometers long.
Travertine deposition is a geologically fast process. Allen and Day (1935) found that the
travertines of Mammoth Hot Springs at Yellowstone Park are deposited at an average rate
of 21 cm/yr. When Goff and Shevenall (1987) used uranium-thorium disequilibrium age
determinations to interpret the history of the travertine deposit of Soda Dam, New
Mexico, they found that the depositional rate has been variable over the last 1 Ma; most of
the deposition occurred during three pulses of increased hydrothermal activity in the
nearby Valles caldera.
Older Spring Deposits
Useful information about the history of the geothermal system is provided by the extent
of these deposits, the relationship of older sinter and travertine deposits to faults or
fissures, and the relationship between these deposits and presently active deposits. In fact,
the relationship of old spring and fumarole deposits to new ones at Steamboat Springs,
Nevada, has provided much of the background for our understanding of the evolution of
hydrothermal systems (White, 1968).
Hydrothermal (Phreatic) Craters and Deposits
Steam eruptions that involve little or no juvenile tephra are termed hydrothermal
eruptions (Muffler et al., 1971), phreatic eruptions, or mud volcanoes (White, 1955);
they are characteristic of the periodic behavior of many fumarolic areas. These eruptions
form small craters, usually less than several hundred meters in diameter, which are
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Fig. 3.4
(a) End-on view of 20- to 25-m-high travertine fissure ridge at Monon Hill, Creede caldera, Colorado.
The Creede travertine deposits are located along faults that intersect caldera margins and along
fractures located at the base of a resurgent dome. (b) Algal mounds in a travertine fissure ridge,
Creede caldera, Colorado. (c) Diagram of a travertine fissure ridge, showing the relationship
between springs that rose along faults and fractures and the layered travertine deposited there.
Where the travertine fissure ridge dammed a drainage, carbonate beds extend out as thin
wedges from the fissure ridge and are interbedded with clastic sediments.
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surrounded by breccia, surge, and fallout deposits composed of lithic debris.
Hydrothermal eruptions occur in areas where the vapor pressure of geothermal fluids
exceeds the hydrostatic boiling pressure for a given temperature. These eruptions take
place at a point where the convective rise of geothermal fluids is impeded by a relatively
impermeable layer termed caprock (Facca and Tonani, 1967). Caprocks are commonly
formed when rock permeability is sealed by the precipitation of solids from geothermal
fluids. Where a hydrothermal reservoir has a significant vapor-dominated region,
additional over-pressure might be transmitted from the deep, cold-water hydrostatic head
(Nelson and Giles, 1985). The vapor pressure of a geothermal fluid receives significant
partial contributions from CO2 and H2S, as well as H2O. Because the former two gases
have lower sublimation temperatures than water does, they can increase the vapor
pressure by up to several tens of bars more than that of pure water for any given
temperature (Kieffer, 1982; Nelson and Giles, 1985). When expansion of the
overpressured fluid is initiated by a trigger such as the chemical breakdown and failure of
the caprock or seismic or hydraulic fracturing, the eruption proceeds as a vaporization
wave propagates down through the fluid and accelerates the vapor and fluid out through
the conduit in a manner similar to that proposed for geyser eruptions (Kieffer, 1982;
1984a; 1989).
Two examples of hydrothermal eruption models, developed by Hedenquist and Henley
(1985), are illustrated in Fig. 3.5. The first model is for a shallow hydrothermal reservoir
with a temperature of 195°C and a depth of 200 m. The second is for a reservoir with a
temperature of 230°C and a depth of 400 m. In both models, a sealed caprock has
developed at 100-m depth through deposition of silicaand possibly carbonate where
lower temperatures have allowed exsolution of CO2. Because the overlying rock is sealed,
fluid flow may be diverted at some greater depth and may follow another pathway to the
surface. As vapor continues to accumulate below the sealed rock, the liquid water surface
falls, and vapor pressure from the greater reservoir depths is transmitted to the seal
(especially if significant noncondensible vapors are present).
In the case of eruption from the shallow hydrothermal reservoir, the transmitted vapor
pressure is just above the lithostatic pressure. When the eruption occurs, hydrodynamic
flow through the fracture conduit becomes hydrodynamically choked [u = usonic, as in
Eq. (2-5)], and a pressure-balanced eruption occurs. Kieffer (1977) found that water-
steam systems have greatly reduced sound speeds, ranging from 1 m to several hundred
meters per second. In such an eruption, ejecta will follow ballistic trajectories to form
fallout deposits.
For eruption from the deep hydrothermal reservoir, vapor pressure transmitted to the
caprock can greatly exceed that required to lift the overburden. Overpressure builds
because of the strength of the caprock. When the caprock fails, choked flow in the
conduit is at a pressure above the lithostatic pressure and vent erosion occurs. The
eruption is overpressured and supersonic at the surface; this circumstance produces blast
conditions that form a crater and pyroclastic surges dominate ejecta dispersal.
In both shallow and deep reservoirsbut especially in shallow onesa triggering mechanism
is required to initiate caprock failure. The gradual breakdown of caprock strength through
rate-limited chemical dissolution, sudden jarring by a seismic event, rapid heating by
magma intrusion, the sudden influx of noncondensible gas, or unloading of overlying
material through an avalanche or draining of a lake might trigger failure. An additional
mechanism, hydraulic fracturing (discussed in Chapter 2), contributes to the failure of
caprocks (Norton, 1984).
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Hydrothermal eruption phenomena are strong indicators of active hydrothermal
reservoirs. Phreatic craters and their deposits range from pits 1 m across to lake-filled
depressions up to 1 km in diameter, as is seen in the example of the Eastern Kawerau
Geothermal Field in New Zealand (Fig. 3.6). Ejecta deposits from these eruptions can
extend >1 km from the crater center. Studies of lithic clasts within phreatic explosion
breccias indicate that the foci for hydrothermal eruptions occur at many depths and have
been observed as deep as 350 m (Bixley and Browne, 1988).
Most phreatic breccia deposits are massive, but they may also be bedded and may include
graded bedding and pyroclastic surge dunesfeatures that are indicative of multiple steam
blasts (Table 3.1). The massive deposits consist of poorly sorted angular tephra from sub-
millimeter size to blocks several meters in diameter in a muddy matrix (Fig. 3.7). Nearly
all the lapilli and blocks are hydrothermally altered and/or silicified; the glass has been
altered to clay or hydrothermal quartz, and lithic and crystal components are replaced by
clays, pyrite, chlorite, and other hydrothermal minerals. Many of the lithic clasts retain
their relict textures and may contain several generations of fractures, filled with
hydrothermal minerals, that formed in-situ during earlier hydrothermal
Fig. 3.5
Models of hydrothermal eruptions, showing (a) pressure vs depth and (b) a schematic cross section.
Pressure variations with depth of rock overburden (lithostatic), cold, vapor-unsaturated water
(hydrostatic), and hot, vaporsaturated water (saturated liquid) are indicated. The saturated liquid
curve depicts the effect of vapor pressure transmitted from a hot, underlying reservoir. For the
first model, involving a shallow reservoir at a temperature of 195°C, the pressurization history is
shown by a dashed line (AA'). A gradual buildup of vapor pressure under the silica-cemented
cap continues until its failure, at which time steam erupts through a conduit with choked flow
and emerges at the surface at atmospheric pressure (dotted line). For the second model (BB'),
which involves a deep reservoir, the transmitted vapor pressure greatly exceeds the lithostatic
overburden at the silicified cap. Ensuing eruptions are greatly overpressured as they emerge
from the vent conduit (dotted line), so that vent erosion promotes
the entrainment of lithic ejecta in expanding fluids.
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explosions (Nairn and Solia, 1980). Bedding-plane sags are common; they resulted when
blocks ejected during steam blasts impacted the muddy, fine-grained beds deposited
earlier.
An analysis of the volume and variety of lithic clasts within a phreatic breccia provides a
rough indication of both the stratigraphy under a geothermal area and the reservoir depth.
One example of phreatic breccia, described by Espanola (1974), is from a minor
hydrothermal eruption in early July 1966 within the Tikitere and Taheke hydrothermal
fields of New Zealand:
"The eruption debris reached a maximum thickness of 0.3 m and consisted mainly of finely
comminuted mudstone and sandstone with occasional large blocks up to 0.3 m diameter. The
remaining debris was mostly pumice breccia and some rhyolite fragments from the Rotoiti Breccia
Formation. The debris was found to have flattened the nearby surrounding scrub and damaged the
tourist tracks. The old path, which partly encircled the amphitheater containing spring 6, was
rendered impassable due to gravity slumping of the amphitheater banks towards the spring. The
absence of Mamaku Ignimbrite in the ejecta indicates that the source of the eruption lay within the
Rotoiti Breccia, i.e. within 90 m from the surface."
Phreatic craters and their deposits are undisputed indicators of the presence of a high-
temperature hydrothermal system and therefore are excellent prospecting tools. If there is
a sequence of phreatic breccia deposits, dating each deposit may provide information on
thermal pulses that occurred during the history of the geothermal field. Because phreatic
eruptions can be initiated accidentally by drilling or failure of a casing in a geothermal
well (Bixley and Browne, 1988), these events must be considered potential hazards during
the drilling and production processes.
Fig. 3.6
Simplified geological map of the eastern Kawerau
Geothermal Field, New Zealand, showing the
location of phreatic explosion craters, the
Rotoiti phreatic explosion breccia, and normal
faults that traverse the area
(bar and ball on downthrown side).
Thicknesses are shown in meters.
(Adapted from Nairn and Solia, 1980.)
Hydrothermal Alteration
Hydrothermal alteration is a general term embracing the mineralogical, textural, and
chemical response of rocks to a changing thermal and chemical environment in the
presence of hot water, steam, or gas (Henley and Ellis, 1983). By mapping alteration
mineral assemblages at the surface (but more commonly within drillholes), it is possible
to locate the zones with highest temperatures, pressures, or permeabilitiesall of which are
important in geothermal exploration. The same techniques are used to map fossil
hydrothermal systems associated with epithermal ore bodies. Epithermal is a
Page 130
Table 3.1. General Description of Hydrothermal Eruption Deposits
Geologic Phreatic craters and explosion breccias; craters are surrounded by a
Expression low tuff ringa
Explosion breccia and phreatic ash; angular, matrix-supported blocks
Tephra
that show sealed fractures, secondary mineralization, and breccia
Deposits
dikesb
Ash may be fine-grained; usually poorly sorted and poorly beddedc
Mud coatings on blocks; phreatic ejecta blanket topography surrounding
the crater; wet-surge facies are common
Location Associated with fumaroles and boiling springs
Geothermal If datable material can be found in the deposits (for example, carbon),
Significance the age of active, shallow hydrothermal activity can be determined
Rocks in the tuff ring provide information on both the stratigraphy of the
hydrothermal reservoir and the type of hydrothermal alteration
Analysis of ejecta dispersal can reveal the explosion energy and
reservoir temperature
a From Muffler et al. (1971), Nairn and Wiradiradja (1980), and Hedenquist and
Henley (1985).
b From Nelson and Giles (1985).
c From Heiken and Wohletz (1985).
mining term that refers to a hydrothermal mineral deposit (fossil hydrothermal system)
formed within 1 km of the Earth's surface in the temperature range of 50 to 200°C (Park
and MacDiarmid, 1970).
Figure 3.8 shows the cycle of solution for rocks during water/rock interaction and the
deposition of hydrothermal minerals in pore space, both of which greatly affect the
physical properties of reservoir rocks and make up the hydrothermal cycle (Elders,
1981). Leaching and fracturing reduce the bulk density and increase porosity and
permeability, whereas the deposition of hydrothermal minerals increases the bulk density
and decreases porosity.
Characterization and Interpretation
The two basic types of alteration associated with volcanic geothermal systems, acid-
sulfate and adularia-sericite are modeled in Fig. 3.9. Acid-sulfate alteration occurs within
the uppermost parts of a volcano or along caldera ring fractures where there is abundant,
cool groundwater; acid-sulfate water is formed where the groundwater mixes with rising
magmatic gases. Adularia-sericite alteration occurs within a flow regime high above or
adjacent to a deep heat source and is characterized by neutral pH and alkalichloride waters
(Heald et al., 1987). Alteration rank, used as an empirical indication of temperature and
permeability within a volcanic field, is determined through studies of secondary minerals;
for example, epidote is an indicator of high temperature and adularia is characteristic of
high temperature and high permeability within a hydrothermal system (Browne, 1977).
Many terms used to describe alteration assemblages have evolved in the literature of both
geothermal and ore-deposit exploration. Heald et al. (1987) evaluated and correlated these
terms and their uses in the two fields to generate the material presented in Table 3.2.
Page 131
Fig. 3.7
Phreatic explosion breccia on the east wall of
South Crater, Inyo Craters, California. South
Crater is a 100-m-diameter phreatic (and
possibly partly phreatomagmatic) crater that
overlies both rhyolitic and basaltic dikes.
Deposits here are 25 m thick and consist of a
poorly bedded, cross-bedded lithic ash that
contains blocks up to 0.5 m in diameter (lower
half of the deposit) and massive, block-
bearing coarse ash (upper half of the deposit).
Browne (1977) described 51 hydrothermal minerals found in active geothermal systems;
some of these minerals also occur in low-grade metamorphic rocks. The water/rock
interactions in the system result in alteration of, first, volcanic glass and then a sequence
of mineral phasesreplacing them, leaching them, or depositing new minerals in available
pore space (Browne, 1982). Typical alteration replacement products are listed in Table
3.3. The mineral assemblage depends on temperature, pressure, fluid composition, and
permeability,
Fig. 3.8
The hydrothermal cycle. This diagram
demonstrates the interplay of water/rock
interaction, deposition of hydrothermal
minerals, and fracturing in a constantly
evolving hydrothermal reservoir.
(Adapted from Elders, 1981.)
and the sequence of mineral alteration and replacement varies from system to system, as
is shown in Table 3.4 for several hydrothermal systems.
There is a general relationship between temperature and mineralogy for aluminosilicate
alteration minerals (see Fig. 2.47), and mineral suites can be used to interpret
temperatures within a geothermal system (Fig. 3.10; Henley and Ellis, 1983). For example,
the minerals epidote and wairakite do not appear until 200°C.
During his examination of the geothermal field at Broadlands, New Zealand, Browne
(1970) determined that many hydrothermal minerals are of little use in estimating
subsurface temperatures and permeability; among these are chlorite, pyrite, calcite, and
quartz, which are stable over a wide temperature range. Calcite is strongly affected by
underground CO2 pressure. Mordenite, siderite, and cristobalite, which form at low
temperatures, and epidote, which forms at high temperatures, are not greatly affected by
permeability. Clays, which are excellent indicators of temperature, are not good
Page 132
Fig. 3.9
Models of two types of fossil hydrothermal systems that are responsible for epithermal ore deposits.
(a) In the system characterized by acid-sulfate alteration, wiggly arrows represent rising sulfur-rich
magmatic gases; these gases condense and oxidize to form the acid fluids responsible for leaching
and argillic alteration of rocks within the volcano and at the surface. (b) In the system characterized
by adularia-sericite alteration, alkali-chloride waters have a neutral pH.
(Adapted from Henley and Ellis, 1983, and Heald et al., 1987.)
Page 133
Table 3.2. Terminology for Alteration Assemblagesa
Alteration Common
Terminology Notes
Characteristics Synonyms
Wallrock is
silicified;
Silicic Characterized by introduced silica Silicificationamethyst or
chalcedony is
present in veins
Adularia,
Potassium Typically
Introduced K-feldspar present as veins potassic
(K)-Feldspar adularia
selvages
Structurally
Potassium Sericitic,
K-feldspar and white mica-type minerals controlled;
(K)-Feldspar- potassic, K-
± pyrite disseminated
Sericitic silicate
near veins
Phyllic
Mica-type mineral (for example, illite +
quartz-
Sericitic quartz + pyrite; includes mixed-layer
sericite,
illite in which illite layers are dominant
illitic
Argillic,
intermediate
Sericitic- Both white mica-type and kaolin-
argillic,
Argillic smectite-group minerals
sericitic,
phyllic
Often zoned,
with kaolinite
Kaolin- and smectite-group minerals (for nearer veins
Intermediate
Argillic example, montmorillonite); does not and
argillic
typically include mica-type minerals montmorillonite
farther from
veins.
Minerals representing extreme base Argillic,
Advanced leaching (for example, kaolinite) and alunitic,
Argillic sulfate or halogen fixation (for example, quartz +
alunite, zunyite) alunite
Introduction of a chlorite component
(usually Fe-rich) into the vein; may occur Vein mineral or
alone or with hematite, quartz, and pyrite selvage; rarely
Chloritic Chloritic
or other sulfides; occurs sparsely as a disseminated in
replacement of phenocrysts or pumice wall rock
fragments in wallrock
Characterized by chlorite, albite, Quartz- Typically a
Propylitic epidote, carbonate ± pyrite, Fe-oxides, chlorite- regional
and minor sericite
Introduced potassium, resulting in pyrite alteration
Potassium Potassium Regional
recrystallization of wall rocks to K-
Metasomatism silicate alteration
feldspar- and biotite-rich assemblages
a From Heald et al. (1987).
Page 134
Table 3.3. Typical Hydrothermal Alteration Replacement Productsa
Original
Mineral or Replacement Products
Phase
Zeolites (for example, mordenite, laumontite), cristobalite,
Volcanic Glass
quartz, calcite, clays (for example, montmorillonite)
Magnetite
Ilmenite Pyrite, leucoxene, sphene, pyrrhotite, hematite
Titanomagnetite
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Chlorite, illite, quartz, pyrite, calcite, anhydrite
Olivine
Biotite
Calcic Calcite, albite, adularia, wairakite, quartz, anhydrite, chlorite,
plagioclase illite, kaolin, montmorillonite, epidote
Anorthoclase
Sanidine Adularia
Orthoclase
a From Browne (1982).
Fig. 3.10
Summary of temperature ranges for common
aluminosilicate minerals. Solid lines indicate the
most common temperature ranges for these
occurrences. The three ranges shown for chlorite
are related to the transition, with rising
temperature, from swelling chlorite through
mixed swelling and nonswelling
chlorite to nonswelling chlorite.
(Adapted from Henley and Ellis, 1983.)
Page 135
Table 3.4. The Relative Order of Replacement During Alteration for Primary
Minerals in Several Hydrothermal Systemsa
Philippines
Primary New Zealand Fields
Ngawha Olkaria and
Mineral (Taupo Volcanic Zone)
Indonesia
Volcanic glass First Absent First First
Magnetite
Titanomagnetite Second Second Fifth Second
Ilmenite
Pyroxene
Amphibole Third Absent Second Third
Olivine
Biotite Fourth-fifth Second Absent Rare?
Albite
Calcic-plagioclase Fourth-fifth Third Absent
present
Microcline
Sanidine Absent Third Fourth Absent
Orthoclase
Not Not
Quartz Not affected Absent
affected affected
guides to permeability. Browne (1970) found that the most important minerals in
hydrothermal surveys are the feldspars, which are sensitive to temperature and
permeability. Andesine (the most common feldspar at Broadlands) is altered at
temperatures between 70 and 290°C, depending on permeability, to quartz, clay, calcite,
albite, or adularia. Albite replaces andesine above 230°C. Adularia may replace andesine
completely or may be mixed with albite. Good production zones contain abundant
secondary quartz, adularia, and calcite (Table 3.5). At Broadlands, there is a correlation
between high steam and water production and the presence of adularia as the dominant
feldspar in the reservoir rocks. Browne and Ellis (1970) noted that pyrrhotite occurs
above 180°C but is limited to impermeable zones.
In near-surface steam-heated zones of acidsulfate geothermal systems, underground
boiling adds dissolved magmatic gases to the steam phase, and oxidation creates an acid
condensate above the boiling zone (Henley and Ellis, 1983). The mineral assemblages that
are characteristic of acid alteration include kaolinite, alunite, gypsum, opal, and hydrated
iron oxides (Steiner, 1977); this assemblage is referred to as advanced argillic alteration.
Temperatures decrease and pH increases outward from the central portion of an acid
hydrothermal system, producing a systematic variation in stable mineral assemblages that
can be mapped horizontallyor vertically if there are coreholes. These trends are shown in
Table 3.6 (Hayashi (1973) and in Fig. 3.11 (Heald et al., 1987).
Mapping Alteration Mineralogy
The Geological Survey of Japan considers mapping hydrothermal alteration zones an
extremely important element in geothermal exploration. Although springs and fumaroles
are the most obvious surface manifestations of the hydrothermal system,
Page 136
Table 3.5. Some Subsurface Geologic Units at the Broadlands Geothermal Area
that Exhibit Typical Alteration Mineralogy and Hydrological Functiona
Function
Adularia
of
Geologic Unit (Usually Present
Formation Thickness Subsurface
(m) in High-Output
Geologic
Wells)
Unit
Lacustrine sediments,
Huka Falls 30335 No Caprock
tuffs, sandstones
Pumiceous and
Ohaki Partial
spherulitic 0426 Occasional
Rhyoliteb caprock
rhyolite lava
Pumiceous
Waiora 0200 Yes Aquifer
tuff-breccia
Broadlands Dense, plagioclasebearing
0470 No Caprock
Rhyoliteb rhyolite and dacite lavas
Rautawiri Vitric-crystallithic tuff and
150460 Yes Aquifer
Breccia tuff-breccia
Locally densely welded
Rangitaiki 30370 No Caprock
lithic-vitric crystal ignimbrite
b Includes underlying mudstone (0 to 60 m thick).
alteration zones supply additional information that points out the areas of greatest
temperature and permeability. Alteration zones can also guide exploration geologists to
hidden systems or to ancient spring activity. The mapping process involves systematic
sampling across the study area and analysis of mineral phases by x-ray diffraction and
petrography. Study areas can range from a general map of altered areas over hundreds of
square kilometerswhich will often show the relationship of hydrothermal systems to large
features such as calderasto small areas of less than 1 kmwhere detailed variations in
alteration can be documented.
An example of this type of exploration technique is the eastern Hachimantai Geothermal
Area, Honshu, where there are many geothermal areas scattered throughout an 800-km2
volcanic field (Geological Survey of Japan, 1986; Nakamura et al., 1981). Within the
field, Nakamura et al., have established three alteration subzones.
Silicic subzones are characterized by porous, white or brown siliceous rocks that
contain small amounts of alunite and sulphur. These subzones are usually found in the
center of the system and can be evidence of strong hydrothermal activity in the past.
Silicification subzones consist of hard, white, silicified rocks within a band around the
silicic zone. This subzone can occur as blocks 0.5 by 0.7 km or as 10- to 50-m-wide
veins. The minerals include saponite, chlorite, hydromica, mixed-layer clays, sericite-
montmorillonite, alunite, anhydrite, gypsum, calcite, rutile, diaspore, and andalusite.
Page 137
Table 3.6. Conditions For Formation of Hydrothermal Alteration
Productsa
Fluid Temperature Pfluid
Minerals
Type (°C) (bars)b
Strong
Cristobalite <100 <15
acid
30-
Quartz Acid 100230
50
Strong
Alunite + cristobalite <100 <15
acid
Strong
Alunite + quartz 100230 15-50
acid
Kaolinite + cristobalite Acid <100 <15
Kaolinite + quartz Acid 100200 <30
Dickite + pyrophyllite + quartz Acid 150250 <60
Pyrophyllite + quartz Acid >230 >50
Montmorillonite + cristobalite Weak acid <100 <15
Montmorillonite, sericite-
Weak acid 100200 <30
montmorillonite + quartz
Chlorite + sericite-montmorillonite +
Weak acid 150250 <60
quartz
Sericite + quartz Neutral >230 <50
Heulandite + cristobalite Neutral <100 <15
Laumontite + wairakite + quartz Neutral 100200 <30
Weak
Albite + quartz 150250 <60
alkaline
Weak
Adularia + quartz >230 >50
alkaline
a Data are from the Otake geothermal area; from Browne (1977) after
Hayashi (1973).
b 1 bar = 105 Pa.
Argillization subzones are the outer-most zones of alteration; they consist of blue-black
clays (the color is mostly related to finely disseminated pyrite). The dominant minerals
are montmorillonite, kaolin, and alunite, in order of distance from the outer edge of the
zone.
In addition to these alteration zones, a pyrophyllite zone, which may overlap the argillized
rocks, has formed at higher temperatures and may be an indicator of higher
permeabilities. Pyrophyllite is most likely formed within the system if temperatures are
>300°C and if the geothermal fluids are acidic at depths of ~1 km.
Figures 3.12a and 3.12b show the distribution of alteration zones, which are identified by
the dominant mineral phase, as well as the distribution of fluorine concentrations (another
exploration tool). The schematic cross-section of BB' in Fig. 3.12c was based on wells
that were drilled into the vapor-dominated part of the Matsukawa geothermal field; this
illustration shows a relationship between the reservoir and surface pyrophyllitic to
kaolinitic alteration zones. Wells for the Kakkonda (Takinoue) geothermal field
penetrated a water-dominated reservoir in a zone where rocks are mostly altered to
montmorillonite (on a regional scale) but are locally altered to kaolinite, alunite, or
pyrophyllite.
The examples from Nakamura et al. (1981), cited earlier, are sited in intermediate to
silicic calc-alkaline rocks. However, different
Page 138
Fig. 3.11
Diagram showing the alteration minerals in vein assemblages and the sequence of wall-rock
alteration for acid-sulfate and adularia-sericite-type deposits that occur in fossil hydrothermal
systems. No scale is given because the widths of alteration zones range from
centimeters to tens of meters outward from the vein.
(Adapted from Heald et al., 1987.)
mineral zonation occurs in basaltic rocks. For instance, Tómasson and Kristmannsdóttir
(1972) described three vertical zones in the Reykjanes geothermal area of Iceland, which
are listed here in order of increasing temperature:
(1) a montmorillonite-zeolite-calcite zone,
(2) a mixed-layer clays-prehnite zone, and
(3) a chlorite-epidote zone.
The zones are not always clearly defined as a result of cooling and reheating after the
invasion of sea water. Subsurface temperatures at a depth of 1 km exceed 200°C.
The date and length of hydrothermal activity in a geothermal system can be determined
through potassium-argon dates for clays (Woldegabriel and Goff, 1989). These data can
provide interesting and sometimes crucial information on the longevity (and perhaps
future) of hydrothermal activity in an area to be drilled and developed. Woldegabriel and
Goff (1989) have shown that hydrothermal systems within the Valles caldera of New
Mexico became active soon after caldera collapse at 1 Ma and have been active from that
time to the present.
The most desirable targetspermeable zones with hot water and steamare narrow ones and,
in some cases, may make up as little as 5% of the entire geothermal system. The size of
this target can vary substantially. Figure 3.13 compares 16 epithermal ore bodies (fossil
hydrothermal systems; Heald et al., 1987) and 25 geothermal fields (Rowley, 1982). The
areas of geothermal fields, from 0.15 to >100 km2, are very similar to the areas of
epithermal deposits, which range from 1 to >120 km2. The projected surface areas of
production zones within the 16 geothermal fields range from <0.5 to 60 km2, which is 5
to 15% of the total area defined by hydrothermal activity, rock alteration, and elevated
geothermal gradients. These areas
Page 139
Fig. 3.12
Maps of alteration zones from the eastern Hachimantai geothermal area in Japan. (a) Map of
alteration zones indicates the predominant marker minerals. (b) Distribution of fluorine in
hydrothermally altered rocks. (c) Schematic cross-section of
the eastern Hachimantai geothermal area.
(Adapted from Geological Survey of Japan, 1986.)
Page 140
Fig. 3.13
Dimensions and volumes of hydrothermal systems
are used to compare ore zones (fossil hydrothermal
systems) and developed hydrothermal reservoirs.
These graphs provide a general idea of the range
of areas and volumes for hydrothermal reservoirs.
(a) Length and width of ore zones. (b) Surface areas
of ore zones and volumes of fossil hydrothermal
systems. (c) Estimated areas of geothermal fields
and actual areas with production wells.
(Adapted from Heald et al., 1987,
and Rowley, 1982.)
of production are the permeable pathways for hot fluids at the time of drilling. By
analogy, epithermal ore deposits encompass the entire area affected by alteration
throughout the history of the hydrothermal system; large ore-bearing veins were the main
conduits for geothermal fluids and gases. By studying the analogy between active
hydrothermal systems and epithermal ore bodies, it is possible to create three-dimensional
models of volcanic geothermal systems. The depth of hydrothermal reservoirs ranges
from <1 km to perhaps as much as 4 or 5 km. The depths of some of these reservoirs
have not been determined. Mining epithermal ore deposits has provided us with the
vertical extent and time-cumulative volume of many such ore deposits; they are from 400
to 1,000 m vertically and have volumes of 1 to 132 km3 (Heald et al., 1987). The largest
geothermal systems and epithermal ore bodies are associated with the Earth's largest
volcanoescalderaswhich are discussed in the next chapter.
Page 141
Chapter 4
Calderas and Their Geothermal Systems
Large eruptions of pumice and ash can cause the collapse of rock that overlies shallow
magma chambers, thus forming craters called calderas (from the Spanish for ''cauldron"
or "kettle"). Calderas range from a few kilometers to 60 km in diameter and are associated
with eruptions of several cubic kilometers to several thousand cubic kilometers of
pyroclastic material. Caldera-forming eruptions are infrequentoccurring perhaps only
once every few thousand years.
The very magnitude of the largest calderas has, on occasion, prevented geologists from
recognizing them in the field. However, as early as 1885, Verbeek proposed that the crater
left after the 1883 eruption of Krakatau was formed by a collapse accompanying the
eruption of large volumes of ash and pumice. Other studies, particularly of older, eroded
volcanic fields in the British Isles, led to the conclusion that subsidence followed this type
of volcanic eruption. The significant study that brought the collapse mechanism for crater
formation into mainstream geology was a review of known calderas by Williams (1941).
Williams' review was published concurrently with his study of the Crater Lake Caldera in
Oregon (Williams, 1942), in which he linked caldera collapse to the eruption of Mt.
Mazama ~7,000 yr ago. In other, related work, Ross and Smith (1961) reviewed the
available data for tuff deposits found around calderas and Smith and Bailey (1968)
developed a model for caldera formation and structural caldera resurgence, concentrating
on the Valles caldera of New Mexico (Fig. 4.1). Since that time, the research on calderas
and their deposits has accelerated; today, much more is known about eruption
phenomena, caldera-collapse processes, magma-chamber evolution, and the evolution
and history of caldera hydrothermal
Page 142
Fig. 4.1
Block diagram of the Valles/Toledo caldera complex in New Mexico. The topographic
depression is 22 km in diameter. The actual collapse crater is 15 km in diameter; its location was
inferred from locations of rhyolite domes erupted after the caldera collapse. The bulbous mountain
near the caldera center is a structural resurgent dome caused by
the buoyant rise of magma after the caldera collapsed.
(Block diagram by Harlan Foote, Pacific Northwest Laboratories).
systems. A particularly useful collection of papers on calderas was published as a special
volume of the Journal of Geophysical Research edited by Lipman et al. (1984). In this
book chapter, we will briefly review the processes leading to caldera formation, eruption
and collapse, and postcaldera activity, including the development of hydrothermal
systems.
Intrusion
Silicic calderas are associated with crustal magma bodies, the tops of which are at inferred
depths of 4 to 10 km. Geothermal resource evaluation requires information about the
depth, shape, size, and age of such bodies that supply heat to geothermal systems.
Although most thermal models of these magma bodies are based on cube-, slab-, and
cylinder shapes, geological and geophysical evidence indicates that silicic plutons have
inverted, tear-drop shapes and are no more than 10 km thick (Bott and Smithson, 1967;
Cobbing and Pitcher, 1972). Smith and Shaw (1975) proposed that the pluton diameter is
equal to or somewhat greater than that of the caldera ring faults.
Page 143
Excellent examples of plutonic-volcanic associations, particularly plutonic complexes
believed to have underlain calderas, are visible within the Peruvian batholith (Cobbing
and Pitcher, 1972; Myers, 1975); these are steep-sided plutons with domical roofs that
have intruded into caldera fill and sub-caldera rocks. Collectively, the many various types
of plutons emplaced over millions of years make up what is termed a batholith. Thermal
metamorphic effects suggest that plutons of the Peruvian batholith were once within 3 km
of the surface (Meyers, 1975).
The Uyaijah ring structure of Saudi Arabia consists of a 15- by 20-km oval ring dike, 2
km thick, which surrounds a granite stock and is believed to have underlain a caldera
(Dodge, 1979). The pluton appears to have an inverted tear-drop shape similar to those of
the Peruvian batholith (Fig. 4.2).
Of the 40 high-level plutons that make up the granitic ring-dike complexes of the Jos
Plateau of northern Nigeria, many are believed to have underlain calderas (Jacobson et
al., 1958). Figure 4.3 provides a comparison between this complex and those of the
Valles/Toledo complex of New Mexico and the Lake City complex in Colorado. Various
periods of pre- and post-collapse intrusion and volcanism that are characteristic of caldera
clusters created the Nigerian plutonic complexes. The polygonal shapes of many of these
plutons and associated dike systems were controlled by fault and fracture patterns that
existed before the plutons were emplaced and before caldera-forming eruptions occurred.
Associated with these plutons are glassy, brecciated rhyolitic dikes and uniform rhyolitic
rocks that have been interpreted as caldera-fill deposits.
There is increasing evidence, based on geological research and thermal models, that
mostor even alllarge silicic plutons are underlain, surrounded by, or mixed with basaltic
intrusions. Without the heat supplied by hotter mafic magmas, the large, silicic magma
bodies cannot rise as crustal diapirs (Lachenbruch et al., 1976;
Fig. 4.2
Schematic cross-section of the composite,
subcaldera pluton that makes up the Uyaijah
ring structure in Saudi Arabia. "A" marks the
present-day ground surface. Dodge (1979)
postulated that this pluton once lay
beneath a caldera complex.
(Adapted from Dodge, 1979)
Eichelberger and Gooley, 1977; Hildreth, 1981). The viscosity of a cooling magma body
can increase to the point where it stops rising and never reaches the shallow crust to
erupt. Many caldera complexes are located in volcanic fields that exhibit bimodal
volcanism: the more silicic rocks are in the center of the field overlying a silicic magma
body and the basaltic lava fields are located around the flanks. Basaltic magmas trapped
beneath a silicic pluton cannot pass through it because they are more dense and thus
buoyant rise is suppressed; however, these magmas can rise to the surface along fractures
in the brittle crust adjacent to a silicic pluton.
Page 144
Page 145
Fig. 4.3
These composite block diagrams schematically represent different levels below a caldera complex and
illustrate an igneous system within the upper 6 km of crust. These examples are from three different areas
where rocks are exposed or have been sampled by drilling. (a) Geologic map and cross-sections of the
north-northeast quarter of the Valles and Toledo calderas of the Jemez Mountains in New Mexico.
The geology is based on data and maps from Smith et al. (1970), Dondanville (1971;1978),
Slodowski (1977) and Hartz (1976).
(Adapted from Heiken and Goff, 1983.)
(b) The Lake City caldera in Colorado is similar to the Valles/Toledo calderas in size
and composition, and its interior has been well exposed by erosion. The upper
surface of the diagram is at a level that was originally ~2 km below the ground
surface present at the time of eruption, 22.5 million years ago.
Tuffs and interbedded breccias of the caldera fill are intruded by a silicic pluton.
(Adapted from Lipman, 1976.)
(c) This diagram is based upon maps of the Sha-Kaleri intrusive complex in northern Nigeria
by Jacobson et al. (1958). Interpreted as a cluster of plutons that were emplaced below a large caldera,
it may be analogous to the plutonic complex that underlies the Jemez volcanic field. The diagram
illustrates the potential complexity of a composite plutonic body below a caldera.
Page 146
Mount Mazama Volcano, which erupted ~50 km3 of magma 7000 years ago, is a well-
documented example of the basalt/rhyolite association required for the rise of a large
silicic magma body. Rhyodacitic pumice was erupted first, followed by a mixture of the
rhyodacite, crystal-rich andesitic pumice, and mafic-cumulate scoria (Bacon, 1989). When
the caldera collapsed during the eruption, Crater Lake caldera was formed. Preeruptive
magma temperatures ranged from 880°C for the rhyodacite and early andesite phase to
>940°C for the late-erupted scoria phase. Analysis of H2O in melt inclusions suggests that
depth to the magma chamber was 6 km. Using 87Sr/86Sr ratios for the eruption products
as evidence, Bacon suggested that the magma chamber grew during injection of multiple
parent liquids, forming a hot lens between plagioclase-rich cumulates and the overlying
rhyodacitic magma. A buoyant, differentiated melt mixed into the overlying rhyodacite
and crystal mush to form a new cumulate layer. Basaltic fluids then penetrated the base of
the cumulate pile. Had the caldera-forming eruption not occurred, crystallization would
have formed a granodiorite pluton overlying a dioritic to gabbroic cumulate.
Large-volume, caldera-forming eruptions usually occur late in the history of a volcanic
field. Most of these eruptions have been preceded by smaller scale eruptions of mafic to
intermediate magmassometimes over periods of millions of years, as was described by
Lipman (1984) and depicted in Fig. 4.4. This type of volcanic field may consist of dozens
of vents, including those of composite cones, scoria cones, lava domes, and small
calderas. Rarely, if ever, has a large, single composite cone collapsed to form a caldera.
There are many examples of a complex volcanic field being developed before a caldera is
formed, including Crater Lake in Oregon, where Howel Williams developed his caldera
models (Bacon, 1983; Druitt and Bacon, 1986), Thira (Santorini) in Greece (Fouqué,
1879; Heiken and McCoy, 1984), and the Valles caldera in New Mexico (Smith et al.,
1970; Gardner et al., 1986).
Eruption Processes That Lead to Caldera Collapse
Caldera-forming eruptions begin when pressure within the volatile-rich cap of the magma
chamber can no longer be contained by the overlying rock. Conduits to the surface may
follow faults and fracture systems [see (a) of Fig. 4.5]. In some instances, the main
eruption is preceded by phreatic (steam) explosions and by relatively mild explosive
eruptions and lava flows. Bacon (1983) described such precursor activity at Crater Lake,
Oregon, where a still partly molten lava flow was erupted before the collapse and flowed
back into the new crater. Phreatic and phreatomagmatic activity (explained in Chapter 2)
may also have been precursors to the main Minoan eruption at Thira, Greece (Heiken and
McCoy, 1984), and at Krakatau in Indonesia (Simkin and Fiske, 1983), where there were
small ash eruptions for days before the main eruption.
From observation and inferences from field relations, it appears that caldera-forming
eruptions last only a few hours or days (for example, at Krakatau in 1883; Simkin and
Fiske, 1983), if one does not include smaller ash eruptions or the lava flows that may
follow caldera formation. The first and most explosive phase begins with an eruption of
volatile-rich magma as pumice and ash, which forms a high eruption column. This phase
generally produces fallout or a Plinian pumice-fall deposit (see definitions in Appendix
G). Massive or graded pumice beds (with coarser fragments at the base of the bed) drape
the countryside. This first phase may erupt from a single conduit or closely spaced
conduits, as depicted in part (c) of Fig. 4.5. Plinian eruption phases from a single conduit
have been widely documented in isopach and isopleth maps as well as maps of lithic clast
distributions (for instance, Hildreth and Mahood, 1986; Heiken and McCoy, 1984; Self et
al., 1986). Volumes of pumice fallout deposits depend upon the overall size of the
magma body,
Page 147
Fig. 4.4
The evolution of a large silicic caldera. (a) Volcanism before caldera collapse. Clusters of composite
cones develop over isolated, small plutons that eventually coalesce to form a large silicic magma
body or heat the shallow crust sufficiently to allow the buoyant rise of a large pluton. The site of
subsequent caldera collapse is marked by dotted lines. (b) Caldera structure immediately after
the eruption of ignimbrites and concurrent caldera collapse. Calderas contain thick tuff deposits
that are interbedded with megabreccias. Dashed lines approximate the compositional zones
developed within the pluton. (c) Caldera resurgence. Welded tuffs and other caldera deposits are
uplifted as a structural dome over the magma body. Postcaldera collapse volcanism and
sedimentation occur mostly along an annulus between the resurgent dome and caldera walls.
Hydrothermal systems develop within the caldera deposits and floor rocks, as well as along
extensional faults that cross the resurgent dome.
but when ~20% of the total eruptive volume has been ejected, caldera collapse may be
initiated (Smith, 1979). Druitt and Sparks (1984) proposed that when a small fraction of
material has been erupted, the pressure within the magma chamber decreases rapidly to
values less than that of the lithostatic pressure and the chamber roof begins to collapse
catastrophically [parts (c) and (d) of Fig. 4.5].
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Fig. 4.5
Inferred stages of eruption and collapse of a large silicic magma chamber and caldera.
(After a drawing by T. McGetchin, 1976)
Page 149
The rocks overlying a magma chamber roof collapse into the partly evacuated chamber
and form new fracture systems, which approximately outline the magma body. Complete
or piecemeal subsidence may occur along the fractures, creating ring faults with a
concentric pattern. During this stage, eruptions may occur continuously or intermittently
along the newly formed ring faults [(Fig. 4.5 (d)]. As blocks that make up the caldera
roof begin to collapse, the ring faults may open widely and allow large quantities of
pyroclastic material to erupt; these same roof blocks can rotate back into place, closing off
the fractures and opening other fracture vents. Roof subsidence not only allows eruptions
to occur over long sections of ring faults, but also may displace magma and drive it to the
surface (Druitt and Sparks, 1984). It is usually during this stage of the eruption that the
hotter but more volatile-poor ash and pumice are deposited around the caldera as
pyroclastic flow deposits or ignimbrites, as shown in Fig. 4.6 (Self et al., 1986; Hildreth
and Mahood, 1986). Ignimbrite deposits, located around the periphery of a caldera, form
plateaus that slope away from the source. These tuff deposits are usually thickest within
and along the edges of the caldera, thinnest at the distal plateau margins, and generally
absent on steep slopes. Details of facies changes within ignimbrites are discussed in
Chapter 2 and by Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
Caldera collapse occurs during and not after an eruptionan important concept to keep in
mind when examining caldera structure and seeking caldera-hosted geothermal resources.
Perhaps as much as 50% of the erupted pyroclastic material collects within the caldera
crater, especially in the largest calderas where many of the pyroclastic flows never
surmount the crater wall; these tuff deposits are usually 1 to 3 km thick and can be as
much as 5 km thick (Lipman, 1984, and personal communication). Because their
depositional temperatures are 500 to 600°C, the rapidly deposited pumice and ash may be
compacted, welded, and altered by remnant gases and heated groundwater. For every
ignimbrite exposed around caldera margins, there is a texturally different (welded,
devitrified, and perhaps hydrothermally altered)but correlativethick tuff sequence within
the caldera. Table 4.1 presents the lithologic sequences commonly found in such caldera-
fill deposits and correlative outflow deposits.
Figure 4.7 provides an example of intra-caldera ignimbrite deposits interbedded with
breccias that formed when unstable caldera walls avalanched into the collapsing Lake City
caldera (Lipman, 1975; 1984). Mesobreccias consist of concentrations of small lithic clasts
interlayered with the middle and upper parts of the caldera-filling tuffs. Megabreccias are
made up of clasts that are generally larger than an individual outcrop; they actually are
intact slump blocks located near the bottom of the caldera filling (Lipman, 1975). The
slumping that forms megabreccias may leave scalloped topographic caldera walls that
extend outward from the ring faults for hundreds of meters or several kilometers.
Megabreccia blocks occur at different stratigraphic horizons in a caldera fill, which
suggests a piecemeal failure of steep caldera walls during collapse (Meyer, 1989). The
slumping of large megabreccia blocks may make it difficult to map the actual caldera
wall, as defined by ring faults; in many cases, the topographic caldera wall is located well
outside the actual structural caldera. The lenslike deposits of caldera-collapse breccia act
as heat sinks within the caldera-filling tuffs: they rapidly cool the adjacent hot ash
deposits and locally limit the compaction and welding of glassy pyroclasts.
Near the caldera rim, outflow ignimbrites contain concentrations of lithic clasts called lag
breccias (Druitt and Sparks, 1982; Druitt and Bacon, 1986). These lithic clast
concentrations (shown in Fig. 4.8) may indicate episodes of caldera-wall collapse or vent
widening during explosive eruptions. The ability to recognize caldera-collapse breccias
and associated nonwelded tuffs within
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Fig. 4.6
Photograph of a pumice fall and ignimbrite deposit in the Bishop Tuff, Long Valley Caldera,
California. Interstratified surge and pumice fallout deposits are
overlain by a massive ignimbrite.
drillholes and in surface outcrops is important for identifying hydrothermal reservoirs
within the calderas because these deposits may be more permeable than the densely
welded tuffs that enclose them.
Volcanism, Structural Deformation, and Sedimentation Following Caldera Collapse
Immediately after caldera-forming eruptions, the craters become closed sedimentary
basins. Crater lakes may form and the process of fluvial and lacustrine sedimentation
begins. If it is adjacent to the sea, the crater is flooded and may eventually be filled with
marine sediments. If a caldera wall is breached, the lake drains and a new drainage system
is established. Well-bedded lacustrine mudstones and siltstones may eventually fill
smaller calderas, but structural resurgence within larger calderas will limit the crater lakes
to an annulus between the central structural dome and the caldera wall, like that of the
Creede caldera of Colorado, depicted in Fig. 4.9 (Smith and Bailey, 1968; Heiken and
Krier, 1987).
Interbedded with the laminated lacustrine mudstones are reversely graded breccias
(turbidites from caldera walls), coarse sandstones (fluviatile rocks and small deltas),
volcanic ash beds (both ash-fall and pyroclastic-flow deposits), and lavas from
postcaldera eruptions.
Mapping and age-dating of caldera-lake sedimentary rocks can provide information
Page 151
Table 4.1. Lithologic Sequence Found in Caldera-Fill Deposits and Correlative
Outflow Tuff Deposits
Caldera Fill Outflow Tuffs
Plinian pumice-fall deposits
Pyroclastic surge deposits
Plinian pumice-fall deposits
Facies Related to Pyroclastic surge deposits? Ignimbrites; very thick near
Eruption source and thin farthest from
Processes and Very thick ignimbrites source; exceptions include
Caldera Collapse Megabreccias and phreatomagmatic ignimbrites
mesobreccias Lithic clast concentrations
interbedded with ignimbrites (lag
falls)
Variations in compaction and Variation in the degree of

Physical welding of tuffs compaction and welding along the
Properties ignimbrites, radial to the caldera
Related to Vapor-phase alteration
Vapor-phase alteration and
Postdepositional Low-temperature diagenesis
degassing
Processes
Hydrothermal alteration Low-temperature diagenesis
Intracaldera lavas (domes and
flows) and pyroclastic rocks
Postcaldera (ashfalls, ignimbrites, and
Eruption Products surge deposits)
Ashfall deposits
and Epiclastic
Sedimentation Caldera sedimentation (closed
basin); mostly fanglomerates
and lacustrine
Faulting associated with
resurgent doming
Postcaldera
Later movement along ring Tectonic faults that cross the
Faulting;
faults caldera; possible rejuvenation of
Zones of Fracture
precaldera faults
Permeability Tectonic faults that cross the
caldera and extend outside the
volcanic field
to be used in determining the time and rate of structural resurgence. By employing lake
beds as markers, it is possible to measure the amount of deformation during resurgence;
for example, Mahood (1980) measured the degree of resurgence of La Primavera caldera
in Jalisco, Mexico, by mapping the elevation of caldera lake sedimentary rocks and
interbedded tuffs (Fig. 4.10).
The buoyant rise of magma or injection of new magma following a caldera's collapse can
be inferred from structural deformation of the caldera floor and postcollapse volcanic
activity. Structural resurgence is common in calderas with diameters of 10 km or greater
(Smith and Bailey, 1968). Deformation may result in a simple symmetrical dome within
the caldera fill, and radial dips within these deposits may
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Fig. 4.7
Geologic map and schematic cross-section of the Lake City Caldera of Colorado, showing the
distribution of meso-and megabreccias that are intercalated within thick caldera-fill tuff deposits.
Page 153
Fig. 4.8
The concentration of boulders and cobbles in the cliff shown here are lava lithic clasts that
make up a lag breccia interbedded with ignimbrites surrounding the Crater Lake caldera in
Oregon. These breccias may have been formed by gravity segregation of the dense lithic
clasts near the crater rim during the caldera-forming eruption of rhyolitic ash. Lag breccias
may be used as markers that indicate periods of caldera collapse during the eruption.
range from a few tens of degrees to 45°, as is shown in Fig. 4.7 (b). However, many
resurgent domes are more complex and reflect the precaldera structural control of the
caldera's shape. For example, within an asymmetric ''trapdoor" caldera (hinged on one
side with substantial collapse on the other side), resurgence that takes place adjacent to
the bounding faults forms an oval dome parallel to those faults (Nielson and Hulen,
1984). The dome heights relative to the original crater floor range from a few hundred
meters to more than a kilometer. Summits of most resurgent domes are broken by
"keystone" grabens. The fault orientations of these grabens may be influenced by older
structures; for example, they may follow the trend of precaldera faults in rocks underlying
the volcanic field, as Nielson and Hulen (1984) noted for the Valles caldera of New
Mexico (Fig. 4.11).
The probable resurgent intrusions identified in the deeply eroded calderas of Questa, New
Mexico; Turkey Creek, Arizona; and Mt. Aetna, Colorado, rise above the basement rocks
and intrude intracaldera tuff deposits (Hon and Fridrich, 1989). Areas of maximum uplift
within these calderas are directly above the resurgent plutons. The interface between the
fractured caldera floor and the block of densely welded intracaldera tuff allows rising
magma to spread out. Hon and Fridrich (1989) inferred
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Fig. 4.9
Simplified geologic map of the Creede caldera in
Colorado, showing distribution of the Creede
Formationtuffaceous sedimentary rocks that
partly filled the annulus (moat) between the
resurgent dome and caldera walls. The same
zone is partly filled by lava domes and flows
erupted after caldera collapse. The Creede
Formation consists of several facies from the
fanglomerate breccias of the caldera walls and
slopes of the resurgent dome, intermediate fluvial
sandstones and gravels, and lacustrine siltstones
of the annulus between caldera walls
and a resurgent dome.
(Adapted from Steven and Eaton, 1975.)
Fig. 4.10
Structural contour map of tuff deposits (known
as the "gaint pumice horizon") interbedded with
caldera lake sediments of the La Primavera
caldera in Jalisco, Mexico; elevation in meters
(from Mahood, 1980). Resurgence was
asymmetrical, with maximum uplift in the
southeastern corner of the caldera.
that initially the resurgent plutons had a laccolithic form but that this form was eventually
modified when stoping during subsequent phases produced more or less cylindrical
intrusions similar to the central plutons of ring complexes. Those authors also proposed
that the resurgence here was more likely related to continued magmatic input (10-2 to 10-3
km3/year rather than to renewed magmatic pressure caused by vesiculation, as was
suggested by Marsh (1984).
Structural resurgence can be a rapid process. At Long Valley caldera of California, Rabaul
caldera in Papua-New Guinea, and the Phlegrean Fields of Italy, active deformation of
centimeters or meters have occurred over only decades (Newhall and Dzurisin, 1988).
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Fig. 4.11
Map of the Valles caldera in New Mexico, showing faults that cross
the caldera complex and faults within the 1-km-high resurgent dome.
(Adapted from Nielson and Hulen, 1984.)
Resurgence can also be an intermittent process in which uplift is followed by alternating
subsidence and uplift. Bailey et al. (1976) stated that inferred times for resurgence of
older calderas range from <10,000 to ~100,000 years. Although the time required for
resurgence obviously varies greatly, for the best-documented modern example, at the
largely submarine Iwo-Jima caldera of Japan, the average rate of uplift has been 15 to 20
cm/year since the caldera floor rose above sea level 500 to 700 years ago (Kaizuka et al.,
1989).
Such structural resurgence has a significant effect on the thermal history of a caldera.
Thermal gradients within resurgent calderas are higher than in calderas with no
resurgence (Zyvoloski, 1987). In addition, hydrothermal systems can develop along faults
associated with the keystone grabens that are typical of resurgent domes because fracture
permeability is necessary for the meteoric water circulation within densely welded
caldera-fill tuffs.
After caldera collapse, small, less explosive eruptions may begin along ring faults or
along faults that bisect the caldera. The lavas and pyroclastic rocks erupted are less
volatile-rich than the pyroclastic materials of caldera-forming eruptions (Hildreth et al.,
1984). Within most calderas, dacitic or rhyodacitic dome lavas are erupted along the ring
faults over periods ranging from a few decades to >1 myr after the initial caldera-forming
eruption (Fig. 4.12). Heiken and Wohletz (1987) reported that a variety of pyroclastic
rocks are associated with these domes, including hyaloclastic deposits of tuff rings, ash
fall beds, and small pyroclastic flow deposits. Postcaldera volcanic activity ranges from
eruptions of a few isolated vents to eruptions of postcaldera domes,
Page 156
cones, and flows that can fill the caldera. Calderas located along volcanic arcs at the plate
margins may be partly buried by composite cones that consist of lavas and pyroclastic
rocks of intermediate composition; such cones are well-documented throughout Central
and South America, in the volcanic fields of Kamchatka in the Kurile islands, and along
the Japanese island chain. The magmas supplying postcaldera volcanoes are far less
voluminous than the caldera magma body, but they form shallow magma bodies and
cause magma-induced fractures that are needed for hydrothermal systems.
Caldera Structure and Shape
The "ideal" caldera, formed during an eruption through homogeneous, unstressed rock
units, is circular in plan view and plug or broadly funnel shaped in cross section
(Anderson, 1936). However, the upper crust of the Earth is neither physically
homogeneous nor unstressed. Caldera structure and shape are affected by prior structural
trends, the depth to which the magma body has intruded, the physiographic expression of
the precaldera volcanic field, and the energy of the eruption itself. Caldera complexes
formed by multiple, overlapping calderas are common.
Figure 4.13 provides a cross-section view for a variety of caldera shapes. The most
common caldera type is that of a subsided, semicylindrical block that is marked at the
surface by concentric normal faults. In cross-sectionshown in (a)the subsiding block
drops along concentric faults piece-meal, resulting in a structure that looks like the step-
like seats of a stadium. In most of these calderas, the ring fault marks the actual caldera
wall, but the en echelon faults of slump blocks extend out to the topographic rim. Rarely,
if ever, are these calderas circular; most are oval or polygonal. The Aira and Ishizuchi
calderas of Japan (Aramaki, 1984; Yoshida, 1984) and the Minoan caldera of Greece
(Heiken and McCoy, 1984) are polygonal; the caldera walls follow trends of regional
faults and fractures present long before those eruptions occurred (Fig. 4.14). Long Valley
caldera in California, an east-west-trending oval, is almost polygonal; it is located at the
intersection of major north-northwest-trending fault zones that mark the eastern boundary
of the Sierra Nevada and an east-west offset in those fault zones. The giant Cerro Galan
caldera of Argentina, a north-south-trending elongate oval, is adjacent and parallel to a
north-south-trending rift in the Andean altiplano (Francis et al., 1978). Most calderas
exposed by either erosion or drilling fit this general model of a down-dropped block.
However, there are variations on the geometry of the down-dropped block or "plug,"
including those with vertical faults and reverse faults that dip outward rather than inward,
as depicted in Fig. 4.13 (c) and (d).
Trapdoor calderas, in plan view, are similar to the plug-like calderas and show the same
variation in shape. In cross section, however, they are very different: collapse is
asymmetric and one side is much lower than the other [Figs. 4.13(b) and 4.15]. Faults
may mark both sides, but one side is more of a flexure or "hinge" than a faultthus the
term "trapdoor."
Nielson and Hulen (1984) and Heiken et al. (1986) interpreted the Valles caldera of New
Mexico as a trapdoor caldera. It overlaps the margin of the Rio Grande Rift, where depth
to the Precambrian basement is 700 m below the western caldera margin and perhaps as
much as 3 km below the eastern caldera margin. In this case, the asymmetric collapse
appears to be related to the distribution of underlying rocks and rift margin faults; the
competent basement rocks at shallow depths act as the hinge. Many of the intermediate-
size calderas in Japan (~10-km diameter), interpreted as funnel shaped, were formed not
by the sinking of a cylindrical block but by the piecemeal collapse of roof rock, as is
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Fig. 4.12
Sketch map of the Valles/Toledo caldera complex, showing postcaldera rhyolite domes.
The stippled pattern represents Toledo-age domes (1.0 to 1.4 myr); the light brown shading indicates
Valles domes that range in age from slightly less than 1 million years to ~100,000 years.
Triangles mark the vents of intracaldera volcanoes.
illustrated in Fig. 4.13(e). An example of this type of caldera is the Shishimuta caldera of
the Hohi volcanic zone in Kyushu, Japan (Kamata, 1989). This structure formed during
the eruption of the Yabakei pyroclastic flow 1.0 million years ago, during which 110 km3
of tephra were erupted. The Shishimuta caldera is 8 km wide and >3 km deep. Much of
the caldera fill is an andesitic breccia made up of fragments and slabs of precaldera rocks,
which is overlain by 500-m-thick lacustrine deposits. There is no evidence of structural
resurgence at the Shishimuta caldera. Kamata (1989) proposed that the caldera fill is
primarily composed of explosively disrupted roof rock and that there is little collapse.
Small calderas, often associated with cones or tuff rings, may form when vent walls
collapse into a vent that has widened during an explosive eruption [Fig. 4.13(e)]. Vent
wall collapse is common in diatremes, which are the vents for small, explosive eruptions
(usually phreatomagmatic) of basaltic, alkalic, or kimberlitic magmas. Such craters,
however, are formed by explosive activity and the disruption of vent walls rather than by
collapse over shallow magma bodies and therefore rarely have geothermal potential. By
strict definition, they should not be termed calderas.
Walker (1984) has proposed that the simplest and most poorly developed
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Fig. 4.13
Sketches of possible caldera shapes in cross-
section; both observed and inferred shapes
are presented here. (a) Normally faulted down-
dropped block, observed in most continental
calderas. (b) Trapdoor caldera, in which most of
the collapse occurs along one margin and the
other margin acts as a "hinge." (c) Collapse
along outward-dipping faults, as seen in some
eroded calderas in Great Britain (Anderson, 1937).
(d) Caldera subsidence along piston-like
vertical faults (inferred). (e) Collapse into a small
vent eroded during explosive eruptions, as
exhibited by some maar volcanoes and
kimberlitic diatremes; many volcanologists
would not call these calderas. (f) Simple
downsag, or flexure, without faulting; this
caldera type was proposed by Walker (1984).
(Adapted from Walker, 1984.)
calderas are "downsagged" and have little or no development of ring faults [Fig. 4.13(f)].
Walker's chief example is Lake Taupo in New Zealand, where an enormous eruption,
1800 yr BP, formed a broad, shallow depression 30 km in diameter and 300 to 500m
deep. This interpretation must be considered inconclusive because the only evidence is a
saucer-shaped surface expression; little is known about the extent or thickness of any
possible caldera fill within the Taupo caldera.
Many of the Earth's large calderas are not single features, but caldera complexes, which
are composed of adjacent or overlapping craters formed during multiple eruptions. For
instance, the Yellowstone region in the United States comprises three overlapping
calderas that were formed during three major eruptions that occurred at intervals of
~600,000 years. Calderas of the San Juan Mountains in Colorado, shown in Fig. 4.16,
often form clusters with considerable overlap. In many cases, caldera complexes have
been mapped earlier as single calderas. One can determine if a crater is composed of one
or several calderas by identifying the number and ages of ignimbrites surrounding the
crater. If there is only one ignimbrite, it was most likely erupted during formation of a
single caldera. If there are multiple ignimbrites with considerable time gaps between
eruptions, there is a very high probability of multiple, overlapping calderas. For many
years, geologists believed that Toba caldera in Sumatra was formed during one eruption.
However, recent work on Toba demonstrated that it is a composite caldera that formed
during three major eruptions of silicic ash (Knight et al., 1986; Chesner, 1988).
Some caldera complexes have formed not as overlapping craters, but through multiple
collapses of the same crater. The Valles and Toledo calderas of New Mexico were formed
during two major eruptions 400,000 years apart; the eruptions were of similar
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Fig. 4.14
(a) Structural map of the Ishizuchi caldera in Japan. The polygonal shape created during
caldera collapse follows the general structural grain of precaldera rocks. Faults and
fractures present before the caldera-forming eruption often control the caldera shape.
(b) Block diagrams showing stages of development of the Ishizuchi caldera.
(Adapted from Yoshida, 1984.)
magnitude and each deposited pumice falls and pyroclastic flows. These eruptions may
have buried several older but smaller calderas. Drilling within the Valles/Toledo caldera
complex revealed two main sequences of caldera tuff deposits and several smaller
depositsa pattern that usually correlates with tuff sequences surrounding the calderas. The
younger caldera (the Valles) appears to have collapsed along the same faults as the older
caldera, so that one lies on top of the other.
Geothermal Systems in Calderas
Large, young calderas and associated volcanic rocks are indicators of potentially immense
geothermal resources. Smith and Shaw (1975) estimated that for every cubic kilometer of
material erupted, between 3 and 9 km3 of partly molten rock resides below the volcanic
field but within the upper 10 km of crust. The geothermal resource beneath a caldera
exists as long as eruptive activity continues; in addition, if large silicic crustal magma
bodies are
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Fig. 4.15
Schematic cross section of the Valles/Toledo calderas of New Mexico. The caldera complex, which
appears to have a trapdoor shape, has a "hinge" on the northwest side where it overlies Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks and Precambrian metamorphic and igneous basement. Most collapse has
occurred along the eastern caldera margin where the caldera overlies the Rio Grande Rift
and a thick sequence of poorly consolidated rift sedimentary rocks.
formed, the resource has a lifetime of several million years after the final volcanic activity
(Kolstad and McGetchin, 1978). As will be seen in the case histories discussed here, the
magnitude of the accessible hydrothermal system depends entirely on the extent of
permeable zones below the caldera or within the caldera deposits. In most calderas
containing thick, densely welded tuff deposits, the hydrothermal systems are limited to
caldera ring fractures and caldera-crossing faults, which form zones of fracture
permeability. Evidence of hydrothermal activity is often seen in the acid-sulfate alteration
that occurs at the surface. Acid fluids are formed when H2S and CO2 escape from the
underlying hot water reservoir and are oxidized at shallow depths. Water within these
reservoirs is usually heated groundwater from recharge areas within the caldera.
Thermal models of calderas indicate that much of the elevated heat flow is conductive
and that convective heat transfer is mostly limited to fault zones. Magma bodies below the
larger calderas (>10-km diameter) cool slowly and may be heat sources for up to 2
million years. An example of such a system is the 15-km-diameter Valles caldera of New
Mexico, where the most recent major eruption took place 1 million years ago and the
most recent intracaldera eruption was 150,000 years ago. Along the keystone graben of
the resurgent dome, the temperature is still 341°C at a depth of 3 km (ambient
temperatures at a depth of 3 km in this region are ~110°C). Smith and Shaw (1975)
estimated that within the uppermost 10 km below the Valles caldera the thermal energy is
equivalent to 8425 × 1018 J. For the same caldera, Brook et al. (1975) estimated that the
thermal energy of the hydrothermal systems is 81 × 1018 Joule, which is ~1% of the total
heat in the system. The remaining heat is present in rock of low permeability (termed hot
dry rock) and in residual magma. For caldera systems, estimates of the amount of heat
present as hydrothermal fluid range from 1 to 10%.
Nearly all hot-water circulation within known hydrothermal systems is located along
active faults where there is fracture permeability. A comparison of the young Valles
caldera and older, well-exposed Lake City and Platoro calderas in Colorado
Page 161
indicates that hydrothermal alteration within those caldera deposits occurred chiefly along
faults and over shallow intrusions (Figs. 4.11 and 4.17). However, in calderas formed
during phreatomagmatic eruptions, where the underlying rocks have been highly
fractured by hydraulic overpressures and the tuff deposits are nonwelded or only partly
welded, there may be considerable formation permeability.
Latium Volcanoes of Italy
The Latium Volcanoes of central-western Italy are a 340-km-long, northwest-trending line
of volcanic fields that extends from the Alban Hills near Rome to Bolsena Lake 180 km
northeast of Rome (see Fig. 2.49). These fields consist of multiple small vents, including
cinder cones, tuff rings, and calderas (De Rita et al., 1983). Lavas and tuffs are alkalic
and consist of trachytes, phonolites, and leucitites that are usually <1 million years old.
The Latium volcanic chain is parallel to grabens that were active until mid-Pliocene time
(Barberi et al., 1984). The volcanic fields overlie Triassic and Eocene carbonate rocks,
Lower Cretaceous to Eocene flysch deposits, and Miocene to mid-Pliocene clastic rocks.
The carbonate rocks have high permeabilities; they served as excellent aquifers that
supplied water for large phreatomagmatic eruptions, and now, in several fields, these
rocks act as hydrothermal reservoirs. Calderas of the Latium Province were mostly
phreatomagmatic; many have low, broad profiles in which the outer slopes are 1 to 1.5°.
The thin, extensive ignimbrites surrounding the calderas are made up of fine-grained,
nonwelded tuffs. Numerous surge deposits are interbedded with the ignimbrites.
Phreatomagmatic eruptions during caldera formation and postcaldera activity within these
young calderas is a good indication of the presence of hydrothermal systems.
Fig. 4.16
Calderas of the San Juan volcanic field in
Colorado, showing overlap and clustering of
calderas. For every caldera, there is a large-
volume sequence of ignimbrites within
and surrounding it.
(Adapted from Steven et al., 1974.)
Latera Volcanic Complex
The Latera complex, consisting of a 10- by 8-km caldera that is oriented north-northeast
to south-southwest, lies adjacent to the much larger Bolsena Lake, which may also be a
caldera. The complex's oldest volcanic rocks are between 0.9 and 0.4 Ma (Barberi et al.,
1984). Sparks (1975) felt that both Latera and Bolsena are calderas because of their shapes
and their association with nine major and six smaller ignimbrites.
At Latera, the most voluminous pyroclastic flows were erupted 0.4 million years ago. It is
possible there were multiple collapses of the caldera; this theory is consistent with the
presence of multiple ignimbrite units that range from 0.3 to 0.15 Ma. Figure 4.18 shows
Page 162
Fig. 4.17
Comparison of a young caldera (Valles/Toledo), its active hydrothermal systems, and its surface acid
alteration zones with two older, eroded calderas (Platoro and Lake City in Colorado), their intrusions,
and zones of hydrothermal alteration. In all three calderas, most of the hydrothermal activity has
taken place along faults within caldera-fill deposits and above lobes of an intrusion.
(Adapted from Smith et al. 1970, Dondanville, 1978, and Lipman 1975; 1976b.)
Page 163
the pyroclastic rock sequences exposed on the flanks of Latera; the sequences consist of
interbedded surge deposits and massive pyroclastic flow deposits that include lag
breccias. These tuffs are composed of very fine grained ash, which is now altered to
clays, zeolites, and iron oxides. The vesiculated tuffs and abundant accretionary lapilli
present are all indicators of phreatomagmatic activity. Lithic clasts within the tuffs include
metamorphosed mudstones (flysch), trachyte, marble, and tephrite.
Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions followed caldera collapse within and along the
caldera margins. D. De Rita (personal communication, 1985) indicated that Latium
volcanoes with a history of phreatomagmatic volcanism during caldera formation
followed by magmatic volcanism (in this case, Strombolian activity that formed cinder
cones) eventually develop hydrothermal systems of the greatest geothermal resource
potential. Intensive hydraulic fracturing may accompany phreatomagmatic eruptions
when the main source of fluid is groundwater (see discussions in Chapter 2). This activity
creates a large-volume system of fractures that, when associated with a thermal source,
can become a hydrothermal system.
To test the observations described above, 14 geothermal wells had been drilled into Latera
caldera, one of the Latium volcanoes, by 1985. Latera caldera deposits, which range from
250 to 1500 m thick, consist of coarse tuff-breccias and interbedded pyroclastic rocks and
lavas (perhaps megabreccias). The caldera is filled with mostly pyroclastic material
erupted during the first caldera-forming activity, as is depicted in Fig. 4.19. The caldera
tuffs contain up to 50% basement lithic clasts (flysch). Several geothermal wells have
been drilled into the carbonate sequence along a structural high located on the eastern
caldera margin. Barberi et al. (1984) reported that they encountered a syenite
intrusionpotassium-argon data indicate that it is ~0.86 Maclose to the caldera center, at
depths of between 2000 and 2700 m. This intrusion into carbonates underlying the caldera
is marked by a thermometamorphic aureole that contains garnet, idocrase, diopside, and
phologopite. The thermally metamorphosed rocks are strongly fractured, and the fractures
are partly filled with anhydrite, calcite, epidote, and hydrogarnet.
Of the 14 wells drilled in the Latera caldera, 9 are producing hot water and steam from
limestone reservoirs and fractures in the overlying flysch units. The temperature is 150°C
at a depth of 1 km, and 210 to 240°C at depths of 2 to 3 km. The production wells are
located primarily within the area of youngest caldera collapse where basement rocks are
highly fractured.
Baccano Caldera
Baccano caldera is one of several calderas, cones, and maar volcanoes of the Sabitini
volcanic complex, which has developed within a graben. Figure 4.20 shows the
concentric normal faults that bound a low depression 4 km in diameter. Baccano may be
located within the older Sacrofano caldera. The eruption and accompanying collapse of
the Baccano caldera occurred, perhaps in stages, during multiple hydromagmatic events
between 0.36 and 0.08 Ma. Most of this activity was phreatomagmatic; the water was
probably supplied from aquifers in limestones underlying the caldera or from nearby
Lake Bracciano.
Ignimbrites and surge deposits are exposed on the caldera rim and outer slopes, where
they overlie an 85,000-year-old travertine deposit. The ignimbrites consist of small
pumice clasts with accretionary coats of fine ash in a matrix of very fine ash. The surge
deposits are rich in mineral clasts and subrounded lithic clasts (phonolitic lava, mudstone,
and limestone). All of the pyroclastic deposits are partly altered to clays.
Page 164
Fig. 4.18
Photograph of the pyroclastic sequence along the flanks of Latera Volcano in Italy, which consists of
interbedded scoria fall, surge, and ignimbrite deposits. The outcrop, along Poggio della Valicella,
follows the western shore of Bolsena Lake.
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Fig. 4.19
Interpretative cross sections of the Latera and Bolsena calderas in Italy. The caldera-forming
eruptions of these calderas had a large phreatomagmatic component as a result of magmas
interacting with groundwater within permeable limestone units underlying the volcanic field. The main
hydrothermal reservoirs are located within the sedimentary rocks (mostly limestones) beneath
Latera caldera and along one margin within a horst. Cross sections are based upon geologic mapping,
geophysical surveys, and drilling samples. The magma body that provides heat to the hydrothermal
system was intersected by drilling below the center of Latera caldera.
(Adapted from Barberi et al., 1984.)
Four geothermal wells (C-1 to C-4), with depths of 1400 to 3000 m, have been drilled
within the Baccano caldera (Funiciello et al., 1979). Temperatures of 300°C were
measured in drillholes at depths of 3 km. Underlying the caldera are shales, marls,
sandstones, and limestones of Middle Cretaceous age; Miocene flysch deposits; Upper
Triassic to Oligocene carbonates, including marls, limestones and interbedded chert; and
Triassic black limestone. The main hydrothermal reservoir is located in fractured
carbonate rocks under a cap of the shaly rocks of the argille scagliose (a thick sheet of
chaotic, slickensided clays that was displaced along low angle faults). The reservoir
Page 166
consists of mixed hydrothermal fluids and shallower groundwater within the caldera
deposits (Calamai et al., 1976).
The Phlegrean Fields in Italy
One of the Earth's more famous volcanic fields is the Phlegrean Fields (Campi Flegrei),
which lies adjacent to the city of Naples and forms not only much of the margin of the
Bay of Naples but also part of the Campanian Plain. Nearly all the volcanism there has
occurred during the past 50,000 years and most of it has been phreatomagmatic. Trachytic
magmas rose to the surface to mix with groundwater and/or sea and lake water; this
interaction produced volcanic forms that range from small tuff rings to the Phlegrean
caldera complex. The information for the following discussion was condensed from
papers and reports by Barberi et al. (1978), Cameli et al. (1976), Rosi et al. (1983), Lirer
et al. (1987), and Rosi and Sbrana (1987) as well as unpublished work by G. Orsi.
One of the major events in this area was the eruption of the Campanian Ignimbrite 32,500
years ago (Paterne et al., 1988). This widespread ignimbrite, chemically zoned from
phonolite to trachyte, is believed to have had a volume of ~80 km3 (dense rock
equivalent). Barberi et al. (1978) and Rosi et al. (1983) proposed that caldera collapse
during this eruption left a crater 13 km in diameter that covered what is now the
Phlegrean Fields and a portion of the Bay of Naples (Fig. 4.21). Authors have referred to
this caldera complex as the ''Campanian Ignimbrite caldera" and the "Phlegrean caldera,"
which we use here. Caldera-fill deposits range from 500 to >3000 m thick and consist of
tuffs, tuff-breccias, and nonwelded pyroclastic rocks; these deposits may be partly the
Campanian Ignimbrite and partly tuffs from younger explosive eruptions that are
interbedded with conglomerates and sandstones (Bruni et al., 1983).
More recent geophysical research by R. Scandone (personal communication, 1990)
interprets a negative gravity anomaly located on the Campanian Plain northeast of Naples
near Mount Vesuvius as the source of the Campanian Ignimbrite.
The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT) and Gauro Yellow tuff (GYT), dated at ~12,000 years
BP, are exposed over a large area surrounding the Phlegrean Fields and are also
encountered in geothermal drillholes within the caldera complex. Lirer et al. (1987)
proposed that the NYT eruption formed a smaller caldera, ~6 km in diameter, that is
centered on the town of Pozzuoli and the Gulf of Pozzuoli. These tuff units resulted from
the largest multiple, significant phreatomagmatic eruptions since that of the Campanian
Ignimbrite. The caldera complex of the Phlegrean Fields is also most likely a composite
structure that was formed during several eruptions.
Some of the younger rocks of the Phlegrean fields make up tuff rings, tuff cones, and
scoria cones, for which crater diameters range from a few hundred meters to 2 km. The
youngest eruption formed Monte Nuovo in 1568 AD, and structural resurgence of the
caldera has continued intermittently throughout historical time. The latest activitybetween
1970 and 1985 ADaffected much of the Phlegrean Fields. The maximum uplift (240 cm)
was centered in the town of Pozzuoli; resurgence is believed to be the result of magma
injection at shallow depths. Recent movements along active faults are common
throughout the volcanic field. There are numerous surface manifestations of geothermal
systems, including the fumaroles and acid alteration found at Solfatara Crater and
numerous hot springs.
Drilling within the Phlegrean Fields has revealed a high-temperature hydrothermal system
that developed within the siltstones and sandstones of prevolcanic rocks and the tuffs and
lavas of the caldera deposits. Temperatures range from 335°C at a depth of 2.5 km to
420°C at a depth of 3.04 km, and the average thermal gradient is 150°C/km.
Page 167
Fig. 4.20
Baccano caldera in Italy. (a) Structural sketch map showing the concentric ring faults around this
small caldera, flow directions of surge deposits and volcanic mudflows (lahars), caldera lake
deposits, and spring and well locations. (b) Cross section through the Baccano caldera (left) into the
larger Sacrafano caldera (right). The caldera is underlain by Mesozoic- and Cenozoic-age limestones
and marls (1 = volcanic rocks; 2 = Neogene-Pleistocene sedimentary rocks; 3 = Argille Scaglisose; and
4 = Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. a = marl and limestone; b = limestone; c = limestone
and dolomite; d = anhydritic dolomite). Abundant groundwater and permeability within these
units probably provided the water needed for phreatomagmatic activity at Baccano.
Page 168
Fig. 4.21
The Phlegrean Fields of Campania, Italy. These maps are composites of those by Rosi and Sbrana (1987)
and Lirer et al. (1987). (a) Outlines of the Phlegrean and Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (NYT) calderas within
and around the Bay of Naples and the cities of Pozzuoli and Naples. Submarine topographic contours
are indicated in meters. (b) Volcanic-tectonic sketch map of the Phlegrean and NYT calderas
(the Phlegrean Fields), showing the location of all postcaldera craters and lava domes. Within the
Phlegrean Fields, most of the volcanic activity has been phreatomagmatic; the rising magma
has interacted with groundwater and sea water. The cross section in (c) is based mostly on
data from the deep geothermal wells noted on this map.
Page 169
Fig. 4.21
(c) Cross section of the Mofete
geothermal area of the western Phlegrean caldera. The "chaotic tuff-breccias" and
"subaerial tuffs" could be caldera-fill materials that were
deposited during the eruption of the Campanian Ignimbrite.
(Adapted from Rosi and Sbrana, 1987.)
Page 170
Hydrothermal fluids have risen along the faults bounding caldera structures and those that
cross the volcanic field [Fig. 4.21(c)]. With the exception of fluids that rise along these
faults, hydrothermal activity has been restricted to deep caldera fill, as is evident from the
observation that the upper 500 m of pyroclastic deposits are not altered. These deposits
overlie thick zones composed of argillic and illitechlorite alteration products.
Hydrothermal fluids circulate within intensely fractured rocks near the caldera center,
whereas low vertical permeability is characteristic of the outer caldera margins. Nearly all
hydrothermal circulation within the caldera takes place within areas that have fracture
permeability. There is no formation permeability except within near-surface aquifers.
Thermally metamorphosed tuffs, sandstones, and lavas were found in the deepest wells,
where rocks have been replaced by amphibolite-biotite and diopside, scapolite, garnet,
and epidote. Similarly metamorphosed rocks have been found as lithic clasts within tuff
units of the Phlegrean Fields.
In the Mofete geothermal field located near the western edge of the Phlegrean caldera,
Carella and Guglielminetti, (1983) identified three water-dominated reservoirs in which
water is the continuous, pressure-controlling system and there is little vapor [Fig.
4.21(c)]. The deepest reservoir, at a depth of 2700 m, contains hypersaline fluids at a
temperature of 360°C; the intermediate reservoir, at a depth of 1900 m, contains low-
salinity fluids at a reservoir temperature of 340°C; and the shallowest reservoir, between
500 and 1500 m deep, contains low-salinity water at temperatures of 230 to 308°C. The
two deep reservoirs are located within thermally metamorphosed pyroclastic and
epiclastic deposits; whereas the thick, shallow reservoir is sited within fractured volcanic
rocksmostly lavasand is capped by tuffs that have been altered to clays.
Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand
Geologic Setting
The Taupo volcanic zone (TVZ) of the North Island of New Zealand is a 250- by 60-km
zone of young silicic and andesitic volcanoes that occupies a north-northeast-trending
structural depression. The TVZ consists of offshore andesitic composite cones to the
northeast, a central section containing at least six caldera complexes, and a southern
center consisting of andesitic composite cones. The central part of the TVZ, which is ~125
by 60 km, is mostly made up of silicic calderas and has a geothermal resource of ~2000
MWe Donaldson and Grant, 1978). An assessment of the geothermal resource potential
for individual fields in the TVZ is presented in Table 4.2.
The central section of the TVZ reaches elevations of 300 to 600 m and the depth to
basement within the graben is 500 to 1000 m below sea level (Healy, 1982). The basement
is even lower below the calderas themselves. Rogan (1982) found steep gravity gradients
at the TVZ margins and conservatively estimated that the volume of tuffs, lavas, and
associated sedimentary rocks within the central TVZ is ~12,000 km3. Much of the activity
responsible for this erupted material occurred during the past 1 million years.
The calderas of the TVZ have been favorable targets for geothermal drilling and
development for many decades, but comprehensive volcanological studies of the calderas
are more recent (for an excellent summary paper, see Wilson et al., 1984). We chose to
discuss here the well-known Wairakei geothermal field, which is the site of one of New
Zealand's largest geothermal generating plants.
Page 171
Table 4.2. Assessment of New Zealand High-Grade Hydrothermal
Geothermal Resourcesa
Estimated Electrical Power Potential (MWe)b
Maximum
Area
Fieldc Temperature ProvendInferreddSpeculativee
(km2)
(°C)
Wairakei 15 270 150
Tauhara 1416 280 100 80
Broadlands 11 300 120 30
Kaweru 610 290 100 30
Waiotapu-
812 295 150 100
Reporoa
Orakei Korako 610 260 50 50
Rotokawa 812 300 50 100
Ngawha 3050 300 (?) 400 500
Tikitere-Taheke 12 270 (?) 75 75
Waimangu 12 270 (?) 50 100
Te Kopia 5 240 20 20
Tokaanu-Waihi 4 steam field 100
Ketetahi ? 25
Total 140e 470 930 1075
a Adapted from Rowley (1982).
b Installed capacity, accounting for reservoir recovery factor and conversion
efficiency.
c Lack of sufficient information has precluded the inclusion of areas like
Atiamuri, Mokai, and Ngatamariki, which are under consideration.
d Proven = That part of the accessible resource base, resource, or reserve
whose size can be computed from geochemical, geological, and geophysical
data, drillhole data and reservoir engineering measurements. Inferred = That
part of a geothermal resource base, resource or reserve whose size can be
inferred on the basis of geochemical, geophysical, or geological evidence,
but for which there is little if any corroborating drillhole data. Speculative =
Regions where useful geothermal heat is likely to exist, but has not yet been
positively identified.
e Projected 110,000-MWelectrical for 140 km2 of high-grade, liquid-
dominated reservoirs.
Maroa Volcanic Center and Wairakei Geothermal Field

The Wairakei geothermal field is located along the common boundary of the Maroa and
Taupo volcanic centers, following north-northeast-trending faults that cross both centers
(Fig. 4.22). Maroa has a negative gravity anomaly that Rogan (1982) modeled as a 15- by
10-km basement depression with a volume of 250 km3 below the local base level (-1000
m). Wilson et al. (1984) used magnetic data to interpret the presence of thick caldera
deposits in the area.
The Maroa center has developed during the last 250,000 years. Its oldest rocks, the
rhyolitic domes of the Western dome belt, appear to have erupted along a basement
graben during the same time period in which the central dome complex was erupted. The
basin is filled mostly with interbedded rhyolite lavas and poorly to nonwelded
ignimbrites. Domes exposed at the surface form north-northeast-trending clusters that are
parallel to the normal faults of the area [Figs. 4.22 (a) and (b)] and overlap domes of the
Taupo volcanic center. The youngest eruption, (14 to 15 ka) was a small, partly
Page 172
Fig. 4.22
(see also pages 173 and 174) Maroa volcanic center and Wairakei Geothermal field in New Zealand.
(a) Simplified geologic map showing the location of the two basins (calderas?). Depth to basement
along contour line is ~1500 m. The Wairakei geothermal field and rhyolite domes of Maroa are shown.
Page 173
Fig. 4.22
(b)Structural map of the Wairakei geothermal field shows location of the cross-section depicted in (c).
(Adapted from Grindley, 1965)
phreatomagmatic eruption; this explosive activity was followed by a dome eruption. The
summary of eruption activity presented in Table 4.3 was compiled by Wilson et al.
(1984).
Within the Wairakei geothermal area, ignimbrites and associated rocks thicken from west
to east and into a depression bounded by fault scarps. The area now defined as the
Wairakei Basin is part of the Maroa volcanic center. The Wairakei Ignimbrites described
by Grindley (1965) are more than 520 m thick and consist of several sheets separated by
"pumiceous sediments" (perhaps pumice fallout or surge deposits). Grindley also reported
that the younger Huka Group, which Wilson et al. (1984) called the Maroa-derived
ignimbrites, includes sequences of "pumice breccia," ignimbrites, phreatomagmatic tuffs,
and tuffaceous lacustrine sedimentary rocks. This group thickens from 713 mover the
Wairakei fault-bounded horstto >1.2 km in the Wairakei Basin [Fig. 4.22 (c)]. Overlying
the Huka Group is the "Wairakei Breccia" (Grindley, 1965), which was renamed the
"Wairakei Formation" by Self and Healy (1987); these deposits, erupted 20,000 years ago,
consist of pumice falls, fine-grained ashfalls, and nonwelded ignimbrites.
The rhyolite domes of the Central Dome Complex and the Maroa-derived ignimbrites
have been intersected by drillholes along a northeast-trending line from the western
perimeter of the Wairakei geothermal field toward the Central Dome complex visible at
the surface. The domes are interbedded with tuffs of the Maroa-derived pyroclastic rocks,
and the entire section is overlain by thin deposits of the youngest Taupo ignimbrites.
Page 174
The greatest hydrothermal activity is located along a 3.2- by 3.2-km northeast-trending
horst, which is close to the boundary between the Taupo and Maroa volcanic centers.
Grindley (1965) found that much of the geothermal fluid movement is along deep-seated
faults running parallel to major horsts and grabens (Fig. 4.22b). Some phreatic craters are
also located along fault traces. The greatest permeability is found along fault zones,
although there may be some formation permeability within non-welded ignimbrites.
Drilling along these faults has intersected hydrothermally altered fault breccias that are
cemented by hydrothermal minerals. At Wairakei, the most productive wells are sited on
the downthrown side of surface fault traces, whereas wells sited on the upthrown side
were less productive (Grindley, 1965). Wells drilled away from faults encountered
impermeable, cemented pyroclastic rocks and did not produce geothermal fluids.
There is some difference of opinion about the origin of the Maroa and Wairakei basins.
Grindley (1965) interpreted them as volcano-tectonic, with emphasis on the tectonic
aspects. On the other hand, Wilson et al. (1984) interpreted the center as a caldera that
underlies the central rhyolitic dome complex; these authors comment, however,
Fig. 4.22
(c) Cross-section through the Wairakei geothermal field, showing increasing thickness of the
Maroa-derived ignimbrites into the Wairakei basin.
(Adapted from Grindley, 1965.)
Page 175
that there is little surface evidence for such a caldera complex. By examining the data
presented by both sets of authors, it is possible to come up with at least one additional
interpretation that is based on several points.
Depths to basement presented by Wilson et al. [Fig. 4.22 (b)] indicate the presence of
two overlapping basins: the Wairakei, with a depth to basement graywacke of 2000 m,
and the unnamed basin below the central dome complex, with a depth to basement of
2500 m.
The variety of ignimbrites and associated rocks (the Maroa-derived ignimbrites
described by Wilson et al. and the Huka Group and Wairakei Ignimbrite referenced by
Grindley) that thicken into the Wairakei basin could be evidence for multiple ignimbrite
eruptions and associated caldera collapse.
There are multiple overlapping calderas in the Maroa volcanic center and two of them
correspond to the basins defined by depth to basement.
Whichever the interpretation of the history and makeup of the Maroa volcanic center one
accepts, all the indicators for the presence of a geothermal system are here: surface
manifestations (including phreatic craters, hot springs, and fumaroles), numerous normal
faults, multiple young ignimbrite units, and young silicic domes and flows.
Table 4.3 Summary of Volcanic Activity at the Maroa Centera
Equivalent
Age Outcrop
Volume Magma
Feature (in 1000 Area Notes
(km3) Volume
yr) (km2)
(km3)
Partly
phreatomagmatic
activity,
Puketarata Eruption 14-15 <1 <1
followed by
formation of a
small dome
Flows and
domes; some
Central Dome Complex ~200~40 ~20 20
explosive
activity
Poorly welded
to nonwelded
Maroa-Derived Ignimbrites,
ignimbrite
Including Atiamuri,
230?50 surround the
Haparangi, Huka, Orakunui, ~1000 <250 100
? Maroa center;
and Ohakuri Ignimbrites and
internal
Pumice Breccias
stratigraphy is
uncertain
Scoria plus
Ongaroto Basalt ~90 <<1
small lava flow
Lava flows and
Western Dome Belt >230? ~20 20
domes
Approximate
Caldera Fill ?230?50 250 150
volumes
?
Total 550 290
250present
a Compiled from Grindley (1960), Healy et al. (1964), Thompson (1966), Stipp
(1968), and unpublished field work by B.F. Houghton. (From Wilson et al., 1984.)
Page 177
Chapter 5
Silicic Domes:
Heat Flow around Small, Evolved Magma Bodies
Silicic domes are distinct volcanic structures associated with nearly all types of volcanic
landforms; they are perhaps the most common surface expression of evolved magma
bodies. Domes and dome complexes are generally found in both early and late stages of
silicic caldera evolution. These domes and dome complexes, sometimes the only volcanic
feature found in a volcanic field, characterize late stages of composite cone evolution and
often form along major tectonic lineaments.
Distinct hydrothermal systems develop below and within silicic domes. The heat source
provided by dome lavas is usually short-lived and of little hydrothermal significance, but
persistent hydrothermal systems manifested in and around domes are a good indicator of
a much larger thermal source at depth below the field. Such thermal sources are
commonly moderate-sized, differentiated magma bodies. These hydrothermal systems
generally develop in pyroclastic strata and fractured country rocks below the dome that
were formed during the initial stages of dome eruption. The systems manifest themselves
as fumarolic areas and exhibit extensive hydrothermal alteration in and around the dome.
Ishikawa (1970) noted that most geothermal areas in Japan are located in Quaternary
volcanic zones, where andesitic and dacitic domes or spines plug crater vents, and in
Tertiary volcanic districts that are closely related to intrusions of viscous, acidic magmas.
The following discussions review volcanological characteristics and models of domes as
well as their lavas and tephras, the
Page 178
geothermal systems below that are manifested by these domes, and the relationships
among the tectonic setting, magma composition, country rock, and the hydrothermal
system. Case histories are drawn from geothermal studies at Coso volcanic field of
California, the Usu area of Japan, and the Terre Blanche-Belfond dome complex in the
Qualibou caldera of St. Lucia.
Silicic Domes and Extrusion of Viscous Lava
Extrusions of viscous lava form domes in many different volcanic settings during the
evolutionary stages of volcanic fields. Because viscosity depends on thermal,
compositional, and textural factors, lava compositions from andesite to rhyolite can
display relatively high viscosities (105 to 1012 Pa/s; Murase and McBirney, 1973);
therefore, the rheology of such viscous fluids is the dominant feature in controlling
extrusion mechanisms.
Common Geologic Settings
Table 5.1 lists some common occurrences of domes in various volcanic settings. The
most common are lava domes of dacite and rhyolite that form before and after caldera
collapse. These extrusions, which generally appear in groups of at least several vents
along major structural features such as ring faults and resurgent cores in calderas, are
manifestations of larger bodies of differentiated magma at depth. Silicic domes are
frequently associated with composite cones in late evolutionary stages (see the discussion
in Chapter 7). In these cases, domes form either plugs in the central vent region of the
cone or parasitic vents around the flanks of a composite cone. Silicic domes may also
occur as isolated extrusions along major tectonic lineaments such as grabens near plate
boundaries and rifts. In addition, domes appear in or near explosion craters that are
created by gaseous bursts preceding the extrusion of viscous lava.
Evolution and Internal Structure
Figure 5.1 illustrates a common evolutionary scheme for silicic domes. Preceding activity
is usually marked by the passive or explosive release of gases at depth above a rising
mass of viscous lava. Such a release might be characterized by only fumarolic activity and
bulging ground. On the other hand, the gases can be released in violent explosions when
high-pressure gases from either vaporized groundwater or the gas-rich top of the magma
body burst through the ground surface in crater-producing eruptions. Because of the high
viscosity of dome lavas, the extrusion process may continue over periods of months to
years. Figure 5.2 depicts types of domes, including both endogenous and exogenous
forms. The lava structures formed at domes are distinctive because of the complex
rheology as a result of lavas ranging from viscous to
Table 5.1. Common Occurrences of Silicic Domes
Occurrence Composition Structural Relationships
Dacitic- Precaldera tumescence; Ring fracture volcanism;
Calderas
Rhyolitic Resurgent volcanism
Composite Andesitic- Vent plug; Flank intrusion/extrusion; Parasitic
Cones Rhyolitic structures
Rift-filling dome complex; Rift-margin
Rifts and Dacitic-
lineaments;
Grabens Rhyolitic
Horst extrusions
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Fig. 5.1
Idealized diagram showing the eruptive evolution of silicic domes. (a) Magma with volatile-rich
pumiceous top approaches surface. (b) Initial pyroclastic eruption in which volatiles and pumice
erupt to form tuff ring. (c) Cessation of explosive eruptions and emplacement of coarsely pumiceous
rhyolite lava. (d) Extrusion of obsidian over coarse pumice. (e) Development of a mantle of finely
pumiceous lava. (f) Final extrusion of crystalline rhyolite.
(Adapted from Fink, 1983.)
Fig. 5.2
Forms of endogenous and exogenous domes, showing various fracture foliations. (a) Upheaved,
exogenous dome similar to that illustrated in Fig. 5.1. (b) Peléean dome showing vent spines,
blocky fracture, and development of talus aprons. (c) Detail of vent spine of Mont Pelée
(from Lacroix, 1904).
(d) Exogenous dome that discharges viscous flow lobes from a summit vent. (e) Intrusive
dome in which viscous magma body is emplaced just below the earth's
surface and maintains a carapace of upwarped strata.
(Adapted from Williams and McBirney, 1979.)
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partly solidified. These lava flows exhibit behavior varying from that of a Bingham fluid
to that of a brittle, plastic rock (Shaw, 1972; Hulme, 1974; Fink, 1980a).
The surfaces of silicic lava domes are characterized by a wide variety of textures that
produce variations of color, flow layering, crystallinity, and vesicularity. Fractures and
foliations in the lava are useful for mapping the surface of domesand especially for
locating the vent area (Fink, 1983; Fink and Pollard, 1983). Figure 5.3 illustrates the
development of foliations in lava domes, and Fig. 5.4 shows surface distributions of flow
features at an obsidian flow.
Silicic dome lavas generally develop a textural stratigraphy related to their cooling,
vesiculation, and crystallization during extrusion (Fig. 5.5; Figs. 5 and 7 in Fink and
Manley, 1987). However, such textural features can easily be mistaken for those that
develop during the welding of pyroclastic flows. Basal tephra layers are often found
because dome extrusions are commonly initiated by pyroclastic eruptions of the gasrich
tops of silicic bodies; but a flow breccia, if found above the tephra layer, can distinguish
dome/lava-flow stratigraphy from that of welded ash flows. Obsidian layers near the base
and top of the flow stratigraphy are similar to the quench vitrophyres that develop in
similar positions in welded ash flows. The central portion of dome/lava-flow stratigraphy
consists of crystalline lava, which frequently contains lithophysae. This textural type
grades upwards into glassy and pumiceous zones that can be mixed into the crystalline
part of the flow; in such a complex textural case, it is again difficult to distinguish the lava
textures from those of welded pyroclastic deposits. However, scanning electron
microscope analysis may differentiate the origin of the complex textural character. For
example, vestiges of shard and pumice textures, revealed by electron microscopy, are
very flattened and elongated in welded tephra. This distinction is very difficult to observe
in rheomorphologically deformed tuffs, and field relationships are used to determine the
dome origin of silicic volcanic rocks (Bonnichsen and Kauffman, 1987). Fink and Manley
(1987) noted that small domes display little textural variation and usually display
structural evidence of their vent geometry. This is not the case for larger silicic lava
extrusions because they can exhibit all the textural features discussed above.
Fink and Manley (1987) discuss three principal steps in the development of textures in
silicic lava flows and domes.
(1) Crystallization and the accompanying release of magmatic volatiles is strongly related
to cooling rate and flow stresses.
(2) Microcracks, formed during the lava's advance, allow gases to escape upward.
(3) Quenching of the upper surface creates a crust of high yield strength that resists flow
deformations.
These three processes result in the formation of a gas-rich, low-density layer below the
crust that can rise buoyantly. This layer eventually may break through the surface crust,
producing the banded appearance of silicic lava flow surfaces. Bonnichsen and
Kauffman's (1987) summary for the development of rhyolite lava flow textures is shown
in Table 5.2.
Tephra Deposits Associated with Silicic Domes
Pyroclastic activity accompanies most phases of dome growth and is manifested as
explosive activity. Newhall and Melson (1987) analyzed explosive activity during volcanic
dome growth with respect to history, rate of growth and petrologic controls. Heiken and
Wohletz (1987) reviewed dome-related tephra deposits and proposed four main types of
eruptions (Fig. 5.6):
(1) Plinian and phreatomagmatic eruptions preceding dome growth,
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Fig. 5.3
Schematic diagram of lava foliation development. Successive block diagrams show the gradual rise of
coarse pumice diapirs while fractures propagate into the flow along the axes of flow and diapir
anticlines. Fink (1980b) reported that the diapirs form in response to a density inversion between
the relatively dense obsidian overlying the coarse pumice at the base of the flow.
Page 182
Fig. 5.4
Illustration of the surface geology of a rhyolite flow. This map depicts the northwestern lobe of
the Little Glass Mountain flow in northern California; the cross-sectional profile is from north to
south along the line . Obsidian is designated as ''ob,"
and the coarse pumice diapirs are denoted "cp."
(2) periodic Vulcanian explosions during dome growth,
(3) Peléean and Merapian activity resulting in dome destruction, and
(4) phreatic explosions during hydrothermal and fumarolic activity.
Table 5.3 summarizes the characteristics of tephra produced by these types of eruptions,
and they are discussed in more detail here.
Initial Plinian and Phreatomagmatic Eruptions
Magmatic and hydromagmatic eruptions, which commonly herald new extrusions of
dome lavas, create tuff rings and cones around vent craters. These eruptions follow
depressurization of the gas-rich rising magma and its interaction with ground and surface
water.
Page 183
Fig. 5.5
Textural stratigraphy of dome lava. The cross section shows rhyolite lava-flow stratigraphy resulting
from the eruption scenario outlined in Fig. 5.1. The profile of density, based upon actual
measurements, shows an important density inversion at the top of the coarse pumice that
promotes coarse pumice diapirism. The temperature profile is calculated by conductive cooling,
assuming a constant internal temperature, and it shows a steep surface gradient that causes
fracturing. The viscosity profile is based on the laboratory measurements of Friedman et al. (1963).
(Adapted from Fink, 1983, and Fink and Manley, 1987.)
Figure 5.7 schematically illustrates tephra production that precedes dome formation.
Magmatic eruptions produce pumice and ash deposits of a Plinian type, whereas
phreatomagmatic (hydrovolcanic) explosions result in fine-ash dispersal during
pyroclastic surges and flows, which creates a tuff ring. Such eruptions usually produce
most of the tephra associated with domes, but Heiken (1978b) found that their volume
generally is relatively small (<0.1 km3) to moderate (1.0 km3). Near the vent, these tephra
are well bedded and capped by lavas from the dome. Where the tephra extend several to
tens of kilometers away from the vent, fallout layers are the most common expression.
Vulcanian Eruptive Cycles
Occurring during both growth and destructive phases of dome activity, Vulcanian
eruptions tend to be periodicespecially where dome growth is prolonged by new magma
Page 184
Table 5.2. Textural Features of Silicic Domes and Lava Flows During Major
Eruptive Phasesa
a From Bonnichsen and Kauffman (1987).
rising into previously constructed domes and plugs. Well-documented examples of such
activity come from Soufriere of St. Vincent in the West Indies (Shepherd and Sigurdsson,
1982), and the type locality of the Fossa Cone on the Island of Vulcano, Italy (Frazzetta et
al., 1983). Typical tephra deposits consist of ash and lapilli falls, thinly bedded coarse and
fine ash, dry and wet surge beds, and lahars. Distinctive of Vulcanian tephra are coarse
ash deposits that contain blocky fragments of obsidian, older lavas, and poorly vesicular
glass. Pumice fragments tend to be deposited during later stages of the eruptions when
new magma reaches the surface and becomes highly vesicular. Most tephra erupted
during Vulcanian dome destruction are those typical of hydrovolcanism (Fig. 5.8).
The cyclic activity of Vulcanian tephra production at domes is closely related to both the
periodicity of magma rise within the volcano and vent-clearing explosions that provide a
pathway for the new magma through older dome lavas. Such cycles are typical of
composite cones in late stages of evolution (see Fig. 2.16) when sequences of wet, and
then dry, hydrovolcanism are followed by magmatic pumice eruptions and finally by
silicic lava emplacement. In areas of coalescing domes, such as ring fracture areas, the
cycle may only occur once, leaving a blanket of tephra over older dome lavas.
Page 185
Table 5.3. Dome Tephra Characteristicsa
Tephra
Eruption Type Deposits Grain Size Texture
Composition
Initial Venting
Coarse fall
Plinian pumice Magma
Magmatic (near vent) Vesicular, angular
fall and flow composition
(0 to 3 )
Slight to Nonvesicular;
Fine ash (0 moderate slablike and
PhreatomagmaticDry surge
to 3 ) surface abraded;
alteration accretionary lapilli
Wet and dry surge; Coarse to Fresh
Poorly vesicular
Vulcanian coarse and fine fine ash magma and
and blocky
fallout (-2 to 4 ) lithic clasts
Poorly bedded Lithic clasts;
Blocks and
Peléean and avalanche and flow; some Poorly vesicular
ash
Merapian bedded ash cloud juvenile and blocky
(-5 to 1 )
surge component
Poorly bedded thin Fine ash and Aggregated;
Altered
Phreatic ash and lapilli minor lapilli complex shapes;
lithic clasts
mantle (-1 to 3 ) "muddy"
a From Heiken and Wohletz (1987).
Peléean and Merapian Dome Destruction

Tephra deposits found on the flanks of silicic domes developed from disintegration of the
extruded lava either closely following or years after its extrusion (Peléean and Merapian,
respectively). Such deposits consist of poorly vesicular lithic pyroclasts that were derived
from partly to completely solidified lavas emplaced as block and ash flows. Some
examples of these products are provided by the 1902 eruption of Mont Pelée, Martinique
(Fisher and Heiken, 1982) and the block and ash flows of the 1930 dome collapse at
Merapi, Java (Neumann van Padang, 1931). Figure 5.9 illustrates two types of dome
destruction, both of which began with the brittle failure of lava. At Mont Pelée, the
recently extruded lava spine was apparently highly charged with gas trapped in vesicles;
when the lava crumbled, the vesicles violently discharged gasand thus drove the
comminution of the lava. At Santiaguito dome in Guatemala, the front of a silicic lava
flow collapsed and disintegrated into a pyroclastic flow because of trapped gases (Rose et
al., 1976). The mechanical strength of the lava can degrade, which produces explosions;
this situation is often connected to fumarolic activity. Hydrothermally altered lithic
fragments are common in tephra of Peléean and Merapian activity.
Phreatic Eruptions
Phreatic explosions usually produce craters in the vent and fumarolic areas of silicic
domes and lava flows. They also produce mantling layers of fine-grained tephra,
explosion breccias, and small tuff rings and cones. Although phreatic tephra do not
generally contain juvenile components, it is understood that phreatic activity can be a
precursor to magmatic eruptions, as is shown in Fig. 5.10. The tephra most frequently
associated with favorable geothermal prospects in domes are accidental lithic fragments
that are strongly
Page 186
Fig. 5.6
Stratigraphic relations of dome tephra. Four principal occurrences are schematically illustrated:
(a) Plinian and phreatomagmatic eruptions of tuff rings and cones (shown with overflowing lava
plug), (b) coalescing domes with phreatic and phreatomagmatic carapaces, (c) Plinian, far-field
pumice falls and flows, and (d) Peléean avalanches and Vulcanian intercalated tephra (flank
deposits) at polygenetic domes and composite cones.
(Adapted from Heiken and Wohletz, 1987.)
Fig. 5.7
Schematic illustration of initial Plinian
and phreatomagmatic eruptions
(a) in an initial Plinian stage and
(b) followed by phreatomagmatic explosions.
altered and coated with clays. In many cases, phreatic tephra deposits are limited to areas
where strong hydrothermal activity has led to a build-up of high-pressure steam below or
within a sealed caprock. Failure of the caprock results in steam explosions and the
formation of phreatic pits and ejecta layers.
Hydrothermal systems associated with silicic domes take on configurations that are
controlled by dome stratigraphy and structure as well as the structural setting of the
region. Even though the heat contained in dome lavas may be relatively insignificant, that
provided by an underlying differentiated intrusion can drive hydrothermal convection if
sufficient water is present. Because water is a fundamental component of eruptions of
silicic domes, in this chapter we will reiterate its function and expression in eruption
phenomena and then illustrate its subsequent hydrothermal behavior through hypothetical
models.
Page 187
Hydrothermal Systems Associated with Domes

Role of Water in Dome Eruptions
In the above descriptions of dome-related tephra, water from either meteoric or magmatic
sources is the primary volatile phase that leads to pyroclast formation. Magmatic water is
widely recognized as a primary phase that contributes to the formation of pumice and
promotes Plinian tephra emissions. The same water has a profound effect on the
development of dome lava textures such as flow foliation, crystallization, vesiculation,
and fumarolic (vapor-phase) alteration. The latter effect is especially important in
weakening the dome and making it vulnerable to future phreatic or Merapian bursts that
produce tephra. On the other hand, meteoric waters also contribute to fumarolic and
phreatic activity, and it may be difficult to distinguish its effects from those of magmatic
water.
Because water is of such consequence in hydrothermal systems, it is important to identify
any evidence of its presence in the dome. The best evidence is hydrovolcanic activity,
which is common in the pyroclastic activity that precedes dome extrusion. However,
meteoric water is also vital for Vulcanian activity during dome growth. The presence of
lahars on dome flanks is most reliable in identifying the presence of meteoric water,
whether from rainfall or from saturated conditions of fractured, porous lavas beneath the
dome. In the case of either magmatic or hydrovolcanic explosive activity, tephra layers
provide avenues for water circulation in hydrothermal systems that are driven by residual
magma heat below the dome.
Heiken and Wohletz (1987) discussed the migration of magmatic and meteoric water in
dome magma systems as a diffusion process and emphasized that this process can
proceed at many different rates, often
Fig. 5.8
Schematic illustration of Vulcanian tephra
associated with dome destruction in
(a) preeruptive and (b) eruptive stages.
well above those established by laboratory measurements (Shaw, 1972). High effective
diffusion rates are expected for hydrovolcanic situations in which meteoric water diffuses
from host rocks into the rising magma to cause magma/water interactions such as
explosive phenomena and the pervasive chemical alteration of tephra. The development
of lithophysae and vaporphase alteration and crystallization, which are generally
attributed to magmatic water diffusion in extruded lava, can proceed at rates higher than
those expected for slow molecular diffusion because of fracture flow of vapors produced
by degassing and devitrification of glass to nonhydrous phases. We mention these
processes to emphasize the importance of recognition of the presence of water in silicic
dome systems.
Page 188
Fig. 5.9
Schematic illustration of Peléean and Merapian
dome destruction. (a) An initial failure of the
dome leads to a landslide followed by
decompression of trapped vapors, which
produces a rapidly moving pyroclastic avalanche
and surge. (b) This scenario, described by
Fisher and Heiken (1982), can be promoted by
intrusion of volatile-rich magma, which may vent
after dome failure (c). (d) Destruction of lava
flow fronts that are weakened by fumarolic
activity also produces block and ash flows,
as proposed by Rose et al. (1976).
Geothermal System Models
The following discussion of geothermal systems associated with domes presents some
possible models for hydrothermal circulation that reflect conditions observed in the field,
some of which have contributed to exploitable geothermal systems. These models include
systems associated with
Fig. 5.10
Schematic illustration of phreatic tephra
associated with silicic domes. (a) A passive
fumarolic stage might be enhanced by a rapid
change in hydrothermal flux so that (b) vigorous
vapor emission opens a vent and discharges
lithic ash and lahars (Heiken et al., 1980)
tephra aprons surrounding domes,

cratered domes,
faulted domes,
dome complexes,
caldera ring fault domes, and
caldera resurgent extrusive domes.
The models highlight the importance of pyroclastic materials in locating hydrothermal
systems. Each of these dome types may be modeled by the heat flow program discussed
in Chapter 2.
A review of pyroclastic rock physical properties indicates that pumiceous materials range
in bulk density from 200 to 1200 kg/m3, and
Page 189
bedded ashoften less vesicular because of its hydrovolcanic originmay range from 1000 to
1500 kg/m3. If a particle density of 2300 kg/m3 is assumed, pumice has a void space
between 50 and 90%; bedded ash varies from 35 to 60% void space. The primary
permeability of pyroclastic rocks is provided by both vesicles and intergranular spaces.
Whitham and Sparks (1986) showed that at temperatures >150°C, the pumice vesicles are
effectively interconnected and readily allow absorption and movement of water.
However, the primary permeability of pyroclastic materials can rapidly decay during
hydrothermal circulation because circulation promotes the solution of glass and the
redeposition of silica and secondary minerals that effectively seal the tephra.
Tephra Aprons
Figure 5.11 depicts a hypothetical dome extruded over a tephra collar that resulted from
initial explosive eruptions. The collar extends down into the vent area and defines the
crater and tuff ring apron onto which lava was extruded. Porous tephra allows
hydrothermal fluids to rise convectively. The heat source is a magma conduit below the
dome; water in the country rock below the dome promotes heat convection upward into
the tephra. In this situation, fumarolic activity at the base of the dome demonstrates the
existence of the hydrothermal system, which is locally capped by dome lavas. The dome
lavas have a lower permeability and do not permit much heat transfer.
Cratered Domes
Figure 5.12 depicts a second hypothetical case: a dome with a crater formed by either
Vulcanian or phreatic activity that was driven by intrusion of magma below the dome.
Below the crater, a region of strongly fractured lava and breccia provides a pathway for
the convective rise of hydrothermal fluids from the cooling magma at depth. Here again,
the water supply is from country
Fig. 5.11
Schematic illustration of geothermal system in
which a vapor-dominated zone is concentrated
in the porous tephra apron. This very
hypothetical system is based on heat
transported convectively from a magma
chamber at depth below the dome upwards
along the vent conduit.
rock into which the magma has intruded. In such a situation, the dome will have a mantle
of Vulcanian or phreatic tephra that provides evidence of the explosive origin of the
crater. By examining the isotopic and chemical nature of fumarolic gases and rock
alteration in the crater, it is possible to determine the origin of the vapors, whether solely
magmatic (and hence limited) or meteoric and of potential economic significance.
Faulted Domes
Figure 5.13 presents a dome cut by a fault that has triggered collapse of the dome perhaps
in a Merapian fashion. The fault has fractured lavas and basement rock sufficiently to
allow strong convection of hydrothermal fluids into the dome. The fumarolic alteration of
fault breccias and related pyroclastic breccias is evidence of the convective heat source. In
this case, the tectonic activity has altered heat flow from depth and, where residual
magmatic heat exists below the dome, the faulting provides a new circulation pathway.
Page 190
Dome Complexes
Where numerous dome extrusions have occurred in a volcanic field (for example, along
the ring fault system of a caldera or within a graben), lavas and dome-related tephra
layers overlap. The lavas act as caprocks and the pyroclastic layers serve as geothermal
reservoirs. Figure 5.14 illustrates such a situation in which heat from the youngest
eruptive activity drives hydrothermal circulation below: steam reservoirs exist at some
depth below the dome and in older tephra layers. In areas consisting of many overlapping
dome extrusions, high conductive heat flow at the surface may indicate a convective
system at depth.
Caldera Domes
Two cases of caldera-related dome extrusions are depicted in Fig. 5.15. In one case,
domes along the ring faults manifest magma intrusions at depth that control the
Fig. 5.12
A cratered dome may have a prolonged
fumarolic stage during which a convective
system develops within the crater conduit in
response to a new magma body
intruded at depth.
overall heat flow toward the margins of the caldera. In the other case, resurgence of the
caldera creates a structural or extrusive dome that may produce hydrothermal convection
towards the center of the caldera. In the first instance, recharge of the hydrothermal
system is strongly controlled by the hydrology of the down-thrown region of the caldera,
which acts as a ground-water concentrator or trap. In the instance of the resurgent
caldera, the hydrothermal system is recharged from higher topographic regions
surrounding the caldera. Both of these models are simplified, but they demonstrate the
way convective heat flow in calderas can develop in diverse manners. There is no simple
rule-of-thumb that is adequate for determining where to explore in a caldera. The
existence and locations of young silicic domes are helpful in predicting recharge and
outflow areas of possible hydrothermal systems.
Fig. 5.13
Tectonic activity at a relatively young dome
produces fracture pathways along newly
activated faults; this activity allows deep
circulation of meteoric water downwards to a
still-hot magma body at depth. Such a faulted
dome may develop vigorous fumarolic activity
as a surface manifestation of a subsurface
hydrothermal system, but gradual sealing of
the fractures by alteration minerals and silica
will eventually slow the fluid convection.
Page 191
Fig. 5.14
Dome complexes form when lavas overlap their related pyroclastic sheets. The stratigraphy of a dome
field is characterized by various potential hydrothermal reservoirs in porous and formation-permeable
pyroclastic strata that are capped by one or more impervious lavas. Most recent dome eruptions
result from renewed thermal infusion from related magma bodies at depth. Vapor-dominated reservoirs
characterize upper pyroclastic horizons, whereas deeper ones may be brine-filled.
Fig. 5.15
Caldera domes form both (a) along ring fracture zones of calderas and (b) within the resurgent cores.
The character of caldera-fill materials and their formation permeability works in conjunction with
caldera faults to allow deep circulation of meteoric water. The magma conduits below such zones
probably occur directly above the caldera magma chamber, where it is closest to the surface.
Because silicic caldera magma bodies are relatively large, hydrothermal systems developing below
related dome structures may have prolonged activity and high heat flux.
Page 192
Structural Influences
In addition to the localized stratigraphic and volcanic structure that influences the
development of geothermal systems associated with domes, regional structure and
tectonics can also strongly affect these hydrothermal systems. Six structural settings for
domes and their effect on the development of hydrothermal circulation are (1) caldera
faults; (2) extensional block faulting; (3) tectonic plate convergence; (4) basin fill; (5)
intrusive deformation, sector grabens, and radial faults around volcanoes; and (6)
volcanic fracture systems. These features, four of which we briefly discuss here, are of
more regional significance than the models discussed above.
Caldera Faults
Figure 5.16 shows the pattern created by the intersection of regional linear faults with the
ring faults of a caldera. In this example drawn from the Qualibou caldera on the island of
St. Lucia in the West Indies (Wohletz et al., 1986), the youngest domes are expressions of
caldera resurgence. The regional and still active fault system controls the location of
fumarolic activity
Fig. 5.16
Structural control of domes associated with
calderas is generally related to regional fault
trends and caldera ring fractures. Because
regional faults may remain active long after
caldera tectonics have declined, the most
recent dome activity will be found
along such faults.
near the young extrusions. Young faults are important because they maintain a fracture
permeability in rocks that otherwise are sealed by secondary minerals and silica. Where
regional faults intersect caldera ring faults, greater fracture permeability can also be
expected. Although the presence of young dome lavas and pyroclastic materials is useful
for determining a potential geothermal area, it is the structural elements that are the most
significant when actually locating a hydrothermal system.
Block Faulting and Grabens
Strongly developed block faults can localize extrusive features such as domes. Figure 5.17
depicts a hypothetical dome that is emplaced along the margins of a graben deeply filled
with several kilometers of sediments. The hydrology of the graben is influenced by both
the topographically high recharge areas in surrounding horst blocks and the deep,
permeable graben fill. Such a situation promotes not only deep circulation of meteoric
waters but also the development of extensive hydrothermal convection along margins of
the intrusive body below the dome. In such cases, it is difficult to characterize the
geothermal potential as either volcanic or tectonic. Block faulting in extensional areas may
result in a thinner crust and greater heat flow so that deep circulation of meteoric water
alone can develop a geothermal system. However, the same tectonic regime is typical of
volcanic systems that develop in rifts.
Intrusive Deformation
Silicic domes indicate the existence of intrusive bodies at depth. Figure 5.18 illustrates a
situation in which a laccolith is associated with a dome in a compressed tectonic region.
The laccolithic intrusion has domed and created concentric and radial faults in the country
rocks above it. An intrusion such as a laccolith or a buried
Page 193
dike can produce small phreatic craters (Miller, 1985; Fink, 1985) of structural features of
localized extensional surface deformation (Mastin and Pollard, 1990).
Henry and Price (1990) described laccolithic doming associated with caldera formation in
the Christmas Mountains of Trans-Pecos, Texas. Most of the magmatism in this area is
expressed as small (1- to 4-km-diameter) laccolithic intrusions that commonly involve
high-silica, peralkaline rhyolites and quartz trachyte. These intrusions have formed
structural domes of steeply tilted sedimentary strata. Field relations show that these domes
were emplaced along ring fractures during the evolution of larger caldera structures.
Numerous sills occurring around the flanks of the laccolithic domes are cut by radial
faults that probably formed in response to the deformation associated with dome
intrusion.
Basin Fill
A basin filled with lahars shed from a dome on the basin margin is shown in Fig. 5.19.
Lahars can be impervious to fluid flow because of the cementation mechanisms promoted
by ash carried in lahars. In the model shown, the lahars have capped pyroclastic materials
erupted earlier from the dome. Hydrothermal circulation below the dome is confined
within the pyroclastic strata, and hot water flows from the dome into the basin below the
laharic apron. In such cases, lahars mask the geothermal system at depth and geophysical
or geochemical methods are needed to confirm the existence of the system in the basin.
Fig. 5.17
The block faults that bound basins in extensional terranes frequently have long histories and deep
extensions. This structure may be accompanied by sufficient crustal heat flow to cause crustal
melting (for example, by basalt intrusion) and silicic dome emplacement. Deep circulation of meteoric
water from the horst highlands through the graben-filling sediments can promote hydrothermal
activity within graben-bounding fault breccias and along intrusions (hachured) below domes
(v pattern) that were extruded along these faults.
Page 194
Fig. 5.18
Intrusive deformation associated with domes is
manifested by uparching and fracturing of rocks
above a laccolith. Hydrothermal circulation
can then develop around and above
the laccolith as it cools.
Coso California Geothermal Field

The Coso volcanic field is in eastern California on the western edge of the basin and
range province of the western United States. About 35 km3 of volcanic rocks have
erupted and overlie principally Mesozoic plutons associated with the Sierra Nevada
batholith; The Coso volcanics range in age from ~4 to 0.04 Ma and vary in composition
from basalt to rhyolite. Pleistocene rhyolitic domes are the major volcanic features, and
these are cut by numerous normal faults that may reflect late Cenozoic extension. Along
some of these faults within the dome field, fumaroles and hot springs provide evidence of
a high geothermal gradient. Recent geothermal development by the California Energy
Company, Inc., resulted in nearly 90 wells. The first production well, drilled to a depth
near 2000 m, had a bottomhole temperature of ~340°C and produced dry steam. At this
time, with drilling operations still under way, nine power plants have been completed and
are online with a net capacity of 230 MWe. The Coso volcanic field exploration is
considered one of the best documented investigations of a silicic dome system in the
world. We summarize here the work of Bacon and Duffield (1980) at Coso as an example
of a geothermal system developed in Mesozoic basement rocks below silicic domes.
Geologic Setting
The Coso range is a horst block immediately east of the Sierra Nevada range in eastern
California. It is covered by a veneer of ~400 km2 of mostly lava flows and domes of late
Cenozoic age. Early geologic exploration (Ross and Yates, 1943; Dupuy, 1948) identified
mercury, which has been mined in fumarolically altered rocks near rhyolite domes;
numerous subsequent studies have described pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits, the
general stratigraphy, potassium-argon ages, and geothermal phenomena. Duffield et al.
(1980) documented both the relationship of the volcanic rocks to an underlying granitic
basement (Fig. 5.20), which is exposed within the volcanic field and along its margins,
and the nature of a late Cenozoic extension, which is marked by north-northeast-trending
normal faults that have produced considerable uplift of horst block under the range.
The geothermal system has developed in a Mesozoic basement of dominantly granitic
plutons and subordinate mafic plutons and metamorphic rocks associated with the Sierra
Nevada composite batholith. Late Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks drape over the
basement. Duffield et al. (1980) used potassium-argon and obsidian-rind techniques to
determine that ~35 km3 were erupted between 4.0 and 0.04 Ma (Fig. 5.21). These volcanic
rocks include 38 separate domes and flows of phenocryst-poor, high-silica rhyolite, most
of which are likely younger than 0.3 Ma.
The oldest lavas, alkalic basalt flows, are the most voluminous and widespread of
Pliocene volcanic rocks (Fig. 5.22) and were erupted from cinder cones onto a relatively
subdued terrain. They occur as notable stepfaulted flows in the eastern portion of the
field. These lavas are overlain by Pliocene andesite, dacite, rhyodacite, and rhyolite flows
and tuff. Andesite and dacite occur as parts of polygenetic volcanoes in which dacite
flows, shallow intrusive masses, and pumice are interlayered with andesite flows and
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Fig. 5.19
Basin-filling clastic rocks shed from a growing
silicic dome can provide a permeable formation
for a hydrothermal reservoirespecially when
continued down-warping of the basin allows
it to be filled with impervious sediments such
as lahars. These lahars efficiently hide the
geothermal reservoir, which develops at
some distance from the volcano.
cinders. Rhyodacite is found in widespread pumice fall and lava flows, and Pliocene
rhyolite forms a nonwelded pumiceous ash flow that is intercalated with sedimentary
volcaniclastic rocks of the Coso Formation.
The youngest volcanic rocks are Pleistocene in age and consist of contemporaneous
alkalic basalt and high-silica rhyolite (Bacon et al., 1980). Most basalt vents are marked
by partly eroded cinder cones that fed one or more lava flows on the east, south, and west
sides of the rhyolite field. Pleistocene rhyolites compose the 38 steep-sided domes as well
as some short, thick flows whose surfaces are notably perlitic and pumiceous. Bacon et
al. (1981; 1984) inferred that the rhyolite magma (total extruded volume 1.6 km3)
erupted from a chemically stratified magma chamber, which formed when mantle-derived
basalts partially melted crustal rocks. Most domes have extrusive volumes of <0.3 km3
and are located within and/or above tephra rings that were formed by the initial explosive
phases of dome eruption. The tephra from these dome eruptions have a total volume of
~0.3 km3 and consist of well-bedded obsidian, pumice, and rhyolite clasts and minor
amounts of lithic fragments from basement rocks. Accretionary lapilli and impact sags
provide evidence that the tephra are in part hydrovolcanic. Tuff rings average about 600
m in diameter, and rim deposits range from several meters to 30 m thick. Most of the
rhyolite field is mantled by tephra similar in character to those in the tuff rings. The first
production well completed by California Energy is collared within the tuff ring of dome
53 near the Devil's Kitchen fumarolic area (Fig. 5.23). Intensely fractured Mesozoic
basement rock encountered by the well can be attributed to several processes, including
hydraulic fracturing associated with hydrovolcanic explosions that occurred during the
initial eruptions of this dome, thermal stresses exerted by elevated heat flow, and ongoing
tectonic movement. Other geothermal wells are being bored in the area around dome 53.
Using the distribution of silicic vents, the volume of extruded magma, gravity and seismic
surveys, and heat flow measurements, Bacon et al. (1980) predicted that a silicic magma
body ~5 km in diameter and >1 km thick (a total volume of at least 20 to 30 km3)
underlies the Coso volcanic field at a depth of at least 8 km. It is possible that the silicic
magma body may still be partially molten, if one applies the reasoning that the most
recent basaltic eruption occurred as late as a few thousand years ago and that such
extrusions are evidence that heat was supplied to the magma body from an underlying
mafic reservoir. Bacon (1982) indicated that the ages of extrusive rocks (Friedman, 1976),
plotted in Fig. 5.21 with respect to cumulative volumes, show a trend that suggests these
eruptions will continue in the future.
Figure 5.24 illustrates three sets of faults in the Coso Range (Duffield and Bacon, 1979;
Roquemore, 1980) that indicate principally late Cenozoic crustal extension; outward dips
of the Coso Formation demonstrate considerable uplift of the range during Pliocene time.
A west-northwest-trending set of apparently vertical faults are well developed in the
southern and western parts of the range. This fault set is an expression of
Page 196
Fig. 5.20
Geologic map of the Coso volcanic field of California, showing distribution of major rock units and
faults. Abbreviated locations: CP = Coso Peak, LCF = Lower Cactus Flat, UCF = Upper Cactus Flat,
SP = Silver Peak, CHS = Coso Hot Springs, SM = Sugarloaf Mountain, VB = Volcano Butte,
VP = Volcano Peak, AL = Airport Lake, and LL = Little Lake.
(Adapted from Duffield et al., 1980.)
Page 197
Fig. 5.21
Rock volumes and compositions vs radiometric age for the Coso volcanic field. Volumes were
calculated by using the geological map area and cross-sectional exposures and allowing for
material removed by erosion. Volumes of pyroclastic rocks were converted to dense rock
equivalence by multiplying by 0.5. Exponential thickness decreases with distance were
applied to pyroclastic deposits. In the last 4 Ma, ~35 km3 of lava has been erupted, of
which 31 km3 erupted before 2.5 Ma ago.
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Fig. 5.22
Distribution of eruptive vents in the Coso volcanic field of California. The locations of vents are
shown by letters designating the composition of materials erupted: B = basalt, A = andesite,
D = dacite, and Rd = rhyodacite. Asterisks denote the location of
Late Pliocene and early Pleistocene vents.
regional structure and, although these faults do not offset Pleistocene rhyolite, some of
the silicic domes are aligned along their strike. The basin and range morphology of the
Coso range is developed along north-to northeast-trending normal faults. These faults cut
the horst onto which the rhyolites have been erupted and form en echelon sets that are
consistent with north-northwest right lateral shear. In Fig. 5.25, information from Bacon
et al. (1980) shows that the Quaternary maximum horizontal compression follows this
northeast trend. This interpretation arose from consideration of the distribution of domes
and application of the stress analysis suggested by Nakamura (1977). Arcuate faults
present in the northern and northeastern parts of the field are approximately
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Fig. 5.23
Generalized geological map of the principal geothermal area in the Coso geothermal area. Coso Hot
Springs emanate along major graben-bounding faults, whereas geothermal drilling has focused on
the region around Sugarloaf Mountain rhyolite dome and the Devil's Kitchen fumarolic area. Hulen
(personal communication) reports that drilling in regions around these
vents has encountered intensely fractured basement rock.
(Adapted from Bacon et al., 1980.)
concentric around the geographic center of the field and dip inward toward this center.
This set of faults was originally interpreted as part of a caldera structure (Austin et al.,
1971; Koenig et al., 1972), and more recently, Roquemore (1980) has attributed their
origin to strike-slip movement; however, Duffield (personal communication, 1990) is not
convinced by either of these interpretations. The step-faulted terrane in the eastern part of
the volcanic field near Airport Lake (see Fig. 5.23) is attributed to downwarping and
down-faulting in response to late Cenozoic crustal extension that caused an effective
decoupling of that terrane from a block-faulted terrane to the west and south. Figure 5.26
depicts the step-faulted terrane that forms a graben structure and its relationship to the
horst on its west side onto which the rhyolite domes have been extruded. An ongoing
study by California Energy indicates that new interpretations of structural relationships
will be required to fully understand Coso's geothermal system.
Page 200
Hydrogeochemistry
Most present-day surface thermal activity is concentrated within and immediately east of
the Pleistocene rhyolite field, apparently along an east-northeast-trending zone between
Sugarloaf Mountain and Coso Hot Springsa zone mapped as a fault by Hulen (1978).
Coso Hot Springs consists of fumaroles and intermittently active, acid-sulfate springs and
mud lakes that emanate from a north-northeast-trending fault along the east side of the
main horst block. Surface flow is related to local precipitation, but water samples from a
125-m-deep well are alkaline and chloride rich (~3,000 ppm of chloride); the bottomhole
temperature was 142°C (Austin and Pringle, 1970). South of this area are laminated
siliceous sinter and travertine exposures that are evidence of older, widespread thermal
springs. Fumaroles of Devil's Kitchen, occurring in the tuff ring of dome 53, are noted for
their present-day deposition of sulfates, sulfur, and cinnabar. Although these surface
expressions are not chloriderich and are typical of a high-level, vapordominated system,
the chloride-rich waters from wells in this immediate vicinity indicate that at depth there
is a hot-water-dominated hydrothermal reservoir (White et al., 1971).
Fig. 5.24
Detailed structural map of the Coso Range and adjacent area, showing distribution of faults.
Location abbreviations are those used in Fig. 5.20; shaded patterns denote rhyolite domes.
(Adapted from Roquemore, 1980.)
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The hydrothermal system at Coso is apparently controlled by fractures in the Mesozoic
granitic and older metamorphic basement rocks. Water samples from two wells of this
system were analyzed by Fournier et al. (1980), and their chemistry is summarized in
Table 5.4. Although the chemical analyses show variability that can be attributed to
evaporative concentration, water/rock reactions at different temperatures, and different
sample preservation and laboratory procedures, the samples exhibit essentially the same
chloride content, and water of relatively uniform composition is found throughout the
permeable rock underlying the Coso area sampled. The chloride content also indicates a
hot-water-dominated rather than a vapor-dominated system.
Geophysical Character
Numerous geophysical techniques have been applied to the geothermal exploration of the
Coso area: heat flow measurements, microseismicity and teleseismicity, gravity,
magnetics, and electrical resistivity. Taken together, these methods have provided
mutually supportive data that promote the development of a subsurface model to locate
and define the nature of the magma
Fig. 5.25
Idealized axis of maximum horizontal tectonic compression of the Coso area is determined from
(a) the orientation of normal faults, location of rhyolite domes, and sense of strike-slip displacement
(inset) in zones of seismic epicenters (Walter and Weaver, 1980). This relationship is compared to
(b) the idealized horizontal cross section of a large volcano (Nakamura, 1977), which shows
the effect of a differential horizontal stress on dike propagation (curves) from a region of magma
storage and ascent (shaded) underlying the Sugarloaf Mountain area. Dikes fed the outlying domes
around the Sugarloaf Mountain area (shown by heavier lines).
(Adapted from Bacon et al., 1980.)
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Fig. 5.26
Generalized block diagram illustrating the step-faulted terrane (dark lines and wedges) and block
faulting in the Coso Basin near Airport Lake (see Fig. 5.20). Pleistocene rhyolite domes have
erupted on the horst; the step faulting has developed in response to Cenozoic crustal extension
(arrows). The cenozoic basement is shown by light stipple and Pliocene volcanic rocks are dark
stippled. Coso Hot Springs emanate along the northeastern extension of the western graben-
bounding fault, and geothermal drilling is mostly on the crystalline horst
heat source as well as determine the structural and lithological control of heat flow.
Combs (1980) reported the results of thermal gradients measured in 25 shallow-depth and
1 intermediate-depth boreholes in addition to thermal conductivity measurements on 312
core and cutting samples from the igneous and metamorphic basement rocks. Figure 5.27
shows equilibrated thermal gradients for shallow boreholes where temperatures ranged
from 25.3 to 906°C/km. The high gradients are a product of thermal convection by hot
water, and the low gradi-
Page 203
Table 5.4. Composition of Geothermal Waters from Coso, Californiaa
Coso Geothermal
Coso Well 1
Exploration Hole 1
Sample Temperature (°C) ~192 ~186 ~195 116 142
Constituent (mg/kg)
SiO2 41 201 149 50 154
Ca 114 70 51 72.8 74.4
Mg 2.3 1.7 0.57 0.5 1.0
Na 1500 1420 1480 1764 1632
K 139 154 132 154 244
Li 9.6 10.2 14
NH4 4.2
HCO3 62 168 136 134 0
CO3 0 0 0 84 77.4
SO4 150 89 79 38 52.8
Cl 2550 2300 2360 2790 3042
F 4.2 3.7 2.2
B 66 65 55 48 71.6
TDSb 4644 4479 5744 5228
pH 5.2 5.6
Na/K/Ca
201 214 206 205 238
Temperatures (°C)
a From Fournier et al. (1980). Coso Geothermal Exploration Hole 1 was drilled
~3.2 km west of Coso Hot Springs and 1.9 km north of Devil's Kitchen to a depth of
1477 m in granitic and metamorphic rocks (Goranson and Schroeder, 1978); it was
sampled at a depth of 835 m. Coso Well 1 was drilled at Coso Hot Springs to a
depth of 114.3 m in altered alluvium and granitic rock (Austin and Pringle, 1970); it
was sampled at the surface.
b TDS = total dissolved solids.
ents are caused by conduction of heat away from dikes that fed domes and lava flows.
Figure 5.28 shows isotherms at 5- and 10-m depths. These data correspond to terrain-
corrected heat flows that range from 1.6 to 23 heat-flow units (HFU; 1 HFU = 41.84
mW/m2). Background measurements for the region are between 1.6 and 2.4 HFU. Heat-
flow contours enclose the area being developed for geothermal energy near dome 53 and
Devil's Kitchen (Fig. 5.29). Heat flows near 4 HFU divide the convective regimes of high
heat flow from conductive regimes; the 3- and 5-HFU contours in Fig. 5.29 generally
parallel regional structure, which suggests that convective heat flow is controlled by the
circulation of hot water along fault and fracture systems in the rhyolite dome fields.
As is shown by Fig. 5.30, microearthquakes are common in the Coso Range (Walter and
Weaver, 1980); a magnitude 1.0 or greater earthquake occurs almost every day in the
region. Zones of seismicity strike radially outward from the rhyolite field, and earthquake
swarms show a general northwest trend across the field. Fault-plane solutions show a
regional north-south compression. Earthquake depth varies little across the field: most
quakes are around 5 to 6 km deep. This trend suggests that the brittle-to-ductile transition
does not rise under the field as would be the case if near-liquidus temperatures occurred
at a shallow level. However, Young and Ward (1980) did find a shallow zone of high
teleseismic P-wave attenuation within the upper 5 km in a region under Coso Hot
Springs, Devil's
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Kitchen, and Sugarloaf Mountainprobably corresponding to vapor and liquid in near-
surface lithologies. Furthermore, Reasenberg et al. (1980) found significant teleseismic-
wave delays that were likely caused by a low-velocity body of partially molten rock
concentrated from 8 to 17.5 km directly below the region of highest heat flow.
Although gravity data from Plouff and Isherwood (1980) reveal the regional tectonic
patterns, they do not predict a mass deficit for a magma reservoir underlying the Coso
Range. A magnetic-low area that corresponds to the area of high heat flow near Coso Hot
Springs can be explained by a poorly magnetized silicic pluton that crops out inthe area;
much of its magnetite may have been destroyed by hydrothermal fluids. Jackson and
O'Donnell (1980) reported telluric current and 7.5-Hz audio-magnetotelluric data that
reveal major resistivity lows associated with conductive basinfill materials (such as those
underlying the region directly east of Coso Hot Springs) and a secondary low trough that
extends across the geothermal area (Fig. 5.31).
Volcanological Interpretations
Although none of the data sets is conclusive in itself, taken together, the geological,
hydrogeochemical, and geophysical evidence pinpoints the area now being developed as
a geothermal resource. However, most of the geophysical conclusionsand
Fig. 5.27
Idealized equilibrium thermal gradient profiles for 24 shallow boreholes at the Coso geothermal area.
Profile numbers refer to boreholes shown in Fig. 5.28. In general, boreholes with high thermal gradients
are located in the immediate vicinity of the Devil's Kitchen and
Sugarloaf Mountain thermal manifestations.
(Adapted from Combs, 1980.)
Page 205
some of the geochemical onesare based upon geological field observations. As Duffield et
al. (1980) showed in a schematic east-west cross section of the Coso Range (Fig. 5.32),
the concentration of young, rhyolitic volcanism on a horst block, the prevalence of
phreatic and phreatomagmatic tephra in tuff rings below the silicic domes, and through-
going regional faults all point to a region that should be characterized by high heat flow,
convective water circulation, and fractured rock. Such is the case for the Coso geothermal
field.
Usu Volcano, Japan
Most geothermal fields in Japan are developed around young volcanoes or intrusives.
Very few of these fields are associated with basaltic volcanoes. As was mentioned earlier,
Ishikawa (1970) states that geothermal areas commonly develop around lava domes of
viscous, silicic compositions and that these extrusions plug a crater vent and then prevent
gases and heat from freely escaping into the atmosphere. Figure 5.33 indicates the
locations of volcanoes on Hokkaido island; Usu volcano is in the southwestern part of the
island. The Toya hot springs are of particular geothermal interest because their
development at the foot of Usu volcano was well documented during the emergence of
the Meiji-Shinzan cryptodome in 1910.
Fig. 5.28
Temperatures at depths of (a) 5 m and (b) 10 m for shallow heat flow boreholes in the Coso geothermal
area. The colored numbers and symbols refer to boreholes referenced in Fig. 5.27, and the numbers
below the symbols are measured temperatures (°C). Note that isotherms shown by solid lines are
concentric to the Sugarloaf Mountain and Devil's Kitchen thermal areas.
Page 206
Fig. 5.29
Heat flow contour map for depths <65 m in boreholes and generalized geology of the Coso
geothermal area (taken from Duffield et al., 1980). Borehole heat flow values are shown beside each
borehole ( ). Heat flow contours are dashed lines, and rhyolite localities are numbered according
to Duffield et al. (1980). Fumarole areas are stippled; heavy solid lines are faults (bar with ball on
downthrown side); and hachures outline areas of internal drainage (Moyle, 1977).
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Fig. 5.30
Number of earthquakes vs depth for Coso volcanic field. The and refer to
geothermal-related earthquakes in the geothermal area shown in Fig. 5.29.
Most earthquakes are at depths between 5 and 6 km.
(Adapted from Walter and Weaver, 1980.)
Geology
Usu volcano is a truncated composite cone (Katsui et al., 1981) located on the southern
margin of Toya caldera (Fig. 5.34). During historic times, three dacite domes and seven
cryptodomes formed on Usu. The 1910 activity included phreatic explosions that
produced a zone of 45 craters on the northern foot of the volcano, and a number of hot
springs formed along this zone just after the eruptions (Fig. 5.35). The 1910 activity was
apparently initiated when magma intruded into a shallow region of abundant
groundwater. Subsequent eruptions at Usu from 1943 to 1945 (Showa-Shinzan dome)
and from 1977 to 1978 (Usu-Shinzan cryptodome) were well documented. Repeated
hydrovolcanic activity during these eruptions resulted in numerous vulcanian explosions
as well as new fumarolic areas, and magmatic bursts produced widely dispersed
Page 208
pumice falls (Fig. 5.36). The 1977 to 1978 activity consisted of two major stages: (1)
paroxysmal magmatic pumice eruptions in August 1977 and (2) phreatic and
phreatomagmatic bursts beginning in November 1977 and continuing intermittently for
nearly a year.
All of the historic eruptions involved calcalkalic rhyolite that, in general, gradually
decreased in silica content to dacitic compositions. Katsui et al. (1978) has interpreted this
change in composition as evidence of progressive downdraw of a compositionally zoned
magma chamber.
Geophysical Properties
Regional gravity studies (Yokoyama, 1964) mainly show the anomaly of the Toya caldera
(Fig. 5.37), but seismic observations such as those related to the Showa-Shinzan eruption
(Minakami et al., 1951) revealed shallow hypocenters beneath Usu (Fig. 5.38). Minakami
et al. (1951) distinguished three types of volcanic tremorsall of low frequency. ''A-type"
tremors have a predominant period of ~0.3 s, clear S waves, nearly constant amplitudes at
various epicentral distances, and hypocenters deeper than 0.5 km. "B-type" tremors are
recorded for shallow hypocenters; they have predominant periods from 0.2 to 0.6 s and
unclear S waves. "C-type" tremors, which occur during extrusion of lava, are also called
harmonic tremors.
Hydrogeochemistry
The first hot spring produced at Usu after the 1910 activity had a temperature of 42°C, but
wells drilled later show higher water temperatures, which increase from near the lake to
the explosion crater zone where water temperature is 85°C and the Cl- content is 4.261 g/l
(Ishikawa, 1970). Fukutomi (1960) recognized two types of hot springs: Type I, found
near Meji-Shinzan, has Cl > SO4 > HCO3 and Type II, at greater distance from the young
cryptodome, has SO4 > HCO3 > Cl. The major cationic components of each are very
similar; that is, Na >> Ca > Mg. Because the water level in the explosion craters is nearly
the same as that of Lake Toya, Nakamura (1962) suggested that the hot-springs water
originated from the lake and was heated by the cryptodome Meiji-Shinzan. Definite
changes in the temperature and chemistry of hot springs were documented before the
most recent activity at Usu, and these changes apparently coincide with the monthly
frequency of volcanic earthquakes (Fig. 5.39).
Differences in tephra chemistries noted in the eruptions from 1977 to 1978 are also
geochemically significant and useful (Kondo et al., 1979). Pumices from the first-stage
magmatic eruptions are grayish-brown in color (SiO2 = 53.91 to 57.55 wt%), weakly
alkaline, and rich in water-soluble Ca2+ and Na+, but poor in water-soluble Cl- and .
In contrast, the second-stage hydrovolcanic eruptions are grayish-white (SiO2 = 68.00
wt%), strongly acidic, and rich in water-soluble Cl- and .
Page 209
Fig. 5.31
East-west electrical cross sections from Rose Valley across Devil's Kitchen, Coso Hot Springs,
and Coso Basin (see Fig. 5.20). (a) Audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) at 7.5 MHz (heavy line) and Telluric J
(dashed line). (b) Pseudosection skin depths and apparent resistivities from AMT soundings, whose
locations are shown by numbered arrows. (c) Interpreted depths and true resistivities from
Schlumberger vertical electrical soundings, whose locations are shown as HR (Furgeson, 1973)
and USGS (Jackson and O'Donnell, 1980). A section of conductive alluvial deposits occurs in
Rose Valley (west side) and Coso Basin. A secondary resistivity low, occurring in the geothermal
area between Devil's Kitchen and Coso Hot Springs, is caused by a shallow conductive zone that is
interpreted as hydrothermally altered basement rocks containing saline geothermal water.
(Adapted from Jackson and O'Donnell, 1980.)
Page 210
Fig. 5.32
Schematic east-west cross section of the Coso Range through Sugarloaf Mountain. The horizontal
scale is equal to the vertical scale, and there is some surface topography exaggeration. This section
summarizes the geological and geophysical interpretations for the origin of high heat flow from a
rhyolite magma chamber under a horst of crystalline basement rocks on which rhyolite domes have
been extruded. This interpretation emphasizes the fact that the geothermal heat emanates not from
the young domes themselves, but from the postulated underlying magma chamber.
Page 211
Fig. 5.33
Volcanoes of Hokkaido, showing the Toya caldera and Usu volcano in the southcentral
portion of the island just west of the volcanic front.
(Adapted from Katsui et al., 1981.)
Page 212
Fig. 5.34
Geologic map of Usu, located on the southern margin of the Toya caldera, which is occupied by Lake
Toya. Usu is a collapsed composite volcano with a small summit caldera that is filled by several dacitic
domes and flanked by the Showa-Shinzan dome and cryptodome. The dome eruptions of Ko-Usu,
O-Usu, and Showa-Shinzan, as well as 7 other cryptodomes of Usu, occurred in historic times.
Page 213
Fig. 5.35
Map of phreatic explosion craters formed during the 1910 activity at the base of Usu volcano.
The Toya hot springs, formed in 1962, became major geothermal direct-use features. This map was
drawn before the eruption of Showa-Shinzan volcano just south of Nishi-Kohan.
(Adapted from Ishikawa, 1970.)
Terre Blanche-Belfond in St. Lucia

The dacitic domes of Terre Blanche and Belfond grew in response to resurgent volcanic
activity that occurred in the middle of the Qualibou Caldera on the island of St. Lucia,
20,000 to 40,000 years ago (Tomblin, 1964; Wohletz et al., 1986). The geothermal
potential of Sulphur Springs at the base of Terre Blanche was recognized early by
Bodvarsson (1951) and Robson and Willmore (1955). An initial exploration project at
Sulphur Springs began with seven wells that were drilled to depths up to 726 m (Merz
and McLellan, 1976). Temperatures in these wells exceeded 200°C, and steam and
geothermal brine were encountered in four of the wells. This exploration project was
terminated because of a lack of fracture permeability in some wells, high CO2 content in
the steam, and economic difficulties. Recent drilling performed for the St. Lucia
government by a consortium of supporters has added two deep wells, one of which is
located at the base of Terre Blanche dome and has a projected capacity of ~8 MWe.
Geology
Volcanism has occurred over the last 8 Ma in southern St. Lucia. In the area of the
Qualibou caldera, 5- to 6-Ma-old basaltic lava flows are overlain by 0.75- to 1.0-Ma-old
andesitic and dacitic composite cones, upon which lie caldera-related rocks: andesitic to
dacitic tephra falls and pyroclastic flows of ~0.04 Ma as well as intracaldera dacitic lava
domes and tephras of ~0.02 to 0.32 Ma (Fig. 5.40). Figure 5.41 is a map of the caldera
showing the locations of geothermal wells between the dacitic domes of Terre
Page 214
Blanche to the north and Belfond to the south. Sulphur Springs, the main area of
geothermal manifestation, consists of boiling acid springs and fumaroles. The springs
extend along a zone of strongly altered rocks that are located on the trace of northwest-
southeast-trending regional fault between its intersections; there is an arcuate caldera-
collapse fault along Rabot Ridge on the west and an approximately north-south fault splay
that cuts the western side of Terre Blanche.
Figure 5.42 shows a cross section along line BB' of Fig. 5.41. This section illustrates the
substructure of the caldera and the caldera infilling of lavas and tuffs associated with
Terre Blanche and Belfond. The most recent, well-dated volcanism (20,900 to 34,000 yrs;
Wright et al., 1984) caused the partial phreatomagmatic destruction and cratering of the
Belfond dome; it also produced a southerly directed pyroclastic surge and flow deposit
that formed a tuff-ring deposit over the southern margin of the dome (Wohletz et al.,
1986). Because fallout from this eruption does not drape Terre Blanche (although the
fallout dispersal axis trends north-northeast and is up to 30 m thick in the caldera), it
appears that the extrusion of Terre Blanche may postdate Belfond. The numerous phreatic
explosion craters between Terre Blanche and Belfond apparently are aligned along caldera
and regional faults. Detailed mapping of faults in
Fig. 5.36
Map of the distribution of tephra from Usu Volcano during the August 1977 eruptions indicates
the extent of measured ash falls from several major episodes of
activity called the Big I, Big II, Big IV, DT, and SB.
Page 215
Fig. 5.37
Regional Bouguer gravity near Usu, showing the anomaly associated with the Toya caldera. Gravity
contours and measured gravities are given in milligals.
(Adapted from Yokoyama, 1964.)
Page 216
Fig. 5.38
Distribution of seismic hypocenters of A-type
(circled dots) and C-type (small dots) earthquakes
in plan view and along cross sections A-A'
and B-B'. Minakami et al. (1951) related the
clusters of shallow C-type hypocenters just
under the summit of Usu (at the intersection of
the cross sections) and on its eastern flank
to magma movement in a
conduit below growing domes.
(Adapted from Minakami et al., 1951.)
the caldera is limited by the thick cover of pyroclastic debris from these late stage
eruptions. Steam found in well 7 (see Fig. 5.41) was encountered at depths and in
lithology that coincide with those of the tuff ring under Terre Blanche, which is exposed
on its northeastern side. The steam field underlying Sulphur Springs is thought to have
developed in the fractured lavas and breccias of precaldera andesites.
Electrical surveys of the Qualibou caldera have been successful in identifying major faults
and general structural features at depth that were predicted by geological cross sections.
Greenwood and Lee (1976) completed dipole-dipole resistivity profiles with penetration
to 700 m that indicated surface anomalies of conductive rock along linear features
corresponding to faults. Ander (1984) extended these data to nearly 2.5 km below
Sulphur Springs. Apparent resistivities plotted as a pseudosection in Fig. 5.43 show a
resistivity high that corresponds to dacite lavas below the Belfond dome and resistivity
lows that are thought to represent conductive geothermal brines along the northern and
southern caldera rim faults as well as a deep brine reservoir beneath Sulphur Springs. The
higher resistivity zone at an intermediate depth below Sulphur Springs corresponds to
depths where wells intersected steam-producing strata; this anomaly is likely produced by
dry steam, which is poorly conductive. Gandino et al. (1985) also present gravity data
that apparently delineate a positive gravity anomaly in the caldera structurethe result of a
relatively dense caldera fill; their audio-magnetotelluric data indicate deep electrical
discontinuities related to major faults.
Hydrogeochemistry
Geochemical studies of this area have been performed by Bath (1976; 1977), Aquater
(1982), and Goff and Vuataz (1984). Consideration of new data and previous studies led
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Fig. 5.39
Plot of seismic frequency, hot-spring temperature, and bicarbonate content for the
period 1975 through 1977 at Usu volcano. These three indicators rose
sharply in months preceding the 1977 eruptions.
Goff and Vuataz to conclude that a geothermal reservoir underling the Sulphur Springs
area consists of an upper-steam condensate zone, an intermediate depth, two-phase zone,
and a lower brine zone. Sulphur Springs display chemical compositions (Table 5.5) very
characteristic of acid-sulfate systems in which mixtures of steam and other gases
condense in the near-surface environment and oxidation of H2S and H2SO4 leads to
acidic conditions. The springs have relatively low pH, high SO4, and a low Cl content;
divalent and trivalent cations (Ca, Mg, Al, and Fe) dominate Na + K, and most trace
elements other than B are relatively scarce. Bath's (1977) brine analyses of well 4 (see Fig.
5.41) show considerable variability because of wet and dry cycling of the flow from the
well, which indicates variable steam loss from the brines sampled. Goff and Vuataz
(1984) noted that this brine is extremely unusual because the Ca content is twice that of
Na by weight and it is very rich in B.
Although drilling encountered temperatures >220°C at depths of 700 m (Williamson,
1979), oxygen isotope composition, gas geothermometry, steam enthalpy, and B
abundances indicate brine reservoir temperatures are near 280°C. Figure 5.44 (Goff and
Vuataz, 1984) shows a model of the geothermal system beneath the Sulphur Springs area
in which geothermal upflow could occur beneath Sulphur Springs and possibly below
Belfondthe areas of most recent silicic dome eruptions. Lateral outflow occurs near the
surface in the condensation zone, but there is also a strong possibility that it occurs below
the vapor zone, where deep brines flow northward and pool against the north caldera-
wall
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Fig. 5.40
Generalized stratigraphy of Qualibou caldera near
the Terre Blanche dacite dome on St. Lucia. The
stratigraphic section represents a thickness of
~2 km and reflects a general trend from
precaldera mafic andesites and basalts through
intermediate products of caldera-related
eruptions to postcaldera eruptions associated
with silicic dome rock. A vapor-dominated
hydrothermal system is thought to exist in
pumice sections just below the intracaldera
dome lavas, and there is probably a brine
reservoir in the fractured caldera-
fill and precaldera rocks below.
faults. The brine composition indicates it originated from sea water that reacted with
basaltic rocks in the subsurface and was subsequently replaced by meteoric water.
Volcanological Interpretations
Young volcanism that filled the Qualibou caldera took the form of dacitic lava out-
pourings, which built the Terre Blanche and Belfond domes. This volcanism indicates a
magmatic heat source of sufficient size and youth to retain magmatic temperatures at
depths of several kilometers or more. Extensive evidence of phreatomagmatic eruptions
that postdate the domes is recorded by numerous explosion craters and tephra blankets.
Because fragments of the deep basaltic strata exist in the phreatomagmatic tephra and the
geochemistry of the brine points to seawater/basalt chemical interactions, it appears
possible that a geothermal reservoir formed after dacitic magma intruded into the lower
part of the volcanic stratigraphy below the Qualibou caldera (Fig. 5.45). Intersections of
caldera ring faults and through-going regional faults have provided fracture permeability
along which deep brines have risen. The steam reservoir may exist in still porous and
permeable tephra layers and in the caldera fill and precaldera breccias.
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Fig. 5.41
Geologic map of the Qualibou caldera on St. Lucia, showing the major silicic dome complexes of Terre
Blanche and Belfond that were erupted after caldera collapse. Exploratory geothermal drilling (Wells 1
through 7) has concentrated on a regional northwest-southeast-trending fault zone that runs between
these two domes. Note the alignment of two large phreatic craters along this fault zone and those along
the ring fracture that extends through the Belfond dome. The depth to precaldera basaltic rocks in
well 2 is at least several hundred meters less than in nearby well 1, which suggests the location of
a western caldera ring fault that exposes precaldera Piton-type dacites.
(Adapted from Wohletz et al., 1986.)
Fig. 5.42
Cross sections along BB' (see Fig. 5.41) under Terre Blanche dome. Stratifications illustrated at the base o
dome denote the pumice-rich tuff ring strata that was erupted before the extrusion of dacite lava. Formatio
these tuffs has allowed a vapor-dominated reservoir to develop. This reservoir is connected by fractures
zone in the Choiseul Pumice and precaldera andesites below. Geothermal wells 7 and 4 (see Fig. 5.41) inte
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Fig. 5.43
Geophysical resistivity pseudosection along cross section AA' (see Fig. 5.41) running west of
Terre Blanche and under the Belfond dome. The apparent resistivity high (W-m) under the Belfond
dome represents relatively unfractured dacite lavas, whereas the closed contours of resistivity
lows beneath the north and south caldera margins and below Sulphur Springs are thought to reflect
brine reservoirs. Intermediate resistivity contours below Sulphur Springs at a depth of H1 km probably
indicate the poor conductivity of dry steam. Three exploratory wells were proposed on the basis of
the location of resistivity lows, the geology, and geochemical indicators.
Proposed well 2 produced steam (~300°C) at a depth of ~1400 m.
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Fig. 5.44
The hydrogeochemical model of the Terre Blanche-Sulphur Springs area shows a vapor
zone over a brine zone as well as upflow under Sulphur Springs and Belfond. The
condensation of steam and mixing with surface aquifers produce later flow toward
the northern caldera margin, which feeds Diamond Spring.
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Table 5.5. Composition of Geothermal Waters from Qualibou Caldera, St. Luciaa
Well #4 Thermal Springs Sulphur Springs
Constituent (mg/l)
Li+ 0.04 0.09 0.05 0.22 0.67
Na+ 49 54 6 500 5900 129 257
K+ 6.8 13.7 6.7 50 290 11.0 16.5
Mg++ 10.3 9.3 72.0 17 100 42.3 56.5
Ca++ 61.5 72.3 220 1850 11600 69.2 163
Sr++ 0.27 0.66 0.04 0.47 1.41
Mn++ 0.54 0.81 6.53 0.29 0.35
Fe++ 0.02 16.4 68.6 0.20 1.71
HCO-3 309 0 0 686 1215
SO-4 35.6 1085 6750 174 1195 21.8 0.77
Cl- 39.7 32.9 5 6120 37000 40.0 153
F- 0.11 0.05 0.02 0.15 2.60
SiO2 197 186 360 88 212 171 110
B 10.9 15.1 22.9 870 3500 11.1 15.0
Temperature (°C) 92.7 64.8 96.0 203 203 43.1 55.7
pH 6.2 2.50 1.55 5.85 5.07 6.45 6.55
TDS 721 1486 7518 1183 1994
a Analyses of Well 4 geothermal brine from Bath (1977); others from Goff and
Vuataz (1984).
Fig. 5.45
A schematic geological model cross section of the Qualibou caldera from west to east shows (with
some vertical exaggeration) how the dacitic domes have filled in the caldera above the Choiseul
Pumice, which was erupted during caldera collapse. Strong evidence for the caldera structure is
provided by the precaldera basalt that is exposed at the surface near the Piton as well as at many
other locations in southern St. Lucia but is found at depths >1 km in geothermal wells inside
the caldera. The magma chamber is shown as two bodies; the outer one is andesitic and
the source of the precaldera and caldera intermediate rocks, whereas the inner body is
dacitic and represents magmatic resurgence that caused eruption of the dacite domes.
The hypothetical depth of these chambers (~4 km) is drawn from measured geothermal gradients.
Page 225
Chapter 6
Geothermal Systems Associated with Basaltic Volcanoes
The most common type of volcanism on Earth is the eruption of basaltic lavas and
associated pyroclastic ejecta. The annual rate of magma production for the Earth is ~33.5
km3; this estimate by Schmincke (1982) includes both magma intruded into the crust and
erupted magma. Basaltic magmas make up ~80%or 28 km3 of the total volume.
Basaltic magmas originate deep in the mantle and rise quickly to the surface, sometimes
carrying solid bits of the mantle along in the form of xenoliths. The lower SiO2 content
and higher temperatures of these low-viscosity magmas (most are near 1200°C) allow
them to rise buoyantly through narrow dikes in the crust. Unless the magmas have pooled
in the shallow crust, as is the case below calderas of most basaltic shield volcanoes, they
quickly lose their heat after eruption. Delaney (1987) pointed out that if they are isolated
and have fed only a monogenetic cone, basaltic dikes do not provide sufficient long-term
crustal heat to drive a geothermal system.
The utility of a basaltic system as a geothermal heat source depends on the rate and
volume of intrusion and eruption, which in turn is dependent on the tectonic setting.
Basalts erupted along continental rifts can provide a significant heat source if extension
rates along those rifts are high and the crust is thin. In many continental rifts, extension
rates are low; consequently, eruptive (and intrusive) rates are low and vents are widely
spaced in time and space. The narrow dikes feeding these vents cool quickly; however,
many such areas of extension may contain geothermal systems that result from the deep
circulation of meteoric waters in zones of elevated heat flow.
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Vast basalt plateaus present on most of the Earth's continents were formed during periods
when lava flows that were tens of meters thick and hundreds of kilometers long filled
large basins. Most of these plateaus are old; the most recent major event formed the
Columbia River Plateau of the United States during an eruption of 2 × 105 km3 of basaltic
lavas between 17 and 6 m.y. ago (Waters, 1961). Plateau basalts like those covering large
areas of the north-western United States exhibit no high-temperature geothermal potential.
Basaltic volcanoes within regions of active extension may contain promising geothermal
systems. Such regions include the mid-oceanic ridge spreading centers and associated
very high temperature hydrothermal systems that cover large areas but are mostly
submerged. Where these systems emerge from the sea, as they do in Iceland, numerous
high-temperature geothermal systems are accessible. Other basaltic volcanic fields that
have excellent potential for geothermal development are the mid-plate oceanic islands like
Hawaii, where eruptions occur along rifts associated with large slump blocks that are
adjacent to the unbuttressed volcano flanks (Fig. 6.1; Fornari and Campbell, 1987).
Continued intrusion and eruption is required to maintain these thermal sources. For
example, the upper east rift of Kilauea Volcano on Hawaii has been erupting steadily
since observations began in the early 18th century AD Decker (1987) reported that this rift
has widened by ~4 m over a 19-year period as a result of 20 intrusions into the summit
and the east rift. Christiansen (1987) determined that for every 1 m3 erupted at Kilauea, 2
m3 is intruded. At this rate of extension and intrusion, there is a dependable source of
heat to drive hydrothermal systems for some time to come.
The success of geothermal development in basaltic volcanic fields is dependent on an
understanding of aquifer locations and regional groundwater movement. Many basalt
units in the upper 1 or 2 km of crust are fractured and jointed; they serve as excellent
aquifers if they have not been sealed by secondary mineralization. Ash beds, fine-grained
sedimentary rocks, and soils interbedded with lava flows often form aquitards for these
volcanic aquifers or reservoirs.
Scoria Cones and Tuff Rings
One of the most common subaerial volcanic landforms on Earth is the scoria or cinder
cone. Scoria cones are usually formed during single eruptions of basaltic or basaltic-
andesitic magmas. Construction of a scoria cone commonly follows the opening of a
narrow fissure, a short period of lava fountaining, and (sometimes) a lava flow (Foshag
and Gonzalez, 1955; Budnikov et al., 1975). Soon after the eruption begins, effusive
activity is concentrated at one or more points along the fissure. Strombolian or Vulcanian
eruptions, consisting of the explosive ejection of bombs, blocks, and ash, continue
intermittently for weeks to years. During this period, one or more cones develop through
a process of ballistic
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Fig. 6.1
(a). Schematic cross-section of the lithosphere beneath kilauea Volcano. The magma ascent
funnel is shown as a region of extensional fractures and magma batches migrating from the
asthenosphere. Variations in stress orientation from the lithosphere and volcanic edifice are shown.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987a, b.)
(b) Simplified block diagram of the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano. In one interpretation,
stresses that cause rifting are related to a gravitational collapse of the island's flanks, which allows
intrusion and further widening by dike complexes (A). Other interpretations (B) show the rise of
magma toward the summit of the shield; this movement, cutting across the listric faults, may have
only a minor effect on dike distribution.
(Adapted from Decker, 1987.)
Page 228
deposition and subsequent slumping when scoria deposits that form the cone exceed the
angle of repose, as is shown in Fig. 6.2(a) (McGetchin et al., 1974). The cone consists of
unconsolidated and sometimes welded scoria, blocks, and bombs that make up thick beds
dipping outward from the vent at the angle of repose [Fig. 6.2 (b)]. Craters in scoria
cones are occasionally modified after they are filled with lavas; in some cases, when leaks
develop in the crater walls, dikes and sills penetrate the surrounding scoria deposits
(Gutmann, 1979). Lava flows can also erupt from the cone flanks or overflow the crater
rim.
Considerable heat is released during the eruptions that produce a cinder cone and its
associated lavas. Scandone (1979) estimated that during the 8-year-long eruption of
Parícutin in Mexico, 1309 × 106 m3 of tephra and 700 × 106 m3 of lava were erupted; the
associated thermal energy was 2.75 × 1018 J (0.66 × 1018 calories). This is a substantial
amount of heat, but it was deposited above the ground surface and therefore was lost
through radiation and convection of heated rain water in the cone.
If rising magma intersects an aquifer or shallow surface water, the resulting volcanic
structure will be a tuff cone or tuff ring rather than a cinder cone (Heiken, 1971). Tuff
rings are broad, low rings composed of well-bedded, fine-grained tuffs in plane beds and
cross-bedded surge deposits [Fig. 6.2 (c)]; poorly exposed tuff ring deposits are often
mistaken for fine-grained sedimentary rocks (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). During the
formation of tuff rings by phreatomagmatic or hydrovolcanic eruptions, pyroclastic
debris are deposited at relatively cool (~30°C) temperatures because most of the heat is
lost in the steam that drives these explosive eruptions.
Most cinder cone fields were constructed by many small-volume eruptions from widely
spaced vents, and they do not provide the thermal mass required for a high-temperature
geothermal resource. In such areas,
Fig. 6.2
(a). In this diagram of the four major stages in the development of a scoria cone, the numbers refer to
deposits from corresponding eruption stages; only one-half of the cone is shown. During stage 1,
a low-rimmed pyroclastic ring is composed of scoria-fall beds and ballistically emplaced blocks and
bombs. During stage 2, the ring reaches the angle of repose for unconsolidated clastic material;
slumping and avalanching of scoria begins; and the outer slopes of the cone are covered with talus.
In stage 3, the original rim of the cone is destroyed by inward migration of the talus pile. During
stage 4, the talus apron reaches the ballistic limit of the ejecta. The many sizes and shapes of scoria
cones depend on the stage reached as the eruption ended. It is also possible for the crater to fill with
a lava lake and for lava to then spill out of the crater and stabilize the cone slopes.
(Adapted from McGetchin et al., 1974.)
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Fig. 6.2
(b) Cross section of the Rothenberg scoria cone in Germany. Scoria cones are the Earth's
most common volcanic landform above sea level. (Adapted from Houghton and Schmincke, 1989.)
(c) Cross section of a tuff ring formed by the phreatomagmatic eruption of a basaltic magma.
1 = country rock; 2 = explosion breccia; and 3 = bedded tuffs of the tuff ring. Tm = maximum
thickness of the tuff ring at crater rim; Wr = rim-to-rim diameter; We = crater diameter
(excavation width); m = maximum outward dip of tuff beds; Lr = tephra runout distance; and
De = excavation depth. Tuffs characteristic of tuff rings and tuff cones are generally fine
grained; most of the ash and lapilli were deposited by pyroclastic (base) surges and not by
fallout. Magma volumes and compositions for scoria cones and tuff rings can be identical.
The differences are caused by the interaction of magma and water, which results in the much
more violent phreatomagmatic eruptions that form tuff rings.
(Adapted from Wohletz and Sheridan, 1983.)
Page 230
the magmas have risen to the surface from the mantle without forming shallow crustal
magma bodies. Crater Flat, in south-central Nevada, has 15 small basaltic centers that
were erupted during three phases over a period of 3.7 m.y. (Vaniman and Crowe, 1981).
The volumes are small (0.3 to 1.5 km3 for each center), as is the cone density
(spacing)10-3 to 10-4 /km2. The San Francisco volcanic field is larger: 5000 km2 is
covered by a few silicic volcanoes and hundreds of scoria cones. The magma sources for
the scoria cones and associated lavas there are deep (15 to 40 km), and volumes of
individual eruptions are small (Moore et al., 1976).
Shield Volcanoes
The giant shields that make up many mid-oceanic-plate volcanic islands may contain
geothermal resources. In Hawaii, the shield volcanoes are fed from a central conduit
below the summit caldera and from active rifts on the flanks (see the case study of
Kilauea Volcano presented in this chapter). Shield volcanoes are constructed of
thousands of lava flows (from the sea floor to the summit), which are fed by lateral flow
from a summit caldera into dikes along flanking rift zones. Magma erupted from rift vents
does not move straight upward from the mantle, but laterally along rifts from reservoirs
located below the summit calderas. These lava flows are thin, unless they pond in a
caldera, a pit crater, or a valley. When groundwater flowing toward sea level is blocked
by dike swarms within active rifts, these ''perched" aquifers can supply fluids necessary
for a hydrothermal system. Figure 6.3 illustrates the interbedded pyroclastic rocks,
paleosols, zones cemented with secondary minerals, and rift dike swarms that form the
aquitards confining aquifers within the flanks of shield volcanoes (Stearns and
MacDonald, 1946).
Fig. 6.3
Simplified hydrology of a mid-oceanic shield volcano
(Adapted from Stearns and Macdonald, 1946.)
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Later in this chapter, we describe hydrothermal systems that have been tapped in shield
volcano rift zones. These case studies include geothermal systems currently operating in
Iceland and a field being developed along Kilauea Volcano's east rift.
Lava Lakes and Magma EnergyResources for the Future
Eruptions on basaltic shield volcanoes are often followed by the collapse of summit
calderas or pit craters located along the rifts. These craters may be filled with lava from
either the eruption that formed them or lava flows that spilled into them during later
eruptions. At Kilauea Volcano between 1959 and 1972, eight lava lakes were formed; their
thicknesses range from 6 to 180 m and initial temperatures were 1100 to 1200°C.
Although these lakes are short-lived (they solidify within a few decades) and potentially
hazardous, Colp (1982) has proposed that they be used to develop high-temperature,
manmade geothermal systems.
Makaopuhi, Alae, and Kilauea Iki lava lakes in Hawaii have been studied by means of
drillholes, geophysical surveys, and thermal models. Kilauea Iki, a pit crater adjacent to
Kilauea Caldera, was partly filled with 38 × 106 m3 of lava that formed a lake 110 m deep
and 750 m in diameter (Richter et al., 1970). Data from the 11 holes drilled into the lake
over a 16-year-period have indicated that the depth to molten rock has progressed from
4.8 m in 1960 to 45 m in 1976 (Fig. 6.4). The crust has been solidifying at an average rate
of 6.7 × 10-8 m/s (Hardee, 1980). Heat is being released through two zones in the solid
crust: a lower, one-phase advective zone and an upper, two-phase convection-advection
zone (Fig. 6.5). Temperature measurements indicate a constant temperature of 100°C to a
depth of 40 m, below which it increases abruptly to 1070°C at 52 m.
Although many geologists and engineers believe that lava lakes are a potential, short-term
thermal resource, the drilling and extraction techniques that would make production wells
within these lakes practical have yet to be developed. The difficulties of transferring heat
from a lava lake to the surface still must be overcome. For instance, present routine
geothermal drilling is limited to temperatures of <250°C. If indeed the technology can be
developed, the surface facilities obviously must be portable. At Kilauea Iki, for example,
the crater has been partly filled three times since 1832, and it is probable that there will be
more eruptive episodes in the near future.
Kilauea Volcano and Kapoho Geothermal Area of Hawaii
The Hawaiian-Emperor Island chain consists of ~107 volcanoes that range in age from 80
Ma at the northwestern end to currently active volcanoes at the southwestern end (Decker
et al., 1987). The islands are remnants of these volcanoes, which rise between 5,000 and
10,000 m above the floor of the Pacific Ocean. The chain was formed as the Pacific plate
moved over the Hawaiian hot spot at 9.2 cm/yr (Hawaiian Chain) and 8.6 cm/yr (Emperor
Chain) (Clague and Dalrymple, 1987). Subaerial portions of these islands consist of
thousands of thin basaltic lava flows and minor deposits of pyroclastic rocks and
differentiated lavas. Hawaii, the youngest island in the chain, is made up of five
overlapping shield volcanoes, two of which remain active (Fig. 6.6).
The still-active shield volcanoes of Kilauea and Mauna Loa are believed to be made up of
a below-sea-level mass of submarine pillow basalt that is interbedded with and overlain
by hyaloclastite deposits and subaerial basalt flows. Hill and Zucca (1987) report that
under the Kilauea and Mauna Loa shields, the Mohorovicic
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Fig. 6.4
Map and cross-section of Kilauea Iki Crater before and after the 1959 eruption. The deep lava lake
has been drilled many times for research purposes and has been the testbed for the U.S.
Department of Energy's magma energy concepts.
(Adapted from Richter and Moore, 1966.)
Page 233
Fig. 6.5
Models and observations of the thermal history of the Kilauea Iki lava lake. (a) Model of cooling
above a downward-moving thermal front at 2000, 4000, and 6000 days. (b) An early model proposed
to explain the drastic temperature change in the one-phase advective (dry-out) zone. (c) This
summary of the major physical characteristics of the lava lake in 1980 (20 years after the eruption)
shows depth to melt, changes in resistivity, temperature, percent of glass,
and depth (120 m) to the preflow surface (lake bottom).
(Adapted from Hermance and Colp, 1980.)
Page 234
discontinuity increases from ~10 km (for normal oceanic crust) to 13 and 18 km,
respectively. Fast P-wave travel times through rift zones and summit calderas as well as
positive gravity anomalies over them indicate that intrusive cores form a significant
fraction of these volcanic edifices (Fig. 6.6).
Eight of the youngest and largest islands in the chain make up the State of Hawaii, which
is an area of intense urban and agricultural development. A comprehensive evaluation of
Hawaii's geothermal resources, conducted by university and federal scientists (Thomas et
al., 1979, 1983), concentrated on calderas and associated rift zones. Much of the work
focused on the Island of Hawaii and drew upon the vast research base built by the State
of Hawaii, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, research drilling programs, and
commercial geothermal drilling projects. The report cites an output of 3MWe at the one
operating hydrothermal electrical generating plant, which is located at the Kapoho
geothermal site on Kilauea Volcano's east rift zone. At this time, a well field is being
drilled and a 25-MWe (net) power plant is being constructed in the Kapoho area (Clark
and Stewart, 1991).
Migration of Magma and Evaluation of Thermal Sources
As is the case for all hydrothermal systems, geothermal system development in Hawaii
depends on an understanding of volcanic heat sources and groundwater. In this area,
where there is little surface water and a constant volcanic hazard, geoscientists have
achieved a good understanding of both of these crucial aspects. Most of the geothermal
exploration on the Island of Hawaii is concentrated on Kilauea Volcano, where the
storage, migration, and eruption of basaltic magmas is monitored by the Hawaiian
Volcano Observatory's geophysical network.
In this area, magma rises buoyantly along a very irregular network of vertical, roughly
cylindrical conduits that are marked at the surface by a caldera. Kilauea Caldera, located
at the summit of the volcano, consists of concentric collapse craters, the widest of which
is 4.5 by 3 km. Helz (1987) has determined that the picritic (~20% olivine phenocrysts)
basalt of the 1959 Kilauea eruption originated at depths of 45 to 60 km and rose to the
surface at velocities of 0.58 to 0.77 cm/s; which is fast enough to carry along olivine
xenocrysts and aggregates.
Eruptions in calderas and along rifts are spectacularwith lava fountains, fast-moving lava
flows, and occasional phreatomagmatic activityhowever, most of the magma never
reaches the surface but comes to rest in a shallow crustal environment. These magma
bodies, located within the uppermost 7 km of the crust, are responsible for the heat that
drives geothermal systems on Kilauea. Ryan (1987a,b) addressed the reason most magma
comes to rest at shallow levels in the crust in his elegant study on the regions of neutral
buoyancy. Ryan integrated seismic and surface deformation data with measurements of
the physical properties of rock and magmas under pressure to provide information on the
variation of crustal rock densities with depth. Below 9 km, all macrofractures,
microfractures, vesicles, and joints are eliminated by bulk compression [Fig. 6.7(a)].
Below 7 km, magma is transported buoyantly within the central conduit and the intensity
of hydraulic fracturing is high. Between 7 and 2 km, the in-situ densities of the fractured
crustal rock and the magma are similar, and a magma
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Fig. 6.6
(a) Map of the island of Hawaii shows the major rift-zones of the five overlapping shield volcanoes.
Elevation and depth contours are in 500-m intervals on land and 1,000-m intervals offshore.
(b) This schematic cross-section of the central and western Mauna Loa shield is based on the
P-wave velocity and density models of Hill and Zucca (1987).
Page 236
body is formed at a point where buoyant rise is no longer possible; the fact that this is an
increasingly aseismic region indicates a higher fluid/rock ratio (Fig. 6.7). The center of
neutral buoyancy is located at depths of 2.5 to 4.5 km, suggesting a correspondence
between the depths at which magma is in mechanical equilibrium with the surrounding
rock and the depth of Kilauea's subcaldera magma reservoir. From depths of 0 to 2 km,
the deformed and fractured crust allows vesiculating magmas to pass through dikes. As
the volcano grows, the summit (subcaldera) magma reservoir and associated rift system is
elevated and achieves mechanical equilibrium within the lava shield (Ryan, 1987a,b). The
entire igneous system rises with both time and a continuing supply of magma, but it
retains the same depths below the volcano's surface. This is an important concept to keep
in mind when evaluating thermal sources within shield volcanoes similar to those at
Kilauea and Mauna Loa.
Ryan (1987a,b) determined that most magma movement into rift zones from the summit
reservoir is at a depth of 3 kma level of neutral buoyancy. Magma moves rapidly along
the rift until the fluid pressure falls below that of the tensile strength of the host rock.
Ryan (1987a,b) cites three types of dike formation.
(1) Slow movement of magma, with a gradually enlarging fracture front. The dike top
rises toward the surface and the bottom descends at a similar rate.
(2) Rapid movement of magma, during which the dike top rises rapidly and,
simultaneously, the base sinks. Subsequent pressure reduction narrows the dike and
restricts it to the neutral buoyancy zone.
(3) Pressure differentials within the growing dike form an intrusion shaped like a doubly
serrated knife. The "serrations" have amplitudes of 2 to 6 km. Where a rising dike
intersects the surface, cracks open and a rift eruption begins, as is depicted in Fig. 6.8.
These models have been developed from data collected over the last 20 or 30 years, when
activity at Kilauea volcano has been mostly along the rifts.
A well-exposed analog to Kilauea volcano is the Koolau volcano on Oahu, for which
Walker (1986; 1987) described the internal structure. The shield of Koolau was
constructed by small but frequent eruptions of basaltic magma. Erosion has eroded the
57-km-long volcano to a depth of ~1 km and exposed the plumbing within its shield.
Kailua caldera, located at the southeast end of the Koolau volcano, is analogous to
Kilauea Caldera and consists of mainly thick, massive lava flows. It lacks the thin
pahoehoe lava flows that characterize the Kilauea shield volcano. Breccias within the 4-
km-diameter Kailua caldera may represent either periods of collapse or phreatic blasts. A
rift extending northwest from the caldera is composed of ~5100 dikes over its 3.3-km
width, as is illustrated in Fig. 6.9. The rift
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Fig. 6.7
Earthquake abundance and in-situ density with depth beneath Kilauea volcano.
(a) Distribution of earthquakes beneath Kilauea's summit region, to a depth of 20 km.
The dark pattern refers to the volume beneath the whole Kilauea caldera and the light
pattern refers to the volume beneath only Halemaumau crater. The aseismic
region from 2 to 7 km is believed to have high magma:rock ratios.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987a.)
(b) In-situ densities of olivine tholeiitic basalt near its liquidus, volcanic shields, and the upper
mantle below Hawaii. The depth region of density crossover coincides with the subcaldera region of
magma storage below Kilauea; based on data from Salisbury and Christensen, 1976; Fuji and
Kushiro, 1976; and Zucca, Hill, and Kovach, 1982.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987a.)
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Fig. 6.7
(c) Schematic diagrams show the evolution of oceanic shield volcanoes such as Hawaii, progressing
from Mokuaweoweo caldera of Mauna Loa volcano (oldest) to the Loihi seamount (youngest).
Low = low density; Vp = P-wave velocity; and Vs = shear-wave velocity. As the volcano grows,
it carries with it its contractancy profile and regions of fracturing; the region of neutral buoyancy
rises from below sea level to well above sea level.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987b.)
Page 239
follows listric faults that dip outward on either side of the Koolau shield. Dikes range in
width from <5 to 670 cm, with a median of 53 cm, and typically have glassy, chilled
margins and sheetlike cooling joints that are perpendicular to dike margins. These dikes
sometimes occur in clusters (or swarms) as wide as 20 m, in which successive members
were injected either along the margins or inside preceding dikes. Within such clusters,
dikes may make up 100% of the rock.
Most of Hawaii's recent exploration and drilling for hydrothermal development has been
along the east rift zone of Kilauea Volcano. The subaerial part of Kilauea is 80 km long
and 20 km wide and still growing. [For the most recent compilation of geologic maps,
refer to Holcomb (1987)]. Kilauea rises to an elevation of 1240 m above sea level and
serves as a topographic barricade to the trade winds and rainfall; as a consequence, the
eastern slopes of the volcano are covered with dense vegetation and the southwestern
slopes are a desert an important observation to consider in planning geothermal
development. Kilauea is young and very active: 90% of the surface is younger than 1000
years (Holcomb, 1987). Approximately 50% of the volcano surface is covered with lavas
that overflowed the summit caldera, but such an event has not occurred for 200 years;
81% of the lava flows are pahoehoe, and aa flows make up a smaller volume. During the
last 500 years, periods of sustained summit activity have included only minimal flank
(rift) activity. However, when there is little activity at the summit, other than caldera
collapse, the flanks are more active.
Kilauea's caldera is actually a collection of nested (but not concentric) calderas, in which
the outermost visible caldera is 7.5 by 5.1 km and the innermost (Halemaumau Crater) is
0.9 km in diameter. The subaerial portion of Kilauea's east rift zone is 50 km long and 2
to 3 km wide; the actual rift extends about 50 km further below sea level. Figure 6.10
illustrates the surface manifestations of rift tectonic and volcanic activity: normal faults,
open fissures, and pit craters; cinder cones, spatter ramparts, tuff cones, and steaming
ground are associated with these features, but are not shown on this map.
Hydrothermal Systems at Kilauea Caldera and Along Its East Rift Zone
A 1.2-km-deep research drillhole, located on the southwest margin of Kilauea caldera,
was drilled to a depth just below sea level to test hypotheses concerning the thermal state
and groundwater movement near a magma body (Keller et al., 1979). The drilling
operation encountered lava flows as well as a few sills and ash layers. Porosity decreases
with depth, which is commonly the result of pore spaces filling with secondary minerals.
Permeabilities above the water table are 100 mD to 1 D; below the water table they are
<100µD (Zablocki et al., 1974).
Within the Kilauea well, temperatures of 20 to 30°C are maintained with increasing depth
until, at 480 m, the water table is reached. At that depth, temperatures rise rapidly in lavas,
which are saturated with brackish water below the water table; the temperatures begin to
decrease at a depth of 725 m (Fig. 6.11). Below 725 m, the thermal gradient is conductive
and reaches a temperature of 137°C at the bottom of the drill-hole. Zablocki et al. (1974)
concluded that if this gradient persists, magmatic temperatures should be found at a depth
of 4 km.
Figure 6.12 shows the locations of five deep (>2000 m) and four shallow exploration
wells drilled in the Puna District along Kilauea's east rift zone in the 1960s, 1970s, and
early 1980s. The first two wells were drilled adjacent to vents of the 1955 eruption, where
there is steaming ground. These wells, drilled to depths of 54 and 167 m where the
maximum temperatures were 54 and 102°C, respectively, were sited in the unsaturated
zone and no geothermal resource was found (Thomas et al., 1983).
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Fig. 6.8
Three-dimensional model of the internal structure of Kilauea volcano. The medium stippled pattern
denotes the structure of the southwest and eastern rift zones that extend outward from the summit
magma reservoir, as well as the main conduit that rises from a depth of 40 km. The reservoir is a lightly
shaded region at a depth of 2 to 7 km. Periodic high-level injection of magma into the rift zones occurs
along the horizon of neutral buoyancy (arrowed pathways) and is associated with the lateral
formation of dikes at 3 km below the volcano's surface.
(Adapted from Ryan, 1987b.)
Page 241
Fig. 6.9
Dike swarms of the ancient Koolau dike complex and Kailua caldera. (the inset shows dike intensity
as well as the number of dikes per cluster and site). This ancient shield caldera and rift zone is
analogous to the modern Kilauea volcano and is used to
interpret the younger volcano's structural framework.
Page 242
Fig. 6.10
Geology of Kilauea volcano. (a) Structural map depicting Kilauea caldera, pit craters, normal faults,
fissures and eruption fissures. HGP-A is the location of the Hawaii Geothermal Project well in
the Puna District. The Kilauea research drill hole is denoted GW. (b) Map of Kilauea volcano
showing lava flows classified by eruption type.
(Adapted from Holcomb, 1987.)
Page 243
Fig. 6.11
(a) Cross-section of Kilauea caldera including the Kilauea Research drill hole (GW). (b) Temperature
logs from the Kilauea drill hole. There is no increase in temperature until the water table is reached
at a depth of 480 m. Below 725 m, the gradient is conductive
it reaches a maximum of 137°C at a depth of 1250 m.
(Adapted from Zablocki et al., 1974.)
Page 244
Fig. 6.12
(a) The lower east rift of Kilauea volcano indicating the limits of the surface expression of the rift
and the location of groundwater and geothermal wells. Contour intervals are 200 ft. The inset shows
topography, the apparent water table, and self-potential for profile AA'.
(Adapted from Thomas, 1987.)
In 1976, a government-sponsored well (HGP-A) was drilled near the center of the east rift
zone at an elevation of 200 m and ~300 m east of a spatter rampart formed during the
1955 eruption. This well is located near the intersection of the north-east-trending rift and
a northwest-trending, right lateral fault mapped by Holcomb (1987). The drillhole is also
28 km west of and 1043 m lower than Kilauea's summit caldera. It was drilled to a depth
of 1968 m and has a bottom-hole temperature of 358°C (Fig. 6.13). The reservoir is
located in lava flows and dikes, where Stone and Fan (1978) reported three zones of
hydrothermal alteration: (a) 675 to 1894 mmontmorillonite, (b) 1350 to 1894 mchlorite,
and (c) 1894 to 1962 mactinolite and calcite. These authors concluded that the present-day
thermal regime is related to recent
Page 245
Fig. 6.13
Temperature profiles measured in the Hawaii Geothermal Project well HGP-A. The inset is a
conceptual cross section of the lower east rift of Kilauea that depicts fluid circulation across
the rift zone. Thermal waters leaving the rift to the southeast (downslope) form a plume overlying
the colder fluids below. Drilling on the downslope side of the rift would initially encounter hot
fluids but at greater depths would enter cool aquifers.
magma injection. The fluids are slightly saline but have high concentrations of silica and
sulfide (Kroopnick et al., 1978). Thomas et al., (1983) calculated that the flowing well
produces 50,000 kg/hr: 50% liquid (mixed seawater and meteoric water) and 50% steam.
An electricity generating plant has been producing 3 MWe. Because the possibility of an
eruption close to the plant was considered in its design, most of the equipment is on skids
and can be removed if necessary.
At the time of this writing (1991), five production wells have been drilled near HGP-A.
Most of these wells are located within the northern edge of the rift, in line
Page 246
with fractures and a spatter rampart formed during the 1955 eruption and on the slopes of
Puu Honuaula, a cinder cone believed to be between 1500 and 10,000 years old. These
were drilled to depths of over 2000 m and have bottom-hole-temperatures of 312 to
334°C. The reservoir begins at a depth of ~1200 m and extends to a depth of at least 2250
m; it consists of a basaltic dike complex composed of near-vertical dike swarms, each
separated from the other by brecciated wall rock (Clark and Stewart, 1991). The reservoir
is overlain by ~750 m of submarine basalt flows with low permeability and by 450 m of
subaerial basalt flows, which are permeable and contain an unconfined aquifer (Clark and
Stewart, 1991).
The dikes and fractures of the east rift act as guides for fluid flow, allowing hot fluids to
rise parallel to the dikes. The rift also dams water from upslope; the apparent water table
rises to the near-surface on the north-west side and plunges to a depth of 400 m on the
southeast side (Jackson and Kauahikaua, 1987; Thomas, 1987). Much of the potential sea
water inflow is also blocked by rift dikes. Within the rift, where there is adequate fracture
permeability and depth (~2000 m), the hydrothermal plume can be drilled and developed.
Beyond the southern edge of the rift, one well penetrated thermal fluids at shallow depths
but reentered cold sea water below the outflow plume from the rift, as is shown in Fig.
6.13 (Thomas, 1987).
Exploration and production drilling has taken place only along the east rift of Kilauea
Volcano; this area is accessible and is located on private land (except for the research well
that is sited in the National Park). The southwest rift zone of Kilauea and all rift zones of
Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, and Hualalai have not yet been drilled. These resources have
been examined only at the surface during the Thomas et al. (1979, 1983) evaluation of the
geothermal resources of Hawaii.
Three Geothermal Systems in Iceland: Krafla, Surtsey, and Heimaey Volcanoes
Iceland is located over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is an active spreading center.
Regions of active extension and volcanism in Iceland are called the neovolcanic zones
and cross the island generally from south-west to northeast. Most volcanic activity occurs
along the eastern and western volcanic zones, where plate motion currently averages 1.6
cm/year in either direction and lavas and pyroclastic deposits are erupted at a rate of 0.04
km3/yr. The largest single historic eruption of basaltic lavas (12 km3) occurred in 1783
from the 25-km-long Laki fissure (Sigvaldason, 1974). The active state of this island and
the extent of its geothermal resources are reflected in the thermal gradients, which vary
from ~160°C/km (heat flow = 300 mW/m2) in the fissure swarms to 40°C/km (heat flow
= 80 mW/m2) in the oldest rocks along the island margins (Pálmason, 1973). Fissure
swarms in the neovolcanic zones range from 5 to 10 km wide and are 30 to 100 km long.
Each zone consists of nested grabens, where near-vertical normal faults are exposed at the
surface. Figure 6.14 illustrates the active faulting, volcanism, and geothermal systems that
occur along these fissure swarms.
The economy of Iceland is closely linked to geothermal energy. Half of the population
lives and works in buildings heated by geothermal waters. Greenhouses, an important
component of the island's agricultural effort, are also heated by hot springs and water
from geothermal wells. Many hot water wells have been drilled for direct-use
applications, especially around the capitol city of Reykjavik. These waters are pumped
from reservoirs located in Tertiary-age interbedded flood basalts and hyaloclastite
deposits at depths of 1 to 2 km and temperatures of 86 to 128°C. Hot water is conducted
horizontally along the basal contacts
Page 247
Fig. 6.14
(a) Simplified geologic map of Iceland shows the distribution of
geothermal manifestations and their relation to active volcanic zones.
(Adapted from Fridleifsson, 1979.)
(b) Fissure swarms and central volcanoes of the Northeast volcanic zone of Iceland
(Adapted from Stefánsson, 1981.)
(c) Structural map of Krafla caldera and its active fissure swarms
Page 248
of lava flows and vertically along dikes and faults; Bodvarsson (1961) presents
hydrologic and chemical evidence that these waters can flow laterally for as far as 50 km.
High-temperature geothermal systems are associated with the young volcanic fields along
the active tectonic rifts. Most have temperatures of 200 to 300°C at depths of 1 to 2 km.
Bodvarsson (1976) estimated that nearly 400 km2 of Iceland, along the neovolcanic zones,
is underlain by high-temperature geothermal systems. The Krafla field, which is
representative of these hydrothermal systems, has been developed in and around Krafla
caldera in northeastern Iceland, as described in the next section.
Migration of Magma and Dike Formation
Information on the movement, shape, and size of magma bodies below fissure swarms is
based on both geophysical measurements during recent eruptions and
structural/volcanologic studies of historic eruptions. Magma overpressures result in the
beginnings of extension, which in turn lead to magma rise and eruption. Sigvaldason
(1987) inferred that during the 19751981 Krafla eruptions, magma moved through
''holding chambers" at depths of 30, 25, 8, and 4 km. After the eruptions, refilling of these
intermediate chambers took ~3 weeks. From the high-level chambersat depths of 3 to 7
kmrepeated lateral magma injections into fissure swarms north and south of the Krafla
central volcano initiated a rifting event. [This rifting episode was activated by the
subsequent release of tensional stress that accumulated over the plate boundary during the
previous 250 years (Tryggvason, 1984)]. The fissure swarm was extended by an 80- to
90-km-long section during this period; the average widening for a fissure during the
accumulated 20 discrete events was 5 to 6 m (Tryggvason, 1984). Each extensional event
was accompanied by subsidence near the center of the Krafla caldera, which demonstrates
the link between the fissure swarms and the high-level chamber below the central
volcano.
Tryggvason (1984) determined that the accumulated area of fissure widening during the
19751981 Krafla event was ~377,000 m2. Based on observed ground deformation, he
suggested that most of the magma was injected into vertical fissures rather than into sills.
Using gravity and elevation measurements, he determined that the volume of magma
leaving the reservoir was ~1.75 times that of caldera subsidence. The dike volume (V) is
equated with that of magma leaving the reservoir, minus the volume of material erupted.
The estimated dike height (h) = ~1.75 V/A, where A = area of horizontal extension by the
dike. For the best recorded events at Krafla, calculated dike heights are 2.4 to 2.8 km. The
total volume of magma that flowed out of the reservoir into fissure swarms during this
episode at Krafla is estimated at 1.08 km3, of which 1.03 km3 remains in the dikes to
become a renewed heat source for the associated geothermal fields. The measured
volume of lavas erupted is 0.2 km3, which is four times greater than the volume
predicted. Tryggvason concludes that perhaps the volume estimates of magma leaving the
caldera are too low.
Gudmundsson (1986) used his work on the Reykjanes Peninsula of Iceland to develop a
method for estimating the volume of magma reservoirs below fissure swarms, as is
depicted in Fig. 6.15; his method requires the measurements and assumptions listed here.
The maximum length for a magma reservoir is taken to be equal to the length of vents
in the fissure swarm.
The width of the reservoir is estimated to be 1.72 times the width of the vents in the
fissure swarm; this ratio is based on observations of older dike swarms that are exposed
in outcrop.
A reservoir is taken as an ellipsoid, the volume of which is calculated as V = 4/3
ahbhch and the area of which is calculated as A = ahbh,
Page 249
where ah, bh, and ch = the half-width, half-length, and half-thickness, respectively, of the
ellipsoid. The half-thickness of the reservoir is calculated by ch = 0.75 V/A, where V =
total volume of the magma (both erupted and in dikes).
The average volume of individual fissure lava flows on the peninsula is 0.11 km3.
Walker (1959) estimated the average volume of a corresponding feeder dike by using the
average length of the volcanic fissures (2.2 km), a crustal thickness of 8 km, and an
average dike width of 4 m. The estimated volume of a feeder dike here is 0.07 km3 and
an average value for ch is 1.5 km (2ch = 3 km). It is likely that only the uppermost 3 km
of the reservoir participates in an eruption.
The volume of feeder dikes (~0.07 km3) is small, but as a result of intrusions and
eruptions every 10 years, the active fissure swarms contain excellent heat sources.
Bodvarsson (1976) calculated that in Iceland, heat reaches the surface by conduction
(~50%), as erupted magma (~30%), and as thermal waters (~20%).
South of Krafla caldera is Askja-Öskuvatn caldera; Sigurdsson and Sparks' (1978)
documentation of the 18741875 eruption provides another view of fissuring and dike
injection along the fissure swarms. The Askja central volcano straddles a 75-km-long
fissure swarm. Magnitude 6 or 7 earthquakes in 1872 marked a new phase of rifting, and
by the fall of 1874 the fissure swarm was rifted along a 70-km segment. A graben 1 to 2
km wide was formed, bounded by normal faults with throws of 40 to 60 m south of the
central volcano and 10 m north of it. In early January 1975, a major injection of magma
into a high-level reservoir was followed by phreatomagmatic eruptions of rhyolitic ash.
Caldera inflation was relieved by periodic injections of magma out into the fissure
swarms. At the surface, the central fissure is flanked by en echelon spatter ramparts. The
Sveinagja lava field covers 30 km2; it is
Fig. 6.15
(a) Fractures measured in the western part of the
Thingvellir swarm in Iceland. (b) The width and
throw of three fractures from the Thingvellir
swarm were measured along
the strike of the fissures.
(Adapted from Gudmundsson, 1987.)
Page 250
located 40 to 70 km north of the Askja-Öskjuvatn caldera and consists of 0.3 km3 of
mostly tholeiitic aa and pahoehoe lavas. The estimated volume of intruded magma was
1.5 km3, which could be accounted for by a single 100-km-long, 5-km-deep, 3-m-wide
dike. Fissure widths range from 2.5 to 4 m. In the northern part of the lava field, activity
was centralized at an offset in the rift and formed a line of cinder cones.
Brown et al. (1987) used gravity surveys to document the presence of a 20-mGal, north-
south-trending anomaly that may correspond with a dense dike swarm below the
Öskuvatn-Askja caldera. They also noted that caldera fill is most likely thin and that the
caldera's collapse was primarily related to eruptions out along the fissure swarms.
Hydrothermal Reservoirs
Hydrothermal reservoirs in Iceland are usually bounded by lava flow contacts or clay-rich
hyaloclastite deposits. Water in aquifers can also pond when dikes act as barriers. By
measuring the deuterium content of thermal waters, Arnoson (1976) has shown that the
waters are of meteoric origin, although a few systems are charged with seawater. In most
cases, water from the highlands percolates into bedrock and flows laterally for distances
of as much as 150 km but more usually several tens of km. The water then rises to the
surface along dikes or faults. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 summarize potential reservoir rocks and
the flow rates through these rocks as sampled by drilling (Friedleiffson, 1975; Tómasson
et al., 1975).
Pillow lavas have a higher effective permeability than any other rock type encountered by
drilling in Icelandic geothermal areas (Friedliefsson, 1978/79). Subglacial fissure
eruptions produce elongate ridges (mobergs), as shown in Fig. 6.16, that are 1 to 5 km
wide, tens of kilometers long, and a few hundred meters thick. The cores of these ridges
consist of permeable pillow lavas, but the flanking hyaloclastite deposits can serve as
aquitards. Subglacial eruptions are remarkable in that they are able to create both the
reservoir and the caprock in one volcano.
Krafla volcano has three high-temperature geothermal fields, which are located
within the 8- by 10-km Krafla caldera, where the thermal area is outlined by explosion
craters, surface manifestations, and altered ground (Fig. 6.17). [Further exploration to
define the reservoir included Schlumberger resistivity soundings and analyses of
fumarolic gases. In this 35-km2 thermal area, the temperature in a 2-km-deep drillhole
reached 345°C (Stefánsson, 1981)];
6.2 km south of the caldera along the fissure swarm at Námafjall, where the geothermal
area covers 4 km2; and
5 km north of the caldera, also along the fissure swarm at Gjástykki; surface
manifestations encompass an area 1 by 4.5 km parallel to the swarm.
Table 6.1. Potential Geothermal Reservoir
Rocks in Icelanda
Tertiary
Stratiform horizons of pyroclastic
rocks, including ignimbrites,
Group 1
sediments, and olivine tholeiite
compound lava shields
Local accumulations in central
volcanoes of highly porous lavas,
Group 2
tuffs, agglomerates, and
hyaloclastitesb (in caldera lakes)
Quaternary
As in Group 1, plus primary and
reworked subglacial
Group 3hyaloclastites; hyaloclastite
horizons reach maximum
thickness over the eruptive sites
Local accumulations in central
Group 4volcanoes of hyaloclastites and
subaerial eruptives, as in Group 2
a From Fridleifsson (1975).
b The term hyaloclastite is used here in a
collective sense for all subaquatic volcanic
products and thus comprises pillow lavas,
pillow breccias, and tuffs.
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Table 6.2. Occurrence of Aquifers in Rock Types for Drill Holes (800- to
2045-m Deep) in the Reykir Thermal Areaa
Aquifers (Flow (I/s)
Rock Types 2 >2 to 20 >20 Total Number of Aquifers
Lavas 44 27 2 73
Hyaloclastites 29 12 4 45
Dolerites 1 1 2
Lavas and Hyaloclastites 53 38 20 111
Hyaloclastites and Dolerites 5 2 1 8
a From Tómasson et al. (1975).
Drilling within the low-resistivity zone revealed three main rock units: hyaloclastite
deposits, lava flows, and dikes, as shown in Fig. 6.17. Below a depth of 800 m, lava
flows are dominant, but from a depth of 400 m to the bottoms of the deepest wells, dikes
are more common. The transition depth from zeolite to greenschist facies metamorphism
is at ~800 m (Stefánsson, 1981).
In his model of the Krafla field, Stefánsson (1981) identified two hydrothermal zones.
The shallowest, extending to 1100-m depth, is water-dominated and has a maximum
temperature of 205°C; the basal contact of this zone coincides with the base of a sequence
of lava flows. Within the deeper zonefrom 1100 to 2200 m (total depth for the deepest
well)the reservoir contains a mixture of
Fig. 6.16
Table mountain, or moberg, formed during eruption of basalt along a fissure under a glacier.
(Adapted from Jones, 1969.)
Page 252
steam, water, and CO2. The rocks, consisting of mostly lavas, a granophyre unit, and a
dolerite sill, are intruded by multiple dikes. The two reservoirs are connected by a fault
and/or a dike. Permeability in the upper zone is 10-11 m2; such permeabilities are reflected
in the pressure increases and rises in water level during dike injection and eruption (Fig.
6.18). Pressure transients are not observed in the lower zone because the change is
absorbed in the two-phase hydrothermal system.
Fig. 6.17
Schematic cross-section of the Krafla geothermal
field and the underlying magma body
Stefánsson (1981) noted that a severe mistake was made in constructing a power plant
before the drilling was completed and the field was tested. As a result, the proposed
maximum capacity of 35 MWe was not achieved. An eruption within the caldera also
slowed construction work on the facility.
In Iceland, exploration techniques begin with detailed geologic mapping and dating of
potential reservoir rocks. Determination of the eruption type is crucial; for example, by
locating the vents and mapping facies within rocks erupted from a subglacial volcano, it
is possible to evaluate not only the potential heat source, but also the location and extent
of reservoir and caprocks. As noted earlier, pillow lavas are excellent reservoir rocks and
the associated hyaloclastic carapaces are effective caprocks. All dikes and faults must be
mapped for identification (or interpretation) of both thermal sources and potential
aquicludes. After potential reservoir rocks have been evaluated at the surface,
interpretative cross-sections can be prepared and evaluated by both geologist and
hydrologist. An exploration drillhole can then be sited for further evaluation and
temperature measurements. The primary targets in Iceland for direct-use purposes are
highly permeable rocks that contain fluids with temperatures of > 100°C (Fridleifsson,
1978/79).
Geothermal Potential of Several Small Basaltic Islands
Surtsey
Much of what has been learned during the last 20 years concerning phreatomagmatic
volcanism began with the mid-1960s submarine eruptions south of Iceland that eventually
formed Surtsey, one of the Westmann Islands (Thorarinsson, 1965; 1966; 1967). The
eruption, first noted on November 14, 1963, lasted more than 4 years and ended on June
5, 1967; this eruption formed an island of 2.8 km2 and an elevation of 174 m, which
Page 253
is shown in Fig. 6.19. The early phases of activity were phreatomagmatic; much of the
heat was lost in magma/sea water interactions that generated very energetic steam
eruptions. The tephra deposited by these eruptions was barely warm to touch when was
deposited as fallout and surges.
In later phases of activity, after a growing tuff ring denied the sea access to the vent, the
main activity was lava fountaining, and lava flows that moved across the edges of the
cone toward the sea. After activity ceased entirely, Stefánsson et al. (1985) drilled a 181-
m-deep borehole on the cone at an elevation of 58 m. The tuff above sea level has a
permeability of 1.2 × 10-10 m2 and the system within it is vapor-dominated. Below sea
level, the estimated permeability of the basaltic tuffs is 4.1 × 10-13 m2, and the tuffs are
altered to palagonite (a mixture of smectite clays, zeolites, and iron oxides). No pillow
lavas were encountered in this borehole, and the maximum temperature was 140°C at a
depth of 104 m. Below this depth, near the contact between the sea floor and the base of
the Surtsey cone, temperatures dropped to 40°C within altered tuffs that were cooled by
sea water.
During the drilling operation, the borehole crossed a 13-m-thick dike at a depth of 80 m
(Stefánsson et al., 1985; Fig. 6.20). Most likely emplaced during the lava fountaining
episodes late in the history of the cone, the dike can account for high heat flow within the
cone. Fluids and heat from a tuff ring such as this one could be used for heating water
but not for producing electricity; therefore, it is a limited, short-term resource unless the
heat source were to be replenished by a new eruption.
Heimaey
Within sight of the new island of Surtsey is the small, populated island of Heimaey, which
is an important Icelandic fishing community. On January 23, 1973, a north-north-east-
trending fissure, located only 1 km east
Fig. 6.18
Interaction of the Krafla hydrothermal system with rising magma. Changes in the CO2
concentration and pH within wells KG-3 and KG-4 correspond to renewed eruptive activity.
Page 254
Fig. 6.19
Map of Surtsey volcano indicates the location of the 181-m-deep borehole.
(Adapted from Jakobsson and Moore, 1982.)
Page 255
of the town center, opened over a length of 1200 m. Lava fountains occurred along the
length of the fissure but were soon concentrated at one point (Williams and Moore, 1983).
Within 2 days the lava fountaining had covered the island with ash and had constructed a
120-m-high scoria and spatter cone. Over the subsequent 2 weeks, lava fountaining
decreased in intensity and a thick lava flow moved toward the edge of town. The 43- to
120-m-thick basaltic lava flow, at temperatures of 1030 to 1055°C, moved into the town
and also threatened the harbor entrance.
To save the town and harbor, Icelandic officials were determined to stop the lava flow.
Their method was to increase the lava's viscosity by spraying it with cold seawater and to
construct a barrier along the flow margin. Seawater was sprayed onto the flow front and
distributed across the flow surface at a rate of 1.7 m3/s, cooling the flow to well below its
solidus temperature. Barriers within the flow, which were formed by cooling, caused the
flow to thicken. Over a 6-month period, the ~10 × 106 m3 of water sprayed onto the lava
flows converted ~6.5 × 106 m3 of molten lava into hot, but solid rock (Jonsson and
Matthiasson, 1974; Williams and Moore, 1983).
The eruption ceased June 23, 1973, leaving a lava flow ~1.5 by 1.5 km and ~100 m thick
that was overlain by ~5 m of scoria. The residents of Heimaey immediately began to
examine ways to take advantage of this heat source. A district heating system was created
and after a successful prototype system was tested, construction of a geothermal heating
system began. Four 100- by 100-m areas were developed, each consisting of steamwells
in the unconsolidated scoria overlying the lava flow and an overlying network of pipes
that spray water onto the ground surface. The water seeps into the scoria and the lava
flow, is converted to steam, and rises to the steamwell collectors (Fig. 6.21). Each well
produces 2.5 MWthermal during normal operations (Björnsson, 1980; Williams and Moore,
1983). By 1982, the entire town was heated by steam from the lava flow.
Réunion Island in the Indian Ocean
The geothermal drilling project on the Island of Réunion in the western Indian Ocean
provides an example of where one might not expect to find a hydrothermal system. Piton
de la Fournaise, an active basaltic shield volcano on Réunion, was constructed on the
southeast flank of an older shield volcano, Piton de Neiges. Fournaise has erupted about
every 2 years during the last 250 years (Stieltjes, 1985). Broadly curving faults define a
series of large blocks stepping down to the sea (Fig. 6.22); these features were interpreted
by Stieltjes (1985) as a caldera and by Duffield et al. (1982) as large gravitational slumps.
The faults flank a
Fig. 6.20
Temperature profiles and simplified lithologic
descriptions for the Surtsey borehole. Excess
heat encountered at ~80-m depth is probably
related to a 13-m-thick dike
complex in the core of the cone.
(Adapted from Jakobsson and Moore, 1982.)
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Fig. 6.21
Diagram of the emplacement of shallow collectors (steamwells) in scoria deposits overlying a thick
basaltic lava flow from the 1973 eruption of Heimaey, Iceland. Water from surface pipes supplies
the recharge to the solidified, fractured lava flow, where steam is generated and collected in
a steamwell. This geothermal energy source is
successfully operating as a district-heating system.
(Adapted from Björnsson, 1980, and Williams and Moore, 1983.)
Page 257
broad trough that slopes from the summit elevation of 2600 m to sea level. Kieffer et al.
(1977), Duffield et al. (1982), and Stieltjes (1985) propose that the rift zones trend
northeast, southeast, and northwest. Historic eruptions have occurred at vents in the
summit caldera and along the flanking rifts. The Cratère Bory and Cratère Brûlant form a
1.2- by 0.7-km summit crater complex.
Two geothermal wells have been drilled on Réunion Island. One was sited on the east
coast, in the outflow area of Piton de la Fournaise and the other on the older Piton des
Neiges volcano. The Fournaise well, drilled on the shield flanksinexplicably away from
the active riftsreached bottom in a dense gabbro intrusion and was cold. The second well
reached rock at temperatures of 200°C but did not produce any fluids.
Geothermal heat sources in basaltic volcanoes rely on frequent but small eruptions. In
contrast, along convergent plate boundaries and on the continents, eruptions are less
frequent, but heat sources are shallow and large. Chapter 7 discusses the most common
volcano type found at these convergent marginscomposite cones.
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Fig. 6.22
Piton de la Fournaise on Réunion Island in the Indian Ocean.
(a) Map of Piton de La Fournaise volcano Shaded areas indicate rift zones.
(Adapted from Duffield et al., 1982).
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Fig. 6.22
(b) Diagrammatic cross-section C'C. Features noted 1, 2, 3 refer to major periods of eruptive
activity. Gravity slump blocks from earlier stages are believed to be bounded by formerly active pairs
of northeast and southeast rift zones. A possible future slump block, shown with dashed line,
is located below fracture systems of the presently active rifts.
The position of the magma reservoir is speculative
(Adapted from Duffield et al., 1982).
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Chapter 7
Geothermal Systems in Maturing Composite Cones
The most obvious volcanoes above sea level are the tall composite cones that occur in
chains parallel to descending plate margins. Some of the more famous of these volcanoes
are Mount Fuji, Mount St. Helens, Krakatau, and Vesuvius. Composite cones are large
volcanoes that consist of multiple volcanic landforms such as interlayered pyroclastic
rocks, lava flows, domes, and volcanic sediments. Composite cones are also known as
stratovolcanoes or stratocones. Hundreds of composite cones overlie the Earth's
subduction zones and may mark segmented arcs; they form island arcs andon land where
the crust is thickervolcanic chains. Magmas are formed in the asthenosphere by the
melting of descending plates as well as bits of the mantle and sediments overlying the
plate at depths of 80 to 100 km; these magmas then rise buoyantly toward the Earth's
surface.
Magmas reach the surface by fracture propagation and subsequent flow through dikes or
by diapiric rise of blobs of viscous magma (Marsh, 1978), as is shown in Figs. 7.1 to 7.3.
During the early history of a magmatic system, not many of these magma bodies will
reach the surface to erupt or even to be emplaced at shallow depths. Magmas lose heat
through conduction to adjacent crustal rocks; they become highly viscous and their rise
toward the surface is halted. Either multiple periods of dike intrusion or the emplacement
of diapiric magma bodies is required to create a zone or chain of heated pathways that
enables succeeding magmas to reach the shallow crust (Fig. 7.1). Such a heating process
allows larger, more viscous, slower moving magmas to aggregate and form bodies that
reach the surface and erupt. However, shallower magma bodies associated with eruptions
are ultimately the heat sources for geothermal systems.
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Fig. 7.1
Schematic cross-section for the system of
magma reservoirs below a medium-size composite
cone that is 8 km in diameter and has a volume
of 25 km3. This cross-section is drawn to scale
except for the reservoir volumes, which are
exaggerated. The 70-km-thick lithosphere is
based on examples from the Aleutian Islands.
This model assumes 25% fusion followed by
80% extraction from a zone of magma genesis
with a volume of 250 km3. OPX = orthopyroxene;
HB = hornblende; PX = pyroxene;
and OL = olivine.
(Adapted from Gill, 1981.)
Composite cones in volcanic arcs usually evolve with time. The volcanoes grow from
individual simple cones into multiple cones, domes, and craters. Magmas become more
silicic and explosive, and the volume of individual eruption sequences increases
significantly. Networks of dikes, sills, and plutons are more pervasive and provide the
structural framework that props up cones and shallow thermal sources. Surface
manifestations above these intrusions become more evident, including fumaroles, the acid
alteration of rocks in or near the summit crater, and hot springs located along the lower
flanks of the cone. The recharge of meteoric water within a cone is important, not only
because it contributes to the development of a hydrothermal system, but also because it
can mask the thermal anomaly by an outward, rapid, near-surface movement of cold
water.
This chapter discusses examples of composite cones and their activity and defines the
surface indicators that can serve as guides to the geothermal systems within or below
these volcanoes.
Distributions, Volumes, and Compositions
Distribution of Composite Cones in Volcanic Arcs
Volcanic arcs may break into segments, each of which is parallel to the arc trend and
contains between two and a dozen volcanic centers (Stoiber and Carr, 1973; Marsh,
1979a; Carr et al., 1982). Arc segments have been identified by mapping offsets in lines
of volcanoes, contrasting volcano shapes and eruption styles, clusters of small basaltic
volcanoes located behind the volcanic front near breaks, transverse fault zones, and
clusters of large, shallow earthquakes at the segment boundaries (Carr et al., 1982).
Segmentation has been well-documented in Central America (Carr et al., 1982), the
Aleutians
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Fig. 7.2
Simplified two-dimensional diagram of a magma supply vs percolation rate model of lithospheric
magmatism. Axes are schematic and depict only the relative magnitudes of supply and the
modification of primitive magma in the systems shown. Asterisks indicate systems thought to be
characterized by the rapid transient injection of basalt at restricted crustal levels, which results in the
generation of rhyolite but little intermediate magma. In contrast, most continental and orogenic systems
may involve a diffuse injection throughout much of the lithosphere as well as subsequent mixing and
crustal mobilization, which in turn produce chiefly magmas of intermediate composition.
The degree of potential magma modification increases with increasing crustal thickness,
compositional contrast, and magma residence time.
(Marsh, 1979b), and the Mariana-Volcano Islands (Meijer, 1982).
Figure 7.4 shows a volcanic arc in Central America where zones interpreted as segments
range in length from 55 to 260 km. Table 7.1 presents a comparison of segment length
and volume for Central American volcanic arc segments. Stoiber and Carr (1973)
reported that the volume of erupted lavas and pyroclastic rocks per kilometer increases
with increasing segment length, from 1 km3/km for the shortest (55 km) to 5.2 km3/km
for the longest (260 km). It has been proposed that arc segments reflect breaks and
uneven surfaces within the descending plates (Carr et al., 1982; Marsh, 1979a, b).
Segment boundaries commonly
Page
Fig. 7.3
Schematic cross-
sections that depict two possible stages in the development of igneous systems in which tectonic
extension is subordinate and shallow. This model applies to (a) early and (b) intermediate stages of island
continental margin arcs, and mid-continental igneous systems.
Nearly all the heat for this system is supplied by basalt injection.
Page 265
coincide with grabens that are oriented perpendicular to the plate boundary. Burkhart and
Self (1985) interpreted these grabens as expressions of tectonic extensionrather than
segmentationof the plate.
The distance between composite cones located within adjacent arc segments is fairly
uniform, and the volume of material erupted from each center is approximately
proportional to that distance (Marsh, 1979a, b). For the Aleutian Island arc, this spacing is
~70 km (Marsh and Carmichael, 1974). Meijer (1982) noted that along the Mariana
volcanic chain of the western Pacific, the spacing between volcanic centers ranges from
20 to ~80 km; this spacing is correlative with volcano size: the small volcanoes are the
most closely spaced. Within segmented arcs, small, usually monogenetic cones may form
at a distance of ~50 km behind and parallel to the volcanic front. These less voluminous
cone clusters may develop 3 to 4 m.y. after the beginnings of arc volcanism (Marsh,
1979a).
Volcanic Eruption Rates and Relative Volumes for Magma Types in Composite Cones of
Volcanic Arcs
Volcanic arcs and their composite cones contain a full spectrum of magma
compositionsfrom basalt to rhyolite. Temporal variations in these compositions provide
clues about the depth and size of the intrusive rocks that were their thermal sources.
Compositional variations are affected by the rate of plate movement, the angle of plate
descent, irregularities in the descending plate, crustal thickness, and the depth and
residence time of the magma reservoirs.
Fig. 7.4
The segmented volcanic front of Central America, in which active volcanic fields are shown as
shaded areas. Stippled vertical bars mark the transverse breaks in the arc. The thin, parallel lines
mark depths to the inclined seismic zones (contour interval is 50 km); offshore 1000-m
contours are depths below sea level.
(Adapted from Carr et al., 1982.)
Page 266
Table 7.1. Volcanic Arc Segments in Central Americaa
Length Volume
Segment Strike of Chain
(km) (km3/km)
Western Guatemala 55 1.0 N63W
Central Guatemala 145 2.7 N65W
Eastern Guatemala 85 1.7 N65W
El Salvador 220 4.3 N70W
Western Nicaragua 175 1.5 N56W
Eastern Nicaragua 120 5.2 N49W
Costa Rica 260 5.2 N60W
a From Stoiber and Carr (1973).
Another factor affecting the longevity of thermal sources is the extrusion rate for
individual volcanoes and volcanic chains. This factor is difficult to evaluate because of
the buried eruption sequences, erosion, and widespread distribution of pyroclastic
products, but a number of studies have provided enough data to allow general estimates.
Nakamura (1974) and Crisp (1984) reviewed data for volcanic output on a global scale
and found that subduction-zone-related volcanoes produce from 0.4 to 0.75 × 106
km3/m.y. Working with individual arcs, McBirney et al. (1974) and Sugimura and Uyeda
(1973) concluded that the volume of material erupted for the Cascade Range and Japan,
respectively, was ~5 km3/m.y./km of arc. These general estimates were confirmed in a
more detailed work by Sherrod and Smith (1990), who found that the extrusion rates in
arc segments of the Quaternary Cascades volcanic arc range from 0.21 to 6 km3/m.y./km
of arc. Variations in the volume of material erupted from volcanoes of the Lesser Antilles
and Central America may be related to both crustal thickness and rates of plate
convergence; over the last 100,000 years, production rates have been 3.1 km3/m.y./km of
arc in Central America and 4 km3/m.y./km of arc in the Lesser Antilles (Wadge, 1984).
This relationship between convergence rate, crustal thickness, and magma types is shown
in Table 7.2.
If an intermediate or silicic magma bodyeither small or largeis to rise buoyantly to crustal
depths, it must be heated from below by basaltic magmas from the asthenosphere.
Without this thermal boost, silicic magma chambers cool and solidify; they may never
reach the upper crust (Lachenbruch et al., 1976; Eichelberger, 1978). Fractionation and
mixing of basaltic and silicic melts can produce the spectrum of magma types seen in
composite cones. These compositional variations are controlled by the rate of magma
supply, crustal thickness, rate of magma percolation through the crust, and extrusion to
intrusion ratio (Figs. 7.2 and 7.3; Hildreth, 1981).
To calculate the number of shallow crustal magma bodies that might provide heat to
geothermal systems, it is necessary to determine the relative volumes of magma types and
their ages for each composite volcano and, if possible, for an entire arc. Central Cascade
Range volcanism in North America began in the earliest Pleistocene with the eruption of
widespread basaltic cones and flows and the construction of overlapping shield volcanoes
(McBirney and White, 1982). Activity became more localized at centers from which more
andesitic lavas and tephra were erupted. This activity formed the base upon which the
large composite cones were constructed during the past million years. The volume
measurements of
Page 267
Table 7.2. Classification of Volcanic Arcs by Convergence Rate, Crustal
Thickness, and Calc-Alkalinity of Magmasa
Convergence rates >7 cm/yr and crust <20 km thick: 80% of the
I.
volcanoes are composed of tholeiitic rocks
Examples:
Kermadec Marianas
South Sandwich Tonga
lzu
Convergence rates >7 cm/yr and crust 30 to 40 km thick; 33 to 70% of
II.
the volcanoes are composed of tholeiitic rocks
Examples:
New Britain East Japan
Central America Vanuatu
Kuriles Chile (33 to 47°S)
Java Kamchatka
Convergence rates <7 cm/yr or crust >40 km thick; <50% of the
III.
volcanoes are composed of tholeiitic rocks
Examples:
New Zealand Cascades
Chile (>47°S) Sumatra
Alaska Ryukus
Lesser Antilles Ecuador
Aegean Peru (Northern)
Turkey-Iran Colombia
Mexico Chile
a From Gill (1981).
McBirney et al. (1974) indicated that most of the province consists of basaltic scoria
cones and lava flows and that andesitic composite cones make up only 15% of the
erupted material. Studies of Mount Jefferson indicate that the early basaltic activity
produced >100 km3, but that the cone-building stages involved only 25 km3 of andesitic
magma (Fig. 7.5).
Clark (1983) found that the Three Sisters volcanic complex of the southern Cascade
Range was erupted onto a broad base of basaltic lavas (57 km3), which included a much
larger relative volume of andesite (30 km3) and rhyodacite-rhyolite (3.5 km3).
Rhyodacitic domes erupted during the past 2300 years from aligned vents that cross the
summit regions of the complex. These eruptions may have tapped only a small volume of
a compositionally zoned, shallow magma chamber of much greater volume (Scott (1987).
By plotting volumes of erupted material vs SiO2 compositions for the Quaternary
volcanic rocks of Japan, Aramaki and Ui (1982) demonstrated that changes along the arc
may be related to both plate movement and crustal thickness. Arc segments that consist of
composite cones, domes, and calderas are mostly andesite-dacite-rhyoliteall of which are
indicative of shallow crustal magma bodies. Most of the rhyolitic materials are associated
with large calderas. The basaltic segments are made up of pre-dominantly simple cones
and lava flows (Fig. 7.6).
Page 268
Fig. 7.5
Relative volumes of rock types associated with
Quaternary composite cones in the Cascade
Range of North America. (a) Mount Jefferson was
constructed during four main periods of activity;
rock volumes vs SiO2 content for each stage are
shown in the graph. (b) Three Sisters complex,
which is characterized by more siliceous rocks
than Mount Jefferson. Of the two, the Three
Sisters complex has more potential as a
geothermal resource.
(Adapted from McBirney and White, 1982.)
Inferred Intrusive Volumes and Their Depths below Composite Cones
Using a model originally developed for evaluating large-volume eruptions of silicic
magmas and subsequent caldera collapse, Smith and Shaw (1975) determined that the
volume ratio of magma chambers to erupted material is ~10:1. This conclusion was based
on models of magma transport into the Earth's crust, exhumed intrusive-volcanic
complexes, petrologic indicators, and geo-physical studies of active igneous systems. The
authors later applied this model to the evaluation of all the high-grade geothermal systems
in the U.S. Shaw (1985) took this model even further when he calculated volume-
periodicity relations for explosive eruption activity in a variety of volcanoesfrom
composite cones located along plate boundaries to large mid-continental calderas. Most of
the magma chambers below andesitic-dacitic cones examined in this study are located
within the upper 4 km, and several are within 2 km of the crust.
Crisp (1984) and Wadge (1984) approximated intrusive-to-extrusive ratios for all volcano
types, including composite cones and the associated domes and calderas along subduction
zones (Table 7.3).
Eruption Phenomena and Deposits at Composite Cones
A composite cone consists of a stack of overlapping volcanic landforms deposited during
a wide variety of eruptions that range from mild steam explosions to large Plinian
eruptions accompanied by caldera collapse. The type of activity that produces any
particular volcanic landform depends upon many factors, such as magma composition,
volatile content, volume, and depth to underlying magma bodies, as well as the size and
gravitational stability of the cone and its access to ground or surface water.
Page 269
Composite cones usually evolve through time, as is displayed in Fig. 7.7; each successive
eruption involves increased silica content in the magmas, shallower crustal magma
bodies, and more energy. This process may last over several hundred thousand years but
certainly less than a million years. Thus, many of the Earth's active composite cones are
less than 200,000 years old. Mount Shasta in California, with a summit elevation of 3050
m, was constructed by four cone-building episodes during the last 250,000 years
(Christiansen, 1985). The evolutionary model described in this section applies to mostbut
not allcomposite cones; volcanoes are far too individual to allow absolute predictions of
activity and products. For more detailed views of eruption processes, refer to Williams
and McBirney (1979), Fisher and Schmincke (1984), and Heiken and Wohletz (1985).
Immature Stage
Lava Fountaining
Low-viscosity basaltic magmas erupt as lava fountains and basaltic lava flows. The
fountains range from a few meters to >600 m in height (Fig. 7.8). They deposit welded
spatter (bombs and ash) in either a circular or oval apron around a central vent or as
ridges parallel to a fissure. The spray of low-viscosity (<103-poise) basaltic liquid is
driven by expansion of magmatic gases. Basaltic glass pyroclasts from lava fountains
range from vesicular bombs a meter or more across to spheres of a few micrometers. The
coarser pyroclasts are deposited within a few hundred meters of the vent; finer ash,
including filamentous Pele's hair, is swept downwind and deposited as ashfall.
The structures associated with lava fountains are <100-m-high spatter ramparts and scoria
cones composed of mixed welded spatter and basaltic ash. Pahoehoe and aa basaltic lava
flows overflow from cinder cones and spatter ramparts or from fissures outside
Fig. 7.6
Volume and weight percent of SiO2 from
Quaternary Japanese volcanic rocks. Patterned
portions represent lavas and pyroclastic rocks of
composite cones, lava domes, and pyroclastic
cones. Open portions indicate pyroclastic rocks
associated with large calderas.
(Adapted from Aramaki and Ui, 1982.)
Table 7.3. Examples of Ratios of Intrusive to
Extrusive Rocks Along Subduction Zonesa
Andes ~6:1
Peru <13:1
Kurile Islands <13:1
Kaimondake, Japan 0.8:1
Fuego, Guatemala 2.1:1
''Typical" composite cone 1.5:1
Alaskan and Cascade volcanoesb 10:1
a From Crisp (1984) and Wadge (1984).
b From Smith and Shaw (1975).
Page 270
Fig. 7.7
The evolution and geothermal potential of composite cones.
these structures, as can be seen at Kilauea (Fig. 7.9). These structures are often over-
whelmed by lava flows, buried by small lava shields, or cut by pit craters. The volume of
the lava flows in these eruptions greatly exceeds that of the pyroclastic rocks.
At this early stage of composite cone development, there are only simple, monogenetic
cones composed of basaltic lavas. These may occur singly or in chains along prevolcanic
fracture or fault systems. Of course, there are exceptions to this simple categorization; for
example, Fedotov (1987) reported that 4750-m-high Kliuchevskoi Volcano in the Kurile-
Kamchatka arc of the USSR is a basaltic cone with an annual magma output of 60 × 106
m3.
Strombolian Eruptions
Explosive bursts of solidified and partly solidified bombs, blocks, and ash are termed
Strombolian, from activity at Stromboli Volcano, which is located along the chain of
volcanoes that make up Italy's Aeolian Islands. Well-documented Strombolian eruptions
consist of "weak to violent ejection[s] of partly-fluid blobs" (MacDonald, 1972;
Page 271
Fig. 7.8
This 300-m-high lava fountain occurred during the 19591960 eruption of Kilauea lki
in Hawaii. High flux, accompanied by a rapid release of magmatic gases, caused the
low-viscosity basaltic lava to fountain. This spray consisted of gases and droplets and
clots of lava. Similar lava fountains can occur during the early history of a composite cone.
(Photograph by the U.S. Geological Survey; Richter et al., 1970.)
Page 272
Fig. 7.9
Spatter rampart adjacent to a fissure vent at Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii. Partly molten bombs,
ranging from a few centimeters to several meters in diameter, fall out within a few tens or
hundreds of meters of the vent and form a resistant ridge or ring of welded scoria.
Page 273
Self et al., 1974; McGetchin et al., 1974). Most of the pyroclasts fall ballistically around
the vent and build up a scoria cone (Fig. 7.10); finer grained tephra is deposited on the
cone and some is carried downwind. Fallout beds accumulate until they exceed their
angle of repose, after which avalanches cascade down the flanks and into the crater
(McGetchin et al., 1974). Of the tephra erupted, ~50% is deposited in the cinder cone and
50% is deposited in fallout layers downwind from the cone (Heiken, 1978a).
Activity at scoria cones can rapidly alternate between lava fountaining, Strombolian
bursts, and Vulcanian eruptions (discussed in the section on the submature stage of cone
growth). Interbedded with the loose scoria fall and avalanche beds of many scoria cones
are layers of welded scoria and finer grained phreatomagmatic tephra (for example, at
Stromboli).
Pyroclasts in Strombolian deposits range from irregular, smooth-skinned, vesicular
sideromelane droplets (basaltic glass) to blocky, crystalline, poorly vesicular tachylite
pyroclasts. This spectrum of textural types is found in all size categoriesfrom large bombs
to scoria to fine ash.
Magma compositions represented in scoria cones vary from basaltic to basaltic andesite.
Lava flows associated with Strombolian activity may be caused by overflows from crater
lava lakes or eruptions from the cone flanks, which can even carry away part of the cone.
Pahohoe, aa, and block lavas are all associated with scoria cones.
Submature Stage
This stage of growth includes the development of individual vents along lineaments.
Magmas are mostly of intermediate compositions that comprise basaltic andesites,
Fig. 7.10
Cinder Cone at Lassen National Park in California. This scoria cone is typical of cones that are
peripheral to the more silicic volcanoes of the Lassen area. Built during several periods of
eruptive activity during the last 400 years, this cone was last active in 1851 A.D. Cinder Cone
consists of outwardly dipping layers of several types of scoriaceous bombs and ash
that were deposited ballistically and by slumping of oversteepened slopes.
Page 274
andesitic basalts, and andesites. As the volcano grows in elevation, it may affect local
weather patterns; heavier precipitation occurring near the summit may saturate rocks or
form snowfields and glaciers. With the presence of increased surface and groundwater on
the volcano, the potential for hydrothermal activity and phreatic eruptions will also
increase. The factors responsible for the trend toward Vulcanian activity are increasingly
viscous magma and increasing amounts of groundwater.
Vulcanian Eruptions
A Vulcanian eruption is characterized by the moderate to violent ejection of solid or very
viscous lava fragments in short, cannon-like bursts. Ash, fine ash, and gases are emitted
and ascend to form a cauliflower-like eruption cloud. The eruption mechanism is not
clear, but it appears to consist of alternating magmatic and phreatomagmatic processes.
Occasionally, eruptions will shift back and forth between Vulcanian and Strombolian
activity. They can produce eruption clouds that rise several kilometers above the vent as
well as small pyroclastic flows and surges that flow down the cone flanks. These
pyroclastic flow deposits may grade into laharic breccias on the lower flanks of the
volcanopossibly as a result of condensation of the steam-particulate mixture. Vulcanian
eruptions form scoria cones, craters in composite cones, and lava domes.
Vulcanian deposits consist of large blocks and bombs in a matrix of juvenile and non-
juvenile ash. Heiken and Wohletz (1985) determined that the juvenile components may be
vesicular (mostly magmatic) or blocky and nonvesicular (mostly phreatomagmatic).
Nonjuvenile components are interpreted as fragments of a lava plug in the conduit, bits of
dome lava, or fragments from the conduit and crater walls.
Nairn and Self (1978) reported that at Ngauruhoe volcano in New Zealand, cannon-like
explosions and subsequent pyroclastic falls and flows resulted when a lava plug was
pulverized in the conduit by a combination of magma degassing and vaporization of
groundwater.
Volcanic Mudflows (Lahars)
A volcanic mudflow is a mixture of juvenile and nonjuvenile pyroclasts, lithic clasts
picked up on the volcano surface, and a silt or mud matrix. Lithic blocks can range from
pebble size to slabs that are tens of meters in diameter. Within the fine-grained matrix may
be vesicles formed by trapped air or steam. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) and Crandell
(1971) provide excellent detailed descriptions of volcanic mudflows.
Volcanic debris flows are nearly always associated with composite cones in submature or
mature stages of growth. These flows can be initiated in several ways: (1) condensation of
water vapor in cooling pyroclastic flows or surges (Wohletz, 1986), (2) phreatic eruptions
of muddy tephra, (3) expulsion of water from crater lakes, and/or (4) snow and ice melt
following emplacement of small pyroclastic flows. Lahar is a commonly used Indonesian
term for a coarse, poorly sorted volcanic debris flow (van Bemmelen, 1949). Lahar
deposits may coat the flanks of a cone, but they are generally confined to the canyons and
valleys of the watershed. They may travel for distances of > 100 km if the volume is great
enough and the stream gradient steep enough. Where there is a change of gradientfor
example at the head of a plain below the volcanolahars spread out to form fan-like sheets.
Because they are generally confined to drainages, volcanic mudflows are interbedded
with reworked pyroclastic deposits and eroded lava flows. Surfaces of debris flow
breccias of any type can be smooth, but they can also be hummocky when they contain
>1-m diameter blocks that have been carried along with the flow, as shown in Fig. 7.11.
In most field situations it is difficult to distinguish between laharic deposits and debris
avalanche deposits from volcanoes.
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Fig. 7.11
A laharic breccia and a small, valley-filling ignimbrite exposed along the east coast of the
island of St. Lucia in the West Indies. Most of the outcrop consists of a matrix-supported
boulder-rich breccia deposited by a volcanic mudflow (lahar). The steep-walled, flat-floored
ravine cut into the breccia has been filled by a massive ignimbrite (the Qualibou Tuff).
Laharic breccias are massive and consist of boulders in a fine-grained, muddy matrix.
Most are reversely graded, but some are normally graded; this feature depends on the
bulk density of the fluid as well as the velocity and strength of the mudflow. All such
breccias are very poorly sorted and thick-bedded deposits. Trees, shrubs, and grass,
frequently ripped up by the mudflows in the upper reaches of a drainage, are carried
along with the flow. The plants may or may not be charred, depending upon the volume
of hot juvenile pyroclasts in the deposit; if the plants are charred, it might be possible to
use carbon-dating techniques on the mudflow.
Mature Stage
At this stage of composite cone development, several new factors are evident.
Magmas are more silicic, more volatile-rich, and thus more explosive.
Magma bodies are more viscous, are larger, and are emplaced at shallow depths.
Shallow hydrothermal systems have developed and there is acid alteration of the cone's
core.
The emplacement of shallow magma bodies and subsequent surface deformation, the
great height of the cone, and hydrothermal alteration of interior portions of the cone
cause instabilities that may lead to sector collapse. (a sector is a cone section that may fail
structurally from summit to base.)
In the mature stages of composite cone development, the balance of construction and
destruction is similar to the processes
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exhibited during the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington: sector collapse,
explosive eruptions, and subsequent slow dome growth, which may eventually fill the
crater formed by collapse.
Plinian and Peléean Eruptions
Plinian and Peléean eruptions are associated with volatile-rich rhyolitic or dacitic
magmas. The eruptions range in magnitude from pumice falls of <0.1 km3 to tens of
cubic kilometers. These eruptions produce not only widespread pumice and ash falls but
also extensive pyroclastic flows. Most of these eruptions are considered magmatic and are
driven by the release of magmatic gases; however, many are also phreatomagmatic. (The
best examples of the latter are associated with calderas in Italy and New Zealand.)
Plinian pumice fall and ashfall deposits systematically decrease in thickness with distance
from the vent. Elliptical fallout patterns are possible unless there is no wind during the
eruptionin which case the pattern is circular. Fallout plane-parallel beds drape the
topography and are normally or reversely graded, depending upon the eruption energy,
the winds, or both. Figure 7.12 shows a pumice fallout deposit at Tecuamburro Volcano
in Guatemala. For a detailed description of all types of ashfall deposits, see Fisher and
Schmincke (1984).
Fallout tephra is moderately to well sorted; its median grain size decreases downwind
from the vent. Such a deposit is mostly composed of angular, vesicular pumice
pyroclasts. The volume of vesicles and phenocrysts and the vesicles' shapes vary greatly
between eruptions and even during a single eruption. A characterization of the vesicles
and an analysis of phenocrysts can be used to interpret details of magma movement and
eruption phenomena (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Heiken and Wohletz, 1985).
Pyroclastic flow and surge deposits from Plinian eruptions can be either small-volume
depositslimited mostly to drainages on the volcano slopesor large volumestens of cubic
kilometers or morethat form aprons radial to calderas. (Chapter 2 provides detailed
descriptions of facies within pyroclastic flow deposits.)
Silicic Lava Domes and Flows
Rhyolitic, rhyodacitic, and dacitic lavas are erupted slowly and form bulbous, steep-sided
domes and lava flows close to the vent area (Fink, 1987). Rose (1987) reports that
Santiaguito in Guatemala has been erupting dacitic lava flows continuously for >60 years.
The flow surfaces are marked by highly fractured, contorted lobes; however, within the
flows, the lavas are flow banded, pumiceous and nonpumiceous, and glassy to crystalline
(Fink and Manley, 1987). These domes are associated with craters but can also erupt from
fissures.
Silicic domes make up an integral part of many composite cones, especially during the
mature stages of cone growth. At the Three Sisters volcano in Oregon, for instance, silicic
domes and flows and associated pyroclastic rocks erupted from 20 vents and have
formed a 10-km-long chain across the summit of South Sister (Scott, 1987).
Domes within the summit craters of composite cones may be purely surficial, spreading
out laterally from a rhyolite dike, or may be part of a plug that fills a large conduit to a
depth of a kilometer or more. Volcán Santa Maria in Guatemala was cut in half during an
explosive eruption in 1902. Twenty years later, a dome began to grow in the crater and
has erupted 1 km3 of dacitic lava in 22 distinct flow lobes to date (Rose, 1987). This
activity has not restored the ~5 km3 of material lost in the 1902 eruption, but the volcano
continues to grow and maintains the cycle of destruction and construction characteristic
of composite cones (Fig. 7.13).
The process of destruction was clearly demonstrated by collapse of the northern flank of
Mount St. Helens during the eruption
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Fig. 7.12
This pumice fallout deposit is overlain by a massive ignimbrite from the same eruption.
An unnamed pyroxene pumice deposit in the Tecuamburro Volcano area of southeastern
Guatemala at this location consists of both a 10-cm-thick pumice fallout deposit, which
drapes underlying topography, and massive ignimbrites, which are thick within valleys
and canyons and thin or absent on ridges and hills.
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of 1980. The collapse removed 2.3 km3 of rock as a rockslide and avalanche from the
summit and core and left a large open amphitheater-like crater (Voight et al., 1981). This
space is now partly filled by a dacitic dome that continues to grow. This process is slowed
only by intermittent periods of destruction or partial destruction by magmatic and phreatic
explosions. In the three-year period after the crater was formed, 0.04 km3 of dacitic lava
was erupted. Swanson et al. (1987) estimated that if the new magma is erupted slowly
and continuously, ~0.01 km3 of dacite will be added each year to the dome (Fig. 7.14).
Kienle and Forbes (1976) noted that during the initial 1976 explosive activity at Augustine
Volcano in Alaska, ash falls and pyroclastic flows swept the slopes, removing ~0.1 km3
of dome material. The cylindrical crater was refilled within a few hours by fresh dacitic
lava.
Fumarolic Activity and Acid Alteration
Mature composite cones with summits high above the surrounding terrain are the sites for
increased precipitation and infiltration of meteoric waters that feed vapor-dominated
hydrothermal systems (Healy, 1976). Usually, fumaroles located near the summit form
zones of acid alteration in the crater or along faults that cut the crater. Hot springs
commonly issue from fractures, faults, or permeable beds near the base of the volcano.
This type of hydrothermal system implies the presence of shallow young magma bodies
within or below the base of the composite cone.
Explosive Phreatic Activity
If a hydrothermal system is perturbed by the injection of new magma at depth, the result
may be explosive steam eruptions without the eruption of juvenile tephra. This type of
activity is possible at many types of volcanoes and even in geothermal areas where there
is no volcanic activity; however, it is
Fig. 7.13
Cross-sections of composite cones that
contain sector collapse craters.
(Adapted from Siebert, 1984).
most common in mature composite cones. Phreatic eruptions may occur without
subsequent activity (such as at Soufrière de Guadeloupe in 19761977), or they may be
precursors of a significant magmatic eruption (as at Mount St. Helens in 1980). Phreatic
eruptions consist of intermittent or continuous explosive steam bursts and can form large
craters.
The phreatic ashfalls observed at Soufrière de Guadeloupe are thin, fine-grained deposits
with large blocks near the vent as well as small volcanic mudflow deposits composed of
hydrothermally altered or weathered lithic clasts and mud (Wohletz and Crowe, 1978;
Heiken and Wohletz, 1985). Intermittent explosive phreatic
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activity is an important indicator of geothermal potential and is described in greater detail
in Chapters 2 and 3.
Models of Composite Cones
To find and develop a hydrothermal system associated with a composite cone, it is
necessary to understand the cone's structural framework, intrusive ''plumbing," and
thermal state. This information must be inferred from clues at the surface such as surface
manifestations of hydrothermal activity, the age and composition of the volcano, and its
fractures, faults, and hydrology (Sibbett, 1988). The ability to relate surface features to
interior structure and thermal state depends on models that have been developed from
geophysical models or through the examination of eroded composite cones. A variety of
these models are discussed here; each is based on a different approach or tectonic setting.
Models Based on Mapping and Mining of Porphyry Copper Deposits in Deeply Eroded
Composite Cones
Branch (1976) studied many composite cones in Papua New Guinea to determine if they
contained volcanogenic ore bodies. Branch published a model of composite cones
(shown in Fig. 7.15) that was based on his field observations of basaltic to andesitic
volcanoes in various evolutionary stages. The composite cones developed over an island
arc subduction zone in a region with a relatively thin crust. They were composed of
interbedded lava flows, laharic breccias, and other pyroclastic deposits. Eruptive cycles
were as short as 1 year or as long as 10,000 years; during the latest growth stages, the
cones were permeated with shallow magma chambers, sills, and dikes. Hydrothermal
systems developed during later stages extend into the core of the cone and through
underlying basement
Fig. 7.14
North-south cross sections of Mount St. Helens in Washington illustrate changes resulting from
the sector collapse and eruption of May 18, 1980, and subsequent dome growth. (a) A pre-eruption
cross section shows: (1) the older volcanic center, consisting of nested dacite domes, pyroclastic
flows, and mudflow breccias, which is cut by dikes; (2) andesitic and basaltic lava flows interbedded
with volcanic breccias and scoria; and (3) several dacitic domes: the summit dome, erupted 370 years
BP and the north slope dome erupted between 180 and 138 years ago). (b) A posteruption cross
section through the crater caused by sector collapse and the avalanche that preceded the most
explosive phase of the eruption. Present-day development of the growing dacite dome within the
crater is indicated. (Adapted from Voight et al., 1981.)
rocks to form 1- to 2-km-diameter aureoles of hydro-thermal alteration around intrusions.
Surface indicators of the hydrothermal system include andesitic, dacitic, or rhyolitic vents;
fumaroles and sulfur deposits at the summit; collapse craters; hydrothermal explosion
breccias; and a long cone history (>100,000 years).
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Sillitoe's (1973) general model for composite cones and associated intrusive rocks was
based on his observations of copper-porphyry deposits in the Andes of Chile and
northern Argentinaa region where volcanoes overlie thick crust. The hydrothermal
systems responsible for deposition of the porphyry copper deposits were established late
in the history of the composite cones; subsequently, only dacitic or rhyolitic magmas were
intruded and erupted. Observations of these systems at various levels exposed by erosion
(or in mine shafts) indicate that large granodiorite plutons are present at shallow depths
(~4 km below the summits) during late-stage activity (Fig. 7.16). The chief distinction
between these volcanoes and those in island arcs is the difference in crustal thicknesses
beneath them; processes within the thick crust of the Andean altiplano ultimately produce
large silicic magma bodies that are emplaced at shallow depths.
Giggenbach (1989) developed a similar model for an Andean composite cone, the young,
active volcano of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia. His model was based upon the analysis
of gases and waters from Ruiz' fumaroles and hot springs. According to Giggenbach's
interpretation, there is a broad mass of crystallizing, degassing magma and rock from ~3
km to >15 km below the summit (the volcano's elevation is 5389 m). Intrusions below
Ruiz may be surrounded by aureoles of vapor, a mixture of brine and vapor, and brine.
The vapor and vapor-plus-brine aureoles are of the same shape and
Fig. 7.15
Simplified cross section through a "nearly extinct" mature composite cone. This model was developed
by Branch (1976), who studied many composite cones in Papua New Guinea to determine their
potential for volcanogenic ore bodies. The model is based upon studies of
volcanoes in various evolutionary stages.
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areal extent as the zone of hydrothermal alteration within a mature andean composite
cone, which was proposed by Sillitoe (1973). The model for Nevado del Ruiz has not yet
been tested by drilling.
Well-Mapped Examples of Eroded Composite Cones
Composite cones formed during Tertiary time usually have been deeply eroded and their
interior structures are exposed. However, these cones are still sufficiently preserved to
allow interpretation of the relationship between rock types and the structural framework.
The cones we discuss here were chosen because their carefully executed three-
dimensional maps with cross sections provide excellent examples of older composite
cones.
Broken Top Volcano
At Broken Top volcano, in the southern Cascade Range of Oregon in the U.S., dissection
by glaciation has provided a clear view of its interior workings (Crowe and Nolf, 1977).
The cone consists of interbedded lava flows, laharic breccias, and other pyroclastic
deposits illustrated in Fig. 7.17. The tall cone could not have remained standing without
its complex internal framework, which is composed of dikes, sills, and small plutons.
Early phases of cone construction were followed by collapse and the formation of a small
summit caldera. After further cone construction, the edifice was intruded by plugs, radial
and concentric dikes, and sills. Intrusions at Broken Top volcano constitute 5 to 20% of
the cone volume.
Tieton Volcano
The Miocene-age Tieton Volcano of Washington has been deeply eroded, exposing radial
dike swarms and plugs (Swanson, 1966). Originally, Tieton volcano had a basal diameter
of ~11 km and a height of 2.4 km. The composite cone, made up of interbedded breccias,
pyroclastic deposits, and block lava flows, overlies a shield composed of andesitic lavas.
Within the southern, exposed half of the volcano, 200 dikes form a radial swarm;
individual dikes are 2 to 6 m thick, are steeply dipping (70 to 90°), and are mostly
andesitic. These dikes would have provided a substantial heat source if they were
intruded over a fairly short period of time, but not if they were intruded piecemeal over
tens of thousands of years. Such dikes
Fig. 7.16
This idealized cross section of a composite
cone and associated intrusive rocks is based
on observations of copper-porphyry
deposits in the Andes of Chile and northern
Argentina. Hydrothermal systems
responsible for the porphyry copper
deposits were established late in the history
of the composite cone; the intrusion and
eruption of rhyolitic magmas followed. In
this model, which is based on a region
with thick crust, the vertical and
horizontal scales are the same.
(After Sillitoe, 1973.)
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Fig. 7.17
A cross section of Broken Top volcano in the southern Cascade Range of Oregon,
in the U.S. The cone consists of interbedded lava flows, laharic breccias, and other pyroclastic
deposits. The cone could not have supported itself without the complex internal framework of
dikes, sills, and small plutonsall of which give tall composite cones their stability.
(Adapted from Crowe and Nolf, 1977.)
Fig. 7.18
Diagram showing typical dike patterns radial
to the central conduit of a composite cone
and the parasitic cones on the volcano
flanks. The dike swarms follow the trend
of maximum horizontal compression.
(Adapted from Nakamura et al., 1977.)
also act as barriers to groundwater flow and thus can "compartmentalize" aquifers or parts
of a hydrothermal system.
Volcanoes of the Aleutian Arc and Alaskan Peninsula
In their study of arc volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands and Alaskan Peninsula, Nakamura
et al. (1977) mapped radial dike patterns and parasitic cones on volcano flanks. They
concluded that dikes and flank vents on composite cones form elongate swarms in
regions under compression and that the swarms follow the trend of the maximum
horizontal compression (Fig. 7.18). Inference of the location and dimensions of such dike
swarms must be made when siting exploration wells because although they provide the
heat source, they also may act as barriers to groundwater flow (see Chapter 6).
Nakamura's observations can be applied to many composite cones that exhibit sector
collapse. This type of collapse may occur parallel to the dilational stress within the
volcano when the volcano's flanks are forced outward (Siebert, 1984). However, it is
more likely that the collapse process is related to the shape of the dike-sill complex within
the cone. Composite cones devel-
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oped in regions with homogeneous stress are supported by a radial framework of dikes
and sills, whereas cones developed in regions strongly influenced by the regional stress
regime have dikes that are located mostly along a line parallel to the maximum horizontal
compression. Parallel dike systems support only the part of the volcano below a line of
parasitic vents; unsupported flanks, with only rare dikes or sills, are subject to sector
collapse.
Summer Coon Volcano
The mid-Tertiary-age Summer Coon composite cone in Colorado, mapped by Lipman
(1968), is a deeply dissected cone in which the nearly circular complex of stocks is
exposed, as are the radial dikes shown in Fig. 7.19. These silicic dikes are as much as 4.8
km long and 60 m wide. Remnants of the cone consist of interbedded tuff-breccias and
lava flows of mafic to intermediate
Fig. 7.19
Geologic map and cross section of the mid-Tertiary-age Summer Coon
composite cone in Colorado. This is a deeply dissected cone in which both the
nearly circular complex of stocks and the radial dikes are exposed.
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compositions. The symmetry of the dike complex reflects fracturing and dike
emplacement controlled by stress around the central pluton or plutons and little
superimposed tectonic control. The volcano's location on thick continental crust makes
the Summer Coon volcano model more similar to volcanoes of the Andean altiplano than
to the island arc volcanoes.
Mount St. Helens
Major structural changes to Mount St. Helens in Washington were caused by the sector
collapse and eruption on May 18, 1980, in addition to subsequent dome growth. Before
the eruption, Mt. Saint Helens consisted of (1) an older volcanic center with nested dacite
domes, pyroclastic flows, and mudflow breccias, which was cut by dikes (Fig. 7.13); (2)
andesitic and basaltic lava flows interbedded with volcanic breccias and scoria; and (3)
dacitic domes (the 370-year BP summit dome and the 180- to 138-year BP domes of the
north slope).
After the sector collapse and an avalanche that preceded the most explosive phase of the
eruption at Mount St. Helens, an ampitheater-shaped crater remained. The dacite dome
within the crater continues to grow (Voight et al., 1981).
A Facies Model
Ruapehu
Ruapehu volcano in New Zealand, elevation 2797 m, was constructed by four major
cone-building phases over the last 250,000 years. The 110-km3 composite cone is
characterized by many abrupt lateral and vertical facies changes (Hackett and Houghton,
1989).
The central and flank vents, aligned along a north-northeast-trending lineament, consist
of plug- and dome-like intrusions, thin lava flows, welded pyroclastic fall deposits, and
vent breccias. Most of the vent areas have been hydrothermally altered. Proximal (near-
vent) facies are made up of mostly block lava flows and lesser ashfall and laharic breccia
deposits. The near-vent cones were intruded by numerous thin (0.5- to 5-m wide) dikes
that are compositionally identical to adjacent lavas.
Hackett and Houghton concluded that the distal (ring plain) facies consists of interbedded
epiclastic volcanic deposits that are interbedded with ashfall deposits and fluvially
reworked avalanche or volcanic mudflows. This plain forms a 6- to 15-km-wide girdle
around the composite cone, which is formed by overlapping alluvial fans. Hummocky
mounds on the plain are part of a sector collapse avalanche deposit.
Hackett and Houghton also determined that the cones at Ruapehu are mostly constructed
of lavas and domes and that pyroclastic and epiclastic materials are found mostly on the
ring plain.
A Model Based on Heat Flow Measurements
Hakone Volcano
Iriyama and Oki (1978) measured temperature profiles in Hakone Volcano, Japan.
However, the model was for a composite cone that grew within a small caldera.
Hydrothermal activity is most intense in the eastern half of the calderaprobably because
recharged groundwater from the lake in the western half of the caldera flows toward sea
level in the east (Fig. 7.20). The thermal regime is most likely related to the caldera and
not to the overlying composite cone.
Composite Cone Geothermal Systems
As discussed earlier in this chapter, many of the geothermal systems that were believed to
be part of composite cones are actually located below the mature cones or are linked to
other structures such as calderas and recent extensional faulting. Within the
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Cascade Range of the U.S., there are few surface manifestations of hydrothermal activity
at young composite cones (Duffield, 1983). Basaltic and andesitic volcanoes are generally
not underlain by large, shallow crustal magma reservoirs. Only the most mature of these
cones contain known geothermal reservoirs: for example, Crater Lake and Newberry
volcanoes in Oregon, where there are young, voluminous, silicic magmas and small
calderas.
For many composite cones, the traditional exploration methods such as measuring
shallow heat flow, examining surface manifestations (hot springs, fumaroles, acid
alteration, etc.), and evaluating electrical geophysical data are not successful (LaFleur,
1983; Wright and Ward, 1983). In most cases, high infiltration rates for rainfall and
snowmelt near volcano summits can hydrologically mask any geothermal systems
because the summit and slopes are saturated with cold water to depths of 500 m to 1 km.
Within the Cascade Range of the western U.S., this phenomenon is known as the "rain
curtain" (Swanberg et al., 1988). Groundwater heated by plutons below Quaternary-age
volcanoes of the Oregon Cascades flows laterally into the upper zones of older volcanic
rocks on the flanks of the volcanic chain. The result is an area of near-zero shallow
conductive heat flow around the young volcano as well as shallow high thermal gradients
in the older rocks (Ingebritsen et al., 1989). In this environment, the only effective
exploration/evaluation methods are (a) a search for indirect clues such as youthful silicic
tuffs and lavas and phreatic craters, (b) the qualitative maturity index (Fig. 7.6), and (c)
intermediate to deep thermal gradient holes.
Proven (Drilled) Geothermal Fields
Meager Mountain
Meager Mountain in British Columbia, Canada, with a volume of 70 km3 and a cone
height of 1500 m, comprises nine overlapping andesitic and dacitic volcanic assemblages
that range from late Pliocene to 2440 years BP (Souther, 1985). Its multiple vents are
aligned along a north-south trend. The volcano overlies a high-relief surface of older
plutonic and metamorphic rocks (late Mesozoic to early Tertiary Coast Plutonic complex
and late Miocene epizonal plutons). The older rocks consist of andesitic flows and
volcanic breccias, and the younger rocks are dacitic flows and domes, ashfall deposits,
and ignimbrites.
Warm springs of ~60°C issue from faults within the basement rocks at the base of the
volcano. Much of the anomaly is masked by near-surface meteoritic water. Fifteen
Fig. 7.20
This computed temperature profile of
Hakone volcano in Japan was created for a
composite cone located within a small caldera.
(Adapted from Iriyama and Oki, 1978.)
Page 286
coreholes were drilled on the northern and southern flanks of the volcano (Adams et al.,
1985). Argillic alteration of the basement rocks was detected on the northern slope, but no
hydrothermal fluids were found. Below the southern slopes, a plume of hot water
(~200°C) rises along north-south-trending faults and along fractures within basement
rocks; 233 to 264°C fluids were encountered at depths of 3 to 3.5 km in fractured plutonic
rocks.
The hydrothermal resource is fracture-dominated and follows the Meager Creek fault
zone, where the host rocks have low permeability and porosity. It is likely that the fluids
are heated by subvolcanic intrusive rocks, but the amount of thermal energy contributed
by cooling dikes and plugs is not known. The system may be related to deep circulation
of fluids along the Meager Creek fault zone. Souther (1985) reported on two drilled
reservoirs; the shallow, low-temperature (<140°C) reservoir has been clogged with
authigenic minerals and forms a barrier for deeper, hotter fluids; the deeper reservoir, in
fractured basement rocks, has temperatures >200°C.
Momotombo
The Nicaraguan Depression in Central America, which lies parallel to a northwest-
southeast-trending plate boundary, encompasses most of the Quaternary-to-historical
volcanic fields of Nicaragua. Momotombo Volcano, located on the northwestern shore of
Lago de Managua, is a 1258-m-high symmetrical cone, with a volume of 12 km3 (Fig.
7.21 and cover photo). Momotombo is a submature composite cone within a northwest-
southeast-trending graben and adjacent to a 4-km-diameter caldera. The somma ridge of
an undated but older cone is located ~900 m above the base of Momotombo. The
youngest rocks here are andesitic lavas that were erupted in 1905 AD (Mooser et al.,
1958).
Surface geothermal manifestations include active fumaroles in the summit crater and
hydrothermally altered ground over a 4 km2 area along the southern slope of the volcano.
This altered ground follows hydrothermally active, northwest-trending fractures (Figs.
7.21 and 7.22). Drillholes up to several kilometers deep were sited in interbedded
andesitic lavas, welded tuffs and ashes, basaltic lavas and ashes, and dacitic lava; the most
common rock type is andesitic lithic tuff (Moore et al., 1982). Some of the rocks have
been interpreted as phreatomagmaticwhich is certainly possible because Momotombo sits
on the shore of Lake Managua.
Maps of the alteration aureoles suggest structural control and fracture permeability within
the reservoir and have provided an excellent basis for siting both exploration and
production drillholes. Most of the wells with high permeability are within 100 m of a
high-angle reverse fault and a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Some of the fractures show
signs of secondary brecciation and may have formed by hydraulic fracturing (Moore et
al., 1982). Drilling has determined that there is good correspondence between surface and
subsurface structure. The highest temperatures (225°C) are within a lens-shaped reservoir
at depths of 244 to 366 m. In 1979, six production wells supported a 30-MWe plant;
Rowley (1982) estimated field capacity is 800 MWe, although that is an optimistic
estimate.
Ahuachapán
The Ahuachapán geothermal field in El Salvador Central America is associated with the
Laguna Verde volcanic complex, which consists of north-northeast-trending lines of
craters and small cones. The 500- to 600-m-diameter craters at the summit of these
composite cones may be phreatomagmatic. These volcanoes are composed of interbedded
andesitic tuffs, lavas, and agglomerates that range from Pliocene to Holocene (a very
general estimate by Romagnoli et al., 1976).
Also associated with the Laguna Verde volcanic complex and north-northwest-trending
Page 287
normal faults are two major hot spring areas and three fumarolic fields with temperatures
as high as 123°C. The geothermal wells located in this area are producing fluids from
interbedded pyroclastic rocks and lavas with temperatures of 228°C at a depth of 900 m.
Production wells have been drilled to average depths of ~800 m. The fumaroles, hot
springs, and most of the drillholes are located near intersections between north-
northwest-trending faults and east-northeast-trending faults. Two 30-MWe- and one 35-
MWe-capacity electrical generating plants were completed by 1987.
Ohnuma
The Ohnuma geothermal field of Japan is located on the flank of Hachimantai Volcano,
an 800-m-high, flat-topped lava shield composed of mafic andesitic lava flows (Kuno,
1962). This immature composite cone, where lavas range from 0.5 to 1.0 Ma, has a
volume of ~13 km3.
Fig. 7.21
Map of Momotombo Volcano in Nicaragua shows the main faults and
areas of alteration, which are marked with a stippled pattern.
(Adapted from Mooser et al., 1958; Moore et al., 1982.)
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Fig. 7.22
The Momotombo geothermal field is located on the southern slopes of
Momotombo volcano and on the edge of Lake Managua.
(Adapted from Moore et al., 1982.)
Thermal areas marked by geysers, mudpots, fumaroles, and hot springs cover 5 km2. The
hydrothermal system may not be directly related to the composite cone, but rather to an
older caldera and a north-south-trending graben. The reservoir is located within highly
fractured dacitic and andesitic lavas and interbedded pyroclastic rocks (Nakamura et al.,
1981; Kimbara, 1986). Production wells have been drilled to depths of 1.3 to 1.7 km.
Matsukawa
The Matsukawa geothermal area of Japan is located between the Maru Mori and Iwate
volcanoes. The area's largest cone is 800 m high and the volcanic complex has an
approximate volume of 45 km3. This complex includes composite cones, a dome, and a
1.8- by 3.0-km-diameter summit caldera. Kuno (1962) reported that its lava flows and
volcanic breccias consist of augite-hypersthene andesite (in the older part of the cone)
and olivine andesite (in the main cone). The summit crater contains fumaroles and small
areas of acid alteration. This complex is believed to be of Pleistocene and Holocene age.
The geothermal area is marked by a 0.5- to 1- by 7.0-km east-northeast-trending zone of
argillization, silicification, and hot springs. The zone overlies a geothermal reservoir at a
depth of 1.0 to 1.2 km in fractured welded tuff and shale; there is a caprock of welded
tuff (Nakamura et al., 1981; Kimbara, 1986).
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Because the geothermal system is located on the rim of a caldera, it may be only partly
related to the cone.
Tamagawa Spa
The Tamagawa Spa of Japan is a group of acidic hot springs located at the western foot
of Mount Yake (Yakeyama). Mount Yake is a 750-m-high mature composite cone with a
volume of 10 km3 (Kuno, 1962); the cone's 600-m-diameter summit crater contains a
small dome and four small explosion craters. There is also a parasitic dome on the
southern flank of the main cone. Mount Yake is composed of mostly hypersthene-olivine
andesitic lava flows and pyroclastic rocks, and the domes are andesitic. The most recent
eruption products are Holocene. This cone may overlie the rim of an older caldera and the
hydrothermal system could be associated with that caldera.
The geothermal area (spa) comprises lines of fumaroles, hot springs, and deposits of
silica sinter, all of which are oriented east-west and north-south. The springs have
temperatures up to 98°C and pHs of <1.2. The main geothermal area is located in a
depression that has been interpreted as both a phreatic crater and a landslide. The
reservoir is located within fractured Tertiary-age tuff, shale, and andesitic lava (Nakamura
et al., 1981).
Bouillante
The volcanoes of Guadeloupe, in the Lesser Antilles, include composite cones and domes
and are located along the north-south-trending spine of Basse-Terre (the high, volcanic
portion of the island). Soufrière de Guadeloupe is a dacitic dome with a summit 1467 m
above sea level and is the site of historic eruptions that included explosive phreatic
activity 1976 to 1977 AD. Eruptions of Soufrière de Guadeloupe have produced phreatic
deposits, pyroclastic fall deposits, ignimbrites (mostly nonwelded), andesitic lavas, laharic
breccias, and dacite domes. Vatin-Perignon et al. (1984) documented ages from 0.3 Ma to
the present.
The summit region of Soufrière, site of the youngest cones and domes, is cut by
northwest- and northeast-trending faults, along which there are surface manifestations of
the geothermal system such as summit fumaroles and large areas of acid alteration. Hot
springs are located around the base of the most recent dacite dome, which was recently
modified by phreatic eruptions (Heiken et al., 1980).
A commercially developed hydrothermal system is located on the island's west coast
along a northwest-trending fault and a line of small cones that extends from Soufrière de
Guadeloupe down to the coastline (Fig. 7.23). At Bouillante, there are areas of
hydrothermal alteration and silicification as well as a 98°C spring. The geothermal
reservoir, located within Tertiary tuffs and andesitic lava flows, has both fault (fracture)
and formation permeability. Temperatures at a depth of 500 m are >240°C (Demians et
al., 1972; Vatin-Perignon et al., 1984). Epidote appears in rocks below 100 to 300 m.
Kawah Kamodjang
The fumarole field of Kawah Kamodjang in Indonesia is located in western Java, where
its specific association with a composite cone or cones is not clear. The nearby volcanoes
of Rakutak, Chihara, Danou, Pangkaban, Gandapura, Masagit, and Guntur are part of a
15-km-long, 4- to 5-km-wide volcanic chain, which is parallel to a graben that trends
west-southwest and east-northeast; most faults strike N60°E. The highest cones have
elevations of ~1500 m and are composed of well-bedded, massive pyroclastic rocks that
are interbedded with thick andesitic flows (Neuman van Padang, 1951; Robert et al.,
1983). Robert et al. (1983) postulated that the geothermal area may be located within a
small (2-km-diameter, 500-m-deep), poorly defined caldera.
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Fig. 7.23
Sketch geologic map of the western part of the
island of Guadeloupe (Basse-Terre) in the
Lesser Antilles. The Bouillante geothermal
area is located along northwest-trending
faults that extend downslope from the active
volcanic chain of Madeleine-Soufrière.
(Adapted from Gérard et al. 1981.)
Within the 2-km-wide depression is a 1200-m-long, 100- to 700-m-wide zone of
fumaroles, mudpots, phreatic craters, and hot springs with temperatures of 80 to 105°C.
Six production wells supplying a 30-MWe generator were drilled in small grabens within
the larger graben. The drilled reservoir is located within hydrothermally altered, fractured
tuffs and lavas, where temperatures reach 200 to 230°C, at a depth of 900 m (Robert et
al., 1983). The main caprocks are hydrothermally altered pyroclastic deposits.
Composite Cones with Possible Geothermal PotentialAs Yet Unproven by Deep Drilling
Mount Shasta
Mount Shasta, one of the southernmost of the Cascade volcanoes, is located in northern
California. With a volume of 350 km3 and an elevation of 3050 m, this mature composite
cone is also the largest Cascade volcano. The summit crater, two older central vents, and
a line of flank vents are located along north-south trends (Christiansen et al., 1977).
Large dacitic cones and flows have erupted from both summit and flank vents. A 450-
km2 area northwest of the volcano is covered by a hummocky debris avalanche deposit,
which Crandell et al. (1984) interpreted as a sector collapse of the main cone ~300,000
years BP.
The cone is made up of equal portions of lava flows and blocky pyroclastic debris,
including pyroclastic flow deposits and volcanic mudflows (Christiansen et al., 1977),
most of which are composed of pyroxene-andesite and hornblende-bearing andesite.
Basalt is found only below an altitude of 2100 m in cinder cones and small lava flows.
Mount Shasta formed during the last 500,000 years, and four periods of cone-building
activity have occurred during the last 250,000 years (Christiansen, 1985).
There are summit fumaroles and areas of intense local hydrothermal alteration on each of
Mount Shasta's four main cones, but nowhere else. Theoretically, there should be a small
hydrothermal system within or below this large composite cone; however, there is no
evidence for such a system because of the effective shield established by high flux of cold
water from rain and
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snow on the mountain. To date, there has been no drilling on Mount Shasta to test for a
geothermal system.
Mount Hood
Mount Hood, also in Oregon, is located within a broad graben that follows the summit of
the north-south-trending topographic high, which is the backbone of the high Cascades of
the Pacific Northwest. Mount Hood was an obvious target for geothermal exploration and
research, and a cooperative effort was begun in 1976 by a consortium of federal and state
agencies (Williams et al., 1982).
Mount Hood is a 2200-m-high mature composite cone with an approximate volume of
188 km3. Eruptions have occurred there over the past 700,000 years; the most recent was
less than 200 years ago (Wise, 1969; Crandell and Meyer, 1977). Mount Hood is
composed of interbedded thin lava flows and pyroclastic debris (ashfall deposits,
ignimbrites, and laharic breccias). Little is known or has been inferred about intrusive
rocks in Mount Hood (shown in cross section in Fig. 7.24) except for the ''plug" dome
that comprises andesitic and hornblende andesitic lava; peripheral cones are composed of
basalt.
The only surface manifestations of a hydrothermal system on Mount Hood are summit
fumaroles, at temperatures of 50 to 85°C, and areas of hydrothermal alteration
surrounding the plug dome. Although 25 shallow wells have been drilled on the flanks of
Mount Hood, no shallow magma chamber or large hydrothermal systems were detected;
the shallow wells did not penetrate the near-surface outflow zone of cold groundwater.
The deepest geothermal gradient hole drilled at Mount Hood is located on the lower
flanks of the volcano near faults in basalt flows that predate Mount Hood; the bottomhole
temperature of this well is 120°C at a depth of 1.8 km (Priest, 1982). The thermal gradient
of ~60°C/km in this corehole could be related to magmas in the cone, but it also can be
explained solely by the high heat flow in this tectonically active area.
Because of the enormous terrain corrections required for analysis, and the presence of a
cold groundwater shield below the slopes of Mount Hood, most traditional geophysical
Fig. 7.24
Composite cross section of Mount Hood in Oregon.
(Based on work by Wise, 1968; Williams et al., 1982; Priest, 1982.)
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exploration methods did not reveal the presence or absence of a hydrothermal system.
Shallow drilling penetrated some zones of warm water, but most drillholes never reached
beyond the cold, near-surface groundwater. There may be a hydrothermal system below
this large, young composite cone, but it has not yet been observed.
Mount Adams
Located east of the main Cascade trend, Mount Adams in Washington is a large (~200-
km3) composite cone with an elevation of 3743 m. The composite cone is near the center
of a basalt-to-rhyodacite volcanic field with more than 60 vents of Quaternary age. Flank
vents, which occur at elevations of 2000 to 2500 m, are composed of mafic andesitic to
dacitic lava flows and block-and-ash flows (Hildreth and Fierstein, 1985). Peripheral
basaltic cinder cones and lava flows erupted on the lower flanks have a volume of 70
km3. Volcanic activity began about 500,000 years ago, and the youngest eruptions took
place 3500 years ago; most of the composite cone was constructed between 20,000 and
10,000 years ago.
There are summit fumaroles and warm springs near the base of the volcano. The breccia
and scoria core of this cone has been severely altered by acid waters. The 4-km2 area of
altered core is a source of avalanches and debris flows because of the gravitational
instability of the clay alteration products (Hildreth and Fierstein, 1985).
On the basis of the petrology of erupted materials, Hildreth and Fierstein concluded that it
is unlikely there is any significant magma reservoir within Mount Adams. High
precipitation (3500 mm/year) makes the mountain an important recharge site and the
extremely permeable carapace is saturated with cold water that does not remain long
enough to be heated.
Mount Fuji
One of the Earth's most famous composite cones, Japan's Mount Fuji is composed of a
group of 3 overlapping cones and 100 peripheral cones. Most of these vents are located
along a north-northwest-south-southeast-trending line that is parallel to regional
structures (Kuno, 1962; Tsuya et al., 1981). The 1.5- × 0.7-km summit crater is 750 m
deep. Older lavas at Fuji are olivine basalts, whereas the younger cones are composed of
andesite and peripheral cones of olivine basalt. The cones comprise interbedded ashfall
deposits, lahar deposits, ignimbrites, and lava flows. The complex is ~80,000 years old,
and the most recent activity occurred in 1707 AD (Kuno, 1962).
All thermal anomalies on Fuji are masked by movement of shallow groundwater. Yuhara
(1974) reported that each year 77% of the precipitation flows out at the foot of the cone
and another ~20% is lost by evaporation. Tritium analyses have revealed that water
emerging near the base is not old. Shallow aquifers follow scoria-lapilli beds and
fractures in lava flows. Impermeable units are mudflow deposits and older basement
rocks. Very little of the recharge water enters the volcano's interior to be heated. Mount
Fuji has not been drilled for geothermal resource evaluation.
From Yuhara's (1974) observations at Fuji and Mount Yotei (also in Japan), it was
determined that recharge into the hydrothermal system of a composite cone may not be
adequate to maintain a hydrothermal system. Conditions necessary for adequate recharge
will most likely depend upon the structural framework of the individual volcano, its
maturity, fault patterns, and the degree of intrusion and hydraulic fracturing associated
with dike-sill systems and small plutons. As described earlier, eroded, mature volcanoes
in areas with thick continental crust expose large volumes of hydrothermally altered lava
and pyroclastic rock.
Discussion
Techniques for the exploration and development of geothermal resources associated with
composite cones are still in their
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infancy. With the exception of ancient hydrothermal systems within composite cones,
which have been studied chiefly in relation to their porphyry copper deposits, we have
yet to determine if there are useful geothermal resources associated with most mature
composite cones. In the earlier parts of this chapter, we proposed a general concept of
composite cone maturity and its application to geothermal exploration and resource
evaluation. To determine if reservoirs are present, intermediate to deep drilling will be
required for a mature composite cone. Cold groundwater outflow within these cones
often mask surface geothermal manifestations as well as the heat flow measurements in
shallow drill-holes.
With good reason, successful geothermal sites have been drilled on the lower slopes of
(or adjacent to) composite cones at sites where there are surface manifestations of a
hydrothermal system. Healy (1976) points out that hot springs occur where heated
meteoric water intersects the basal contact between the cone and older rocks. This
phenomenon implies the presence of a convective plume within the conean inference
confirmed by examination of hydrothermal alteration aureoles within eroded composite
cones (for instance, see Sillitoe, 1973).
For many the examples cited here, it is not clear if the hydrothermal systems described are
related to the nearby older volcanoes or to the overlying composite cones. In each of
these instances there are still other interpretations. Several of the cones are sited along
caldera rims, where they were formed by postcaldera eruptions, and nearly all of the
cones are located along active faults. It is most likely that magma feeding the cones is
contributing to the elevated heat flow in the area and that the high cones serve as major
recharge areas. It is not clear if the plumbing (intrusions) within these cones is the major
heat source for their hydrothermal systems.
In any case, all the tested geothermal systems associated with composite cones that were
cited here have the following common features:
all are located near or below the base or the lower slopes of the cone;
all have ample surface manifestations of the hydrothermal system, including argillic and
acid alteration, silica sinter deposits, hot springs, fumaroles, mudpots and/or geysers; and
all have reservoirs in highly fractured basement rocks along active normal, reverse, and
strike-slip faults.
In addition, some of the cones are located along the rims of underlying calderas and some
have phreatic craters or phreatic breccia deposits (Fig. 7.25).
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Fig. 7.25
Flow chart for exploration and evaluation of the geothermal potential of composite cones.
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Appendix A
Field Methods in Volcanic Regions
In this book we have focused on the ways field observations of volcanic terrain can be
used to locate and evaluate geothermal resources. Keeping in mind that for some
geologists, these observations will be their only data sets, we included this appendix to
guide the student or geologist who has not yet had a great deal of field experience. This
appendix is specifically oriented toward work in volcanic areas and does not include
basic instruction such as how to use a compass and clinometer; the reader should consult
a handbook on field geology for this type of information (for example, Compton, 1962).
The experienced field geologist may simply ignore this appendix and use the core of this
book as a reference.
Preparation for Field Work
Definition of the Problem
The first and perhaps the most painful part of a project is to define the purpose of the
field work; this process will guide the planning stages. Geothermal exploration within
volcanic fields has two main goals: (a) identifying and evaluating the heat source and (b)
locating permeable zones and the hydrothermal system. All vents and their deposits must
be mapped and the extent and thicknesses determined. These maps will also serve as a
basis for stratigraphic studiesan aspect that will also require samples for petrologic
analysis and age dating. The data obtained from this step will reveal the volumes, ages,
genesis, and compositions of the rocks, which in turn can be used to interpret the depth
and size of magma bodiesthe heat source. It is also necessary to map
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all structures, including fracture systems, flexures, and faults, and to evaluate their
relationship to the volcanoes and areas of hydrothermal alteration. Most hydrothermal
systems are associated with zones of fracture permeability; the careful definition of these
zones is crucial in locating sites for exploration core drilling. It is wise to work with
hydrogeochemists when preparing detailed maps of hydrothermal manifestations such as
fumaroles, hot springs, sinter and travertine deposits, and hydrothermally altered ground.
Library Research
Prior geological, geophysical, and geochemical work will be useful in evaluating the area
to be mapped and in planning the field study. Spending time in a good technical library
will save a great deal of effort and money. Field geologists can gain a substantial headstart
by reading all published work, summarizing the portions that might be needed later, and
copying the maps. Maps copied from published material can be useful for reviewing
previous work when in the field. It is prudent to keep in mind multiple interpretations for
the published data; for example, a down-dropped block can be interpreted by one author
as a caldera and by another as a graben.
Commercial data bases, usually accessible through libraries for a small fee, provide
listings of most publications and reports unless they are truly obscure. By furnishing key
words, including the subject and geographic area, one can obtain a comprehensive guide
to the literature about a specific area.
If the area to be mapped has already been studied by geologists from mining or oil
companies, they may share unpublished reports and data, or these same reports may be
on file with the government. (However, it may be that these maps and data are proprietary
and not available to you.) There also may be unpublished data available from government
agencies and university geologists.
Collecting Geographic Materials
Topographic Maps
It is useful to have copies of every available topographic map and at all scales. If none are
available at an appropriate working scale, a good printer can enlarge or reduce the map
onto a mylar (plastic) base. If paper copies of the map are to be used in the field, it is a
good idea have them waterproofed.
Some countries have digitized topographic maps; if a mainframe computer, a geographic
information system, and a large budget are available, it may be possible to obtain the
maps on magnetic tape. These can be useful later for preparing final published maps,
constructing three-dimensional diagrams of the area, or as a base for all of the field
measurements.
Satellite Images and Aerial Photographs
Satellite images, now available for most of the Earth's surface, are essential for mapping
large structural features, especially in heavily vegetated regions. (Examples of Earth
Resources Technology and Landsat Thematic Mapper images are shown in Figs. A.1 and
A.2.) If the region is arid, preliminary geologic maps can be prepared with the help of
magnetic tapes of the satellite image and image processing programs. Processed images
are sometimes for sale from commercial sources, government agencies, or university
research groups. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery, either aircraft or spacecraft
mounted, is useful for mapping structural features and volcanic landforms, particularly in
vegetated regions or areas with continuous cloud cover (Fig. A.3).
Aerial photographs, in black-and-white or color, are frequently attainable from
government agencies or companies specializing in aerial photography. However, in some
countries, the use of aerial photography is restricted for security reasons.
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Fig. A.1
Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS) image of the Guadalajara-Lake
Chapala-Volcán Colima region of central Mexico (Band 6). Width of the image is 115 km.
The most prominent feature is the Colima graben, which is oriented north-south and
is visible from Volcán Colima (bottom-center) to its intersection with the east-west
trend of volcanoes and faults. Volcanoes are visible from the area of Lake
Chapala (center right), through the young caldera complex of Sierra La
Primavera (center), to Volcán Tequila (upper left). These images
provide a remarkable overview of the geology of a region.
Land-Ownership Maps
These maps may be available from federal or municipal government offices. When in the
field, it is usefuleven essentialto know whom to contact before crossing any private
property.
Establishing the Stratigraphic Framework of a Volcanic Field
The field methods used in geothermal exploration to establish stratigraphic relationships
between volcanic rocks are very similar to those used for sedimentary rocks:
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Fig. A.2
Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image of an area of northern Chile, on its frontier with Bolivia.
Area shown is 90 by 90 km. In the center is Lago Chungara, which was formed
when a river was dammed by a debris avalanche from Volcán Parinacota (the
snow-covered peak north of the lake). TM images come as color prints and
are extremely useful for mapping in arid regions. This TM image was
prepared by Peter Francis at the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston, Texas.
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Fig. A.3
Space Shuttle Imaging Radar image of northwestern Honduras,
showing the north-south-trending Sula graben. The lake visible near the
bottom of the image is Lago de Yojoa, which is 5 km wide at the narrow neck;
Yojoa was formed behind a natural dam composed of basaltic cones and lavas
that were erupted in the Sula Graben. North-south-trending faults, which cut
these youthful lavas, are easily identified. Synthetic aperture radar images
such as these are excellent for reconnaissance geologic mapping in regions
with heavy vegetation or cloud cover. This image was provided by Ron Blom
at the NASA-Jet Propulsion Laboratory of Pasadena, California.
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careful geological mapping of lithologic units, measurements of many stratigraphic
sections, and age-dates for those units. However, rock units within volcanic fields show
much more lateral and vertical variation than do units in most sedimentary basins (Fisher
and Smith, 1991). They can fill caldera depressions or deep valleys, which means that one
might find younger volcanic rocks at a lower levels than older rocks, even if no folding
or faulting has occurred. Pyroclastic rocks are formed quicklyinitially with abundant
kinetic and thermal energyand are deposited as ashfalls that drape topography, surges that
cross topographic highs, pyroclastic flows that follow the valleys, as well as wet surges of
cohesive ash that defy the laws of original horizontality when plastered onto vertical
surfaces.
The possibilities of facies variations within single depositional units must be considered
when mapping volcanic rocks (Fig. A.4). For example, surges and pyroclastic flows can
grade outward into volcanic mudflows because of cooling and condensation of steam
within the flow some distance from the source. The degree of welding of pyroclasts in the
flow units can vary with the unit thickness; dense rocks are found near the vent or in the
center of valley fills. For detailed descriptions of facies variations in volcanic rocks, see
Fisher and Schmincke (1984) and Cas and Wright (1987).
Field and laboratory observations must be adapted to fit the volcanic field of interest. For
example, the approach used for a large basaltic lava plateau would differ considerably
from that used to study a group of small tuff rings.
Stratigraphic analysis of volcanoes provides the necessary foundation for all other
studies, including petrology, geochemistry, thermal state, and structural framework;
without this foundation, sample analysis is nothing more than rock collecting. Table A.1
provides a list of further functions for which various field observations are used.
Approach
A working stratigraphy can be established by considering earlier work as well as the field
geologist's own study of aerial photographs or topographic maps. Published stratigraphic
studies supply useful information from nearby areas and may include radiometric dates.
All of this information should be compiled in a notebook and on a map or photo base.
We offer the following suggestions to be considered when entering this stage of field
work.
By quickly examining the whole area, one can locate the best exposures, especially those
that show contacts between depositional units. If these locations are noted on maps
and/or photographs it is easy to return later to measure stratigraphic sections. As
stratigraphic data are collected, the information should be entered on working copies of
cross sections through the volcanic field. During a field study, geologists' ideas on the
stratigraphy will evolve and it will be necessary to revisit some outcrops several times to
reevaluate the interpretations.
Obviously, it is preferable to measure sections at the best exposures in unfaulted areas;
however, this may not always be possible. The best way to begin is by standing back and
looking at the outcrop from a distance to determine the layers or discrete rock units that
stand out. They are marked on a sketch or polaroid photograph and their general
characteristics are noted, including thickness, texture or structure, and color. This distant
view may be useful when unraveling variations from one detailed stratigraphic section to
another.
When a section is measured, the attitude (strike and dip) of the rock units is described as
well as the rock types and their relation to older rocks, paleosols, and any intrusive rocks.
The area traversed while measuring the section is noted on a map or aerial photograph; if
neither map or photo exist, a pace-and-compass map of the traverse with distances, slope
angles, and
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Fig. A.4
Schematic cross sections illustrate (a) facies changes between volcanic units and
(b) time-correlative sedimentary units. These deposits are grouped into map units that are
linked to the eruption or sedimentary processes responsible for the deposit.
(Adapted from Smith, 1987.)
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Table A.1. Stratigraphy in Volcanic Fieldsa
Purpose Field Observations
Individual beds; bedding sets in
Correlation of lavas, tuffs, and epiclastic
layered sequences;
sedimentary rocks; eruption types; unit volumes;
grain size; component analysis of
location of buried or eroded volcanic vents
features; fabric
Facies analysis; creation of a
Paleotopography and paleogeology; eruption stratigraphy;
history; depositional history; ''basin analysis" descriptions of relations at
unconformities
Relations of rock sequences to
Magma composition and volcano evolution; tectonic framework in time and
tectonic setting and volcanism; regional space; comparison of volcanic
stratigraphy fields,
centers, and provinces
a From Fisher and Schmincke (1984).
attitudes (strikes and dips) can be useful. An altimeter is employed to determine

elevations of the base, top, and important contacts, in addition to elevations chosen from
the topographic map. If working as a team, field geologists use a tape measure; if by
themselves, a Jacob's staff is helpful. If the stratigraphic sections are very thick, it is
possible to confirm thicknesses by using an altimeter or by measuring elevations of
contacts on a topographic map.
What should be measured and described? Within the field, rock-stratigraphic units are
defined solely on physical differences. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) defined a formation
as
"a mappable bed, bedding set or sequence of beds of any thickness set apart from rock units above
and below by distinctive physical criteria such as texture, color, lithologic or mineralogic
characteristic, or by weathered zones or erosional unconformities; a member is a convenient
subdivision of a formation."
Fisher and Schmincke also defined the concept of an eruption unit, which is a deposit
from a single eruptive pulse, eruptive phase, or an eruption. A sequence of several
eruption units can be treated as a mappable unit or formation. Eruption units can refer to
pyroclastic fallout deposits, pyroclast flow deposits, volcanic mudflows, lava flows, and
any other deposit from a single eruptive pulse. For detailed information on defining
stratigraphic units within volcanic rocks, see Fisher and Schmincke (1984), or Cas and
Wright (1987).
If at all possible, a geologist should not create new stratigraphic names, but rather work
within existing stratigraphic designations. The rationale for this philosophy stems from
experience with such cases as the Wairakei geothermal field of New Zealand. The body of
knowledge about the relationship between tuffs and lavas erupted at Wairakei during the
last 200,000 years has grown as more field work, drilling, and further geological
exploration revealed additional details. As volcanological concepts change and more data
are available, rock sequences have been refined and redefined. Over a period of 60 years,
no less than 12 different stratigraphic sequences have been described for the same rocks
at Wairakei. This melange of stratigraphic names confuses the working geologist to the
point of desperation.
Volcanic Rock Units
Volcanic rock units include pyroclastic and epiclastic rocks and lava flows and domes.
Ideally, descriptions would go onto graph paper that is taped to a large clip boardmaking
it possible to evaluate relationships
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at a glance while measuring the stratigraphic section. However, because rain and wind
make it impractical to carry around a bulky board, this is not the usual means of
recording field notes. The most logical method is to record field observations and
sketches in a waterproof notebook and draw the section later in camp or the office (Fig.
A.5). It is far better to take copious notes as well as photos and sketches while in the field
than to wish for them later when one is several thousand kilometers from the field area.
Contact Relationships
Understanding the nature of the contact between rock units is critical. One should
determine if there is a sharp erosional or depositional contact, a tectonic displacement, a
collection of reworked clastic debris, or paleosol. In the case of a depositional contact,
one should ascertain whether the deposits drape the underlying topography or are
concentrated in channels and valleys. If they are deposited within a valley, it is valuable to
measure the size, orientation, and slope of the valley floor.
Color
A color chart is very helpful for maintaining consistency in descriptions of rock-unit
color and color variations. (Rock color charts are available from the Geological Society of
America.)
Rock-Unit Classification
Volcanic rock units generally fall into the categories of pyroclastic, epiclastic, and lava. In
the following sections, we discuss various field observations and measurements that are
useful in writing detailed and complete rock-unit descriptions.
Characteristics of Pyroclastic and Epiclastic Rocks
Pyroclastic rocks can be classified by their textural and mineralogical characteristics (see
Appendix B). Complete descriptions include important details about thickness, grain size,
pyroclast types, bedding sets, grading, clast orientation, flow features, induration and
welding, and thermal remanent magnetization. This information is further supplemented
by sampling representative clastic rock units for laboratory analysis.
Thickness
Pyroclastic units show thickness variations that are indicative of vent location, deposit
type (for instance, fallout, flow, and surge), and the effects of paleotopography (Fisher
and Schmincke, 1984). Even where pyroclastic units are not fully exposed, maximum
exposed thicknesses can be used in constructing isopach maps. In some cases, thicknesses
are estimated from topographic constraints such as scarp heights and bedding dips.
Grain Size
Field estimates of grain size can be made using the Fisher (1961) classification, which
parallels the Folk (1966) classification of clastic sediments; both of these can be done with
a scale and charts. Actual measurements will be done by sample sieving or thin-section
studies in the laboratory, but visual estimates are sufficient for measured sections in the
field. Coarser materials, including pumice and lithic clasts, can either be sieved in the
field with coarse (>4-cm) sieves or measured and described at an outcrop within a
designated area outlined on the rock surface (usually ~1 m2). These observations are
especially useful in studies of lithic clasts within pyroclastic units. Another technique for
recording the textural variations within an eruption unit is to measure the lengths of the
five largest lithic clasts and those of the five largest pumices.
Pyroclasts
Most of this detailed work will be done within the laboratory, however, it is helpful while
in the field to note pyroclast and lithic
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Fig. A.5
An example of notes taken during measurement of a pyroclastic rock sequence.
Field notes should be as complete as possible, including the date, location,
thorough rock descriptions, thicknesses of individual units, and location and numbers
of the samples collected for later laboratory analysis.
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clast characteristics that can be used later to identify a specific formation or member:
color, shape, percentage of phenocrysts, phenocryst types, and variety of lithic clasts.
Lithic clasts include those of lag breccias, mesobreccias, and megabreccias (the two latter
types are related to catastrophic collapses such as avalanches from a sector collapse in a
volcano or wall collapse within a caldera).
Bedding
Bedform identification is helpful for interpreting the origin of a pyroclastic deposits.
Fisher and Schmincke (1984) discussed various bedforms that can be related to different
types of eruptions (such as Plinian, hydroclastic, Strombolian), as well as the
emplacement mechanism. Where a pyroclastic deposit shows a sequence of bedforms as a
coherent unit (bedding set), the sequence can be used with other observations to identify
a mappable unit in the field. For example, a specific member might consist of a fine-
grained ash fallout bed overlain by a surge bed, two pyroclastic flow deposits, and a
volcanic mudflow breccia. Although the thicknesses and degree of compaction and
welding within the pyroclastic flow deposits might vary, if the sequence appears to be
unique, it can be helpful for correlating units.
Grading
The character of grading in pyroclastic deposits is also indicative of origin. The field
geologist should determine whether a bed is massive, normally graded, or reversely
graded.
Clast Orientation
Within surge deposits and pyroclastic flows, there may be elongate clasts or accidental
debris, such as fossil tree trunks, that can be used to determine flow directions. The
orientations of the long axes of as many elongate clasts as possible should be measured
and averaged for each field location.
Flow Features
Many surge deposits are characterized by dunes or antidunes. Measurements of implied
current directions, descriptions of types of cross-bedding, and estimates of the magnitude
of the cross-beds are all useful for evaluating eruption types and processes and for
locating vent areas. In pyroclastic flow deposits, flow features should be noted, including
thickening in paleovalleys and shadow areas behind paleotopographic high areas where
the flow is relatively thin.
Induration and Welding
To establish whether a rock is welded, partly welded, or nonwelded, bulk sample density
can be compared to that of a nonvesicular lava of similar composition; welded tuffs have
densities similar to those of equivalent lavas, nonwelded tuffs have densities less than
half of those for equivalent lavas, and nonwelded tuffs have intermediate densities. To
determine if the rock has been indurated or cemented by post-depositional processes, one
should look for vapor-phase alteration within pyroclastic flow deposits, matrix
cementation by diagenesis or weathering, and secondary clays from hydrothermal activity.
Other evidence of induration might be found in the form of fossil fumaroles (pipe-like
zones cemented with vapor phase minerals) and compaction features such as vertical
concentrations of small lithic clasts (segregation pipes).
Thermal Remanent Magnetization
Most welded tuffs have high magnetic stability and exhibit uniform thermal remanent
magnetization (TRM) directions. Polarity determinations of welded ignimbrites can be
made in the field with a portable magnetometer (Lipman, 1975).
Sampling
For each distinct unit (but not necessarily from all measured stratigraphic sections),
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field geologists collect a sample that is representative of that unit. If the tephra are
unconsolidated and coarse grained, they are sieved, the size fractions are weighed, and
chunks of the pumice are collected (in addition to a split of the <1-mm fraction that is
kept for laboratory sieving). The various lithic clasts are described and samples of each
lithic type are collected for thin-section study. If it is appropriate, samples are chosen for
radiometric dating and chemical analysis: pyroclastic flows often show subtle
compositional stratification that can be related to magma chamber evolution; fallout layers
provide widespread time-stratigraphic units; organic matter such as buried tree trunks are
very helpful in dating young pyroclastic depositsthese types of samples are always
particularly valuable.
Lava Flows and Domes
For lava flows and domes, descriptions should include observations of texture, flow
layering, jointing. petrology, overall lava flow type, thermal effects, and thickness. The
field geologist also samples representative lava units.
Texture
Textural variations that might be found within flows or domes include differences in
vesicularity (size, shape, and orientation), phenocryst content and size, brecciation, and
flow foliation or layering. Coarsely pumiceous zones, which have risen diapirically and
may have been broken or folded by flow movement (Fink and Manley, 1987), are often
distinct features that can be mapped. Variations in relief and vesicularity may be visible
on aerial photographs of silicic lava flows and can be used to map flow structures (Fig.
A.6).
Flow Layering
Especially in lavas of intermediate to silicic compositions, layering is common and ranges
from submicrometer shears to macroscopic bands of dense glass and slightly vesicular
glass. Layering attitudes, measured vertically and over the entire lava flow, can provide
information about vent locations and the physical properties of the flow.
Jointing
Most lavas are broken into blocks by thermal stresses during cooling. The open fractures
or joints are often columnar and form at right angles to the flow surface and base (normal
to the isotherms or cooling surfaces). Fracture surfaces are striated; Ryan and Sammis
(1978) concluded that striae provide a record of incremental crack advance during stress
buildup in the cooling lava (Fig. A.7).
Columnar joints can range from a few tens of centimeters to >1 m wide and can be up to
30 m long in some thick plateau basalt flows. The columns can have as few as three or as
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Fig. A.6
Examples of maps and useful observations of silicic lava flows. (a) Sketch map of Little
Glass Mountain in California, made quickly from an aerial photograph. This is a young rhyolitic
obsidian flow for which flow lobes and the direction of flow can be observed by mapping
the ridged and furrowed flow surface; from this information and topographic profiles,
it is possible to locate the vent area. The flow lobes also can be identified through
textural changes; in this example, zones of coarsely vesicular pumice can be mapped.
(Adapted from Fink and Manley, 1987.) (b) Map of Little Glass Mountain that shows
zones of coarsely vesicular pumice (dark areas). (Adapted from Fink and Manley, 1987).
(c) Map of the Watchman dacite flow at Crater Lake in Oregon. Flow patterns
were identified by measuring the attitudes of flow foliation. This method is particularly
useful if no aerial photographs are available. (Adapted from Williams, 1942). (d) Cross
section along the long axis of a silicic lava flow illustrates textural variations, including
coarse rubble scattered over the flow surface, along the flow front, and at the base.
Ragged spines or slabs quite often extend out from the flow or dome.
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many as seven sides; most appear to have five or six sides (Williams and McBirney,
1979). Maps of column orientations can sometimes help determine lava flow boundaries,
and this is especially useful where outcrops are poor. For example, within a valley-filling
lava flow, columns in the center of the valley would be vertical; however, along the valley
walls, they would be oriented at an angle and would be perpendicular to the walls, which
had acted as heat sinks during cooling of the lava flow. Similar columnar jointing can
also be found in dikes, plugs, and lava lakes.
If the lavas are potential reservoir rocks, maps of the size, width, and extent of cooling
joints in these flows exposed at the surface may be useful for estimating their
permeability.
Petrology
For field identification of lava type, geologists use the petrographic classification with
which they are most familiar (such as those illustrated in Fig. 1.3 and Appendix B, for
instance), but consistency is crucial. The field descriptions should be the best possible,
but it is likely that these will change after thin sections have been examined
petrographically, especially in the case of finely crystalline rocks.
Lava Flow Type
If possible, descriptions of the type of lava flow should include its overall texture and
morphology. Most basaltic lavas can be identified by the terms pahoehoe, aa, or block
lava. Details of basal breccia and lava tubes or channels should be provided if they are
visible.
Thermal Effects
To ascertain whether there has been thermal alteration of rocks underlying the lava flow,
field geologists look for oxidation of soil layers or older rocks, formation of pipe vesicles
during heating of water in soil or bogs, and desiccation of clastic sedimentary rocks (Fig.
A.7).
Thickness
In measuring thicknesses, all mappable sub-divisions (eruption unit, member, or
formation) and all textural subunits are noted.
Fig. A.7
Cross section of a generic basaltic lava flow, showing some of the basic structural features
that should be described when mapping flows. Flow surfaces, if preserved, present
a variety of textures that range from smooth, ropy pahoehoe to spiny, rubbly aa lavas.
Flow interiors exhibit variations in structure such as different types of columnar joints,
vesicle concentrations, and lava tubes; the presence of these features often depends
on flow thickness and viscosity. Pipe vesicles are formed within flows as they cross
wet ground; rising steam leaves vesicle trains or small tubes that are bent by flow
(a good indicator of flow direction). Lava blocks spalled or extruded from the toe of
an aa lava flow leave lava rubble beneath and in front of the flow.
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Thickness is measured from the base of a unit to the level of some significant textural
change.
Sampling
Lava samples are critical for developing a sound understanding of the time-stratigraphy
for a field area. In addition to providing documentation of the petrogenetic evolution of a
volcanic field, carefully selected samples can provide important radiometric dates. To
obtain dates and chemical analyses that are reliable, it is important to assess the evident
weathering and diagenetic effects as well as phenocryst content of samples.
Correlation of Volcanic Rock Units
The ability to identify and correlate eruption units becomes much more significant if the
units are large, extensive, and within a tectonically complex area. If a pyroclastic unit
(either fallout deposit or ignimbrite) is to be traced to determine either its volume or its
utility as a stratigraphic marker across complex terrain, then correlation criteria must be
established. Geothermal exploration within calderas requires that pyroclastic deposits
exposed around the margins be correlated with thick caldera-fill deposits; these tuffs are
from the same eruption but may have substantially different textures.
An entire branch of volcanology, tephrochronology, has been developed to answer the
need for correlating volcanic ash deposits (see, for example, Wilcox, 1965; Self and
Sparks, 1981). To correlate ash beds, it is necessary to identify the mineral phases, glass
compositions, and particle shapes (such as shard types and pumice characteristics) that
are characteristic of each deposit. If the ash is petrographically unique, it is possible to
identify it with a hand lens plus a reference sample of the known deposit. If there are
several ash beds of similar composition or appearance, it may be necessary to use
chemical analyses of the glass pyroclasts, including trace elements, for correlation.
Ideally, radiometric age dates are employed, but they are expensive. Bulk chemical
analyses are known to be a poor basis for correlation: with increasing distance from the
source, the gravitational segregation of mineral phases from a glass-shard-laden eruption
plume can change the bulk chemical composition. The refractive indices of glass shards
(see Fig. B.1), used at one time for correlation, are not always accurate because glasses
change as a result of alteration and hydration in different depositional environments.
Correlation of ignimbrites can be difficult because of facies variations, the degree of
welding, postdepositional alteration, and chemical zonation of large-volume eruption
units. For example, it is not easy to quickly correlate a nonwelded ignimbrite on the outer
slopes of a volcano and a densely welded, hydrothermally altered ignimbrite from the
same eruption within the thick caldera fill. Hildreth and Mahood (1986) have reviewed
techniques for correlating ignimbrites and conclude that the following observations are
the most reliable:
careful mapping of the whole unit;
stratigraphic position;
thermal remnant magnetic directions within welded tuffs and high-precision potassium-
argon ages;
a distinctive suite of lithic clasts; and
petrographic characteristics within pumice clasts, pyroclast shapes, and unusual
phenocrysts.
Lithology and Structure
The characterization of rock samples provides qualitative and quantitative data that are
used for interpreting the origin of the rocks and their significance to the overall volcanic
structure and geothermal properties. In addition, laboratory analyses of lithological
character provide strong tests of field hypotheses. Appendix B outlines various rock
classification methods.
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Before doing a structural analysis, it is extremely important to properly map faults,
showing topographic effects that constrain their dip and strike. In addition to delineation
and classification of faults and fractures, the overall volcanic structure must be evaluated.
With this information, various rock associations, and the rocks' spatial and temporal
variations, it it possible to constrain a probable underlying volcanic structure, as has been
described in previous chapters of this book.
The following discussions cover basic aspects of the techniques employed in lithological
and structural studies. More detailed information is available in popular petrographic and
structural textbooks such as Williams et al. (1982) and Dennis (1972).
Lava Samples
Hand Sample Classification
Because many volcanic rocks are fine-grained, accurate hand-sample classification is
often difficult. The color, texture, density, and mineral content are descriptive features
that can be used to identify a sample. These macroscopic features are also invaluable for
making the field identifications and correlations that are necessary for mapping.
Compositional classification is generally determined by color and phenocryst content, if
any. An example of such a classification is shown in MacDonald (1972; p. 458).
Mineralogical classification is greatly aided by the use of rock associations, as was
described for rock families by Carmichael et al. (1974, pp. 32-37), including the basalts,
andesite-rhyolite associations, trachybasalt-trachyandesites, trachyte-phonolites,
lamprophyres, and nephelinites. In addition to the sample's phenocryst mineralogy,
secondary mineralogy is employed to classify many volcanic rocks, especially those
found in areas of geothermal activity. (This subject is discussed more thoroughly in
Chapter 3.)
Textural features of samples lend a physical basis for classification to supplement the
more chemical nature of mineralogical classifications. For example, textural features of
lavas include vesicularity, phenocryst abundance and size, foliation and fracture, and
secondary transformations such as hydration, devitrification, and weathering.
In general, a combination of the compositional and textural classifications of lava samples
(for instance, aphyric rhyolite; pumiceous, hornblende-biotite dacite; flow-banded
andesite) provides a satisfactory, unambiguous method of naming rocks for field and
laboratory recognition.
Thin-Section Petrography
Analysis of rock samples by petrographic microscope is the most important laboratory
procedure geologists use to supplement the field study; its value lies in part in the
relatively simple preparation and facilities required. This work can be accomplished
conveniently in the field area with a rock trim saw and lap, quick setting glues or epoxies
(Hutchinson, 1974), and a polarizing, petrographic microscope. Petrographic methods,
outlined in crystallography texts such as Heinrich (1965), as well as textural descriptions,
well illustrated in other texts such as Williams et al. (1982), facilitate the analysis. This
analysis usually includes textural classification (for example, aphyric, foliated, or
vesicular) and modal analysis of the crystal content, which is quantified by point counts.
One possible format for the analysis is shown in the sidebar on this page.
Petrographic analyses may also include scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of thin
sections. This procedure requires sophisticated equipment that might not be readily
available, but it can be extremely helpful in characterizing and interpreting phase
mineralogy and textures in fine-grain samples, especially those that are pyroclastic or have
been altered to secondary minerals. Etching samples with acids or by an ion beam greatly
enhances poorly developed textures by
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selectively thinning the section according to mineral and glass hardnesses (Heiken et al.,
1989).
Whole-Rock and Mineral Chemistry
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AA)
are the most widely used methods for obtaining bulk chemical analyses of rock samples.
(The methods and analytical problems are outlined by Hutchinson, 1974.) These data are
very valuable when combined with petrographic descriptions to characterize volcanic
stratigraphy and determine the nature of a magmatic source. For instance, Carmichael et
al. (1974) reported that magma evolution through differentiation is revealed by the
enrichment in the silica contents of erupted products with time. Samples for bulk
chemical analysis must be carefully chosen to obtain a suite of samples for which
analyses can be compared. Problems in discerning variable effects of secondary
alterations and phenocryst contents can reduce the value of sample data for
characterization and correlation.
Mineral compositions provide information to be used in detailed classification schemes
that require specificity; for example, discrimination of the anorthite content of plagioclase.
Mineral chemistry data also can be applied to calculation of geothermometers and
geobarometers (Behen and Lindsley, 1987).
This type of information is typically obtained from thin sections by electron probe
microanalysis (EPM); however, mineral separates, obtained when the sample is crushed
and prepared for bulk chemical analyses (Hutchinson, 1974), can be readily analyzed by
x-ray diffraction (XRD). These separates may be also useful for radiometric dating by
mass spectrometry.
Alteration
Alteration mineralogy is an significant aspect of volcanic petrography in geothermal areas
1. Sample Number:
2. Date and Location:
3. Rock Name:
4. Hand Sample
Description:
5. Overall Thin-Section
Texture:
6. Phenocryst Description
Essential Minerals:
Varietal Minerals:
Accessory Minerals:
Secondary Minerals:
7. Phenocryst and
Groundmass Textures:
8. Modes by Point Count:

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(see Chapter 3). Both the traditional XRD powder methods and the SEM are useful for
identifying suites of alteration minerals such as clays and zeolites. These suites are typical
of hydrothermal alteration environments and therefore can be employed to establish
thermal regimes, the likely chemistry of the host rocks, and the nature of hydrothermal
fluids. We recommend the review by Henley et al. (1983) for comprehensive instructions
on this method.
Pyroclastic Samples
Field Classification
Several classification schemes are provided in Appendix B. Field descriptions include
general grain size and sorting, bedding textures, color, and topographic effects on the
pyroclastic deposit. More detailed descriptive aspects are discussed in Chapter 2.
Laboratory Analysis
Analysis of tephra samples in the laboratory involves several interdependent techniques
that generally do not require elaborate analytical equipment. Figure A.8 is a flow chart
that outlines laboratory treatment of pyroclastic samples, including both preparatory and
analytical steps. The petrographic inspection follows procedures outlined above for lava
samples and can be simply performed with a binocular scope on small sample splits or
thin sections of epoxy-impregnated samples. Fundamental measurements comprise
granulometry, mode and component analysis, grain shape and texture description, and
mineral and glass chemical analysis.
Granulometric Analysis
Grain-size analysis of pyroclastic samples is a standard characterizing technique and, over
the last 20 years, has been increasingly used to interpret the origin of samples (for
instance, Sheridan, 1971; Walker, 1971; Wohletz, 1983). Granulometric characterization of
samples is an especially important tool for correlation and classification in areas where
many pyroclastic deposits are encountered. Interpretation is generally needed to determine
the eruption and emplacement mechanisms for the deposits sampled.
Sieving is a practical approach for classifying samples in the range of ~16 to 0.064 mm,
for which standard screens are readily available (see, for instance, Folk and Ward, 1957).
Above this grain size, hand counts of individual fragments are useful; below this size,
settling-tube measurements, based on either a pipette method (Folk, 1976) or optical
methods such as fluid suspension absorbance measurements can extend the range to near
1 µm. The wide range easily analyzed by screen sieves provides enough data to
adequately characterize and interpret most tephra samples. Table A.2 presents class size
intervals for clastic sediments and pyroclastic rocks. Because of the broad range of grain
sizes represented by pyroclastic materials, it is common to use a logarithmic
transformation of grain diameters called the phi ( ) scale (Wentworth, 1922):
for which dmm is the grain diameter in millimeters. Krumbein (1938) showed that on this
scale transformation, plots of mass frequency vs phi size approximated a Gaussian
distribution, which can be characterized by the use of log-normal statistics:
where dm/d = the mass per unit interval of , Ks = a constant to normalize the
distribution (usually Ks = 1), d = the standard deviation in log units, d = particle
diameter, and dm = the mode diameter of the distribution.
Tephra size data are useful for various types of interpretation. For example, Sparks et al.
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Fig. A.8
Flow chart for laboratory treatment of pyroclastic samples.
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(1978) discussed the importance of particle size to terminal fall velocity, which is useful
in determining the amount of time required for pyroclasts to fall out of eruption plumes
and clouds (Fig. A.9). Carey and Sparks (1986; Figs. 1.13 and 1.14) related maximum
clast sizes to distance from source for eruptions of different magnitudes. A plot of median
diameter vs distance from the source (Fig. A.10) shows the general fining of pyroclastic
samples with distance for a number of different eruptions.
By using single-mode lognormal statistics, Walker (1971) characterized tephra samples of
pyroclastic fall and flow origin. Wohletz (1983) described similar size data for pyroclastic
surge samples. Sheridan and Wohletz (1983a) characterized size data for numerous
samples of hydrovolcanic origin (see Fig. 2.20). Taken together and plotted on a sorting
vs median diameter plot (Fig. A.11), these data provide a general interpretation scheme
for tephra samples.
Another, more specific example illustrates the application of size data to a stratigraphic
section of the Lathrop Wells scoria cone in Nevada that exhibits two main types of
eruptive behavior (Wohletz, 1986): early
Table A.2. Class Size Intervals
Phi( ) Mesh mm Clastic Sedimentsa Pyroclastic Rocksb
-10 1024.0
-9 512.0 Boulder
-8 256.0 Block, bomb
-7 128.0 Cobble
-6 64.0
-5 32.0
-4 16.0
-3 5/16 8.0 Pebble Lapillus
-2 5 4.0
-1 10 2.0 Granule
0 18 1.0 Very coarse sand
1 35 0.500 Coarse sand Coarse ash
2 60 0.250 Medium sand
3 120 0.125 Fine sand
4 230 0.063 Very fine sand
5 0.031
6 0.015 Silt
7 0.008 Fine ash
8 0.004
9 0.002
10 0.001 Clay
aMethod described by Wentworth (1922).
bMethod described by Schmid (1981).
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hydrovolcanic explosions and later Strombolian eruptions (Fig. A.12). Three types of
bedforms were recognizable: scoria fall, fine ash layers of undetermined origin, and
pyroclastic surge. Figure A.13 is a sorting vs median diameter plot that nicely
differentiates between the three bedforms. Because of their relatively poor sorting, it was
assumed that the fine ash layers had been emplaced by pyroclastic surge. Furthermore, a
plot of median diameter and weight percent of fine ash (Fig. A.14) correlated the fine ash
layers with similar size distributions from early hydrovolcanic samples in the cone
stratigraphy and thus permitted their classification as hydrovolcanic. This interpretation
was supported by a later study of pyroclast constituents, morphology, and surface
chemistry.
We believe that size analysis can provide even more information about the history of
fragmentation and dispersal of pyroclastic samples through mathematical analysis of
individual size-frequency distributions. Sheridan et al. (1987) discussed the typical
polymodality of tephra size-frequency distributions and possible types of interpretations.
Typically, size-frequency distributions are analyzed as lognormal-type distributions, in
which, for any particular sample, one or more lognormal subpopulations may overlap to
form the total observed distribution. Because the single-mode lognormal statistics are not
strictly applicable to tephra samples, we advocate the subpopulation discrimination
technique established by Sheridan et al. (1987), in which microcomputer software can be
applied to sieve data for fully characterized sized distributions. More recently, Wohletz et
al. (1989) developed a new mathematical distribution, the sequential
fragmentation/transport model, that relates distribution shapes to physical
Fig. A.9
Terminal fall velocities for (a) pumice and (b) lithic fragments of varying radii in fluid of
several densities (for example, the lower two curves of each plot are for fallout in air at room
temperature and steam at 1300 K). Vertical dashed lines are shear velocities of 15 to 200 m/s,
assuming a drag coefficient of 0.01; these lines define the rate of fallout of tephra from
an eruption plume and velocities required to suspend the fragments in a pyroclastic flow.
(Adapted from Sparks et al., 1978.)
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Fig. A.10
Plot of median grain size vs distance from the source for various tephra deposits.
processes of fragmentation and transport sorting, which allows a much more extensive
analysis of size data. The distribution is given as
where the normalization constant (Ks) and the transport distance factor (x/ o) are set to
unity for frequency distributions totaling 100%, f = a parameter analogous in part to
standard deviation, and gf = f + 2 for fragmentation processes or gf = 2 for transport
processes. Because the distribution shapes for the fragmentation and transport forms of
Eq. (A-3) are nearly identical and because almost all tephra samples have experienced
some sorting by a transporting agent, the gf = 2 form is most appropriate. Figures A. 15
through A.17 show the results when Eq. (A-3) is applied to several tephra samples. In
Table A.3, we show observed ranges and expected values of f for volcanic fragmentation
and transporting process.
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Fig. A.11
Plot of sorting ( ) vs median diameter (Md ), showing ranges of values as 1 and 8%
contours for fallout (dashed lines) and pyroclastic flows (solid lines).
The bold solid line encloses the range of values observed for pyroclastic surge samples
from observations referenced by Fisher and Schmincke (1984); the dotted line
surrounds values of cross-bedded surge deposits.
Component Analysis
Tephra samples contain essential juvenile, (meaning new magma), accessory (older
volcanic materials), and accidental (subvolcanic basement fragments) components. In
juvenile components, fragments of glass, lava, and crystals vary in proportion in a
complex fashion that is dependent on the magma composition and temperature as well as
the mode of ejection and transport. Glass is often vesiculated and forms pumice or scoria.
The three tephra components (glass, crystals, and lithic fragments) can be easily
recognized with assistance of a hand lens or microscope. An example from Walker and
Croasdale (1972) shows vertical and lateral changes of pyroclast constituents for the Fogo
A tephra sampled southeast of Lake Fogo at Sao Miguel in the Azores (Fig. A.18).
An analysis of tephra components is especially important for identifying samples from
deposits that have major nonjuvenile contributions. Abundant accidental and accessory
lithic fragments are indicative of eruptions that have fractured and excavated rocks from
around the magma conduit, as is the case for vent-opening and hydrovolcanic eruptions.
A careful count of lithic-fragment abundances for the scoria cone at Lathrop Wells (Fig.
A.12) showed the relative abundance of lithic fragments in pyroclastic deposits from
hydrovolcanic phases (Fig. A.19). In addition, Fig. A.19 illustrates the relative increases
of crystals in pyroclastic surge samples from the tuff ring and fine ashes from
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Fig. A.12
Stratigraphic section of the Lathrop Wells, Nevada, scoria cone,
showing sampled intervals.
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Fig. A.13
Plot of sorting vs median diameter for samples from the scoria cone described in Fig. A.12.
Fig. A.14
Plot median diameter (Md ) and wt% ash <1 mm vs the scoria cone
stratigraphy (shown in Fig. A.12). The peaks in median diameter and ash abundance
for the hydrovolcanic samples are unlike those for the Strombolian
samples, which are products of magmatic eruption.
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Fig. A.15
Plots of the size-frequency distribution for a
sample of a planar surge bed from Crater
Elegante in Sonora, Mexico. The upper plot
shows a cubic spline curve fit to the data
points ( ), and the lower plot shows the
modeled distribution (solid curve) made
by adding three subpopulations of SFT
form (dashed curves).
the early and late cone samples, which were interpreted as surge deposits. This increase in
crystal concentration is a typical feature of surge-emplaced tephra.
Grain Shape and Texture
For most samples (except those with a high content of fine ash), a hand lens is sufficient
to make vital observations about features such as those listed here.
Vesicularity: the relative abundance and size of vesicles and whether they are spherical
or elongated; in most cases, this is a measure of the contribution of magmatic gas
Angularity: blocky grains with few vesiclesearmarks of phreatomagmatic or phreatic
pyroclasts
Fig. A.16
Plots of the size-frequency distribution for
a sample of the proximal bedded deposits
of the Mount St. Helens May 18, 1980
pyroclastic flow. The upper plot shows
a cubic spline curve fit to the data points ( ),
and the lower plot shows the modeled
distribution (solid curve) made by adding four
subpopulations of SFT form (dashed curves).
Rounding: used to determine the relative degree of transport abrasion and reworking by
epiclastic processes
Surface alteration: indicates weathering or hydrothermal processes; phreatomagmatic
pyroclasts from wet surge deposits show abundant alteration coatings.
Grain-shape analysis can be further developed by using an SEM; methods for analysis
and interpretation are discussed by Heiken (1972), Wohletz (1983; 1986), and Heiken and
Wohletz (1985). The SEM micrographs in Fig. A.20 reveal prominent textural features.
Figure A.21 plots the variation of grain textures that proved useful in distinguishing
between Strombolian (magmatic) and hydrovolcanic samples from the scoria cone at
Lathrop Wells (Fig. A.12).
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Fig. A.17
Plots of the size-frequency distribution for a
sample of gray pumice fall from the AD 79
eruption of Vesuvius. The upper plot
shows a cubic spline curve fit to the
data points ( ), and the lower plot shows
the modeled distribution (solid curve) made
by adding three subpopulations of
sequential fragmentation/transport (SFT)
form (dashed curves).
Tephra Chemistry and Alteration
Bulk chemical analyses can be obtained by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and atomic
absorption (AA) methods, as discussed for lava samples earlier; however, such analyses
are not commonly performed because of the secondary alterations typical found in tephra
samples. Glass silica content can easily be determined by index of refraction
measurements with a petrographic microscope (see Fig. B.1). An x-ray analyzer attached
to the scanning electron microscope (SEM) also provides a rapid means by which to
obtain relative chemical compositions; using this technique, it is possible to analyze small
alteration crystals that cover individual pyroclast surfaces (Fig. A.22). Many types of
pyroclastic deposits show variations of glass surface chemistry with stratigraphic position
(Fig. A.23). These variations can be interpreted with respect to the degree of secondary
alteration (an essential measurement for porosity and permeability), the degree of water
interaction during hydrovolcanic eruption, and changes in magma chemistry. In the Fig.
A.24 plot of major-element variations for the Lathrop Wells scoria cone (Fig. A.12), the
strongest variations occur in hydrovolcanic samples, as is the case for palagonitic
constituents and surface alteration textures (Figs. A.19 and A.20, respectively).
Structural Analysis
Identification of geologic structures is a crucial component of field work. Frequently,
these structures are most readily observed from stereo pairs of aerial photographs. In the
field, definition of fault and vent structures requires careful correlation of rock units and
close inspection of outcrop fabrics.
Regional Tectonic Control
Regional structures are related to past and present tectonic conditions such as crustal
compression (thrusting and folding) and extension (block faulting, graben formation, and
strike-slip movement). In general, regional structure exerts some control over volcanic
vent locations and, to some degree, the type of volcanic complex that evolves (for
instance, composite cones from compressional regions and scoria cone fields from
extensional environments).
Stratigraphic Correlation and Volcano-Tectonic Models
As we discussed earlier, preparation of a detailed stratigraphy is one of the most
important aspects of field work. Stratigraphic units in volcanic fields consist of old
basement rocks, which are relatively large areally as a result of their sedimentary,
intrusive, or metamorphic origin; rocks of petrologic consanguinty, such as older mafic
rocks buried by younger intermediate extrusives; and widespread pyroclastic units.
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Table A.3. Possible Variation of f with Fragmentation and Transport
Processesa
Correlation of these units can generally be accomplished in the field by examining out-
crop textures and alteration, phenocryst contents, erosion surfaces, and overall rock type.
For widespread pyroclastic units, discontinuities in surface elevation and thickness (for
example, large thickness variations seen across graben- or caldera-bounding faults) are
often used to identify fault locations. Composite cones can show facies such as near-vent
intercalations of lava and pyroclastic units that change laterally to distal laharic deposits.
Other typical stratigraphic successions for various volcanic field types are discussed in
previous chapters (see also Cas and Wright, 1987).
The Map
Because planimetric maps are the most significant and tangible product of
geological/volcanological investigations, we place great emphasis on detailed, accurate,
and legible maps that portray as much qualitative and quantitative data as possible. The
spatial relationships of observations and data collection points are not only the key to
understanding the subsurface structure of an exploration property but also necessary in
planning drilling operationsespecially for issues concerning topographic accessibility. The
three-dimensionality of geologic investigations also dictates the need for maps with
associated cross-section interpretations. The exercise of producing maps and cross
sections is one way to validate spatial observationsthe spacial and temporal laws of
superposition, topographic control, and cross-cutting relationships must be satisfied by
data and observations before the field geologist can produce a technically accurate map.
During the map-editing stage, inconsistencies in observations and the completeness of a
field study become obvious.
The stages of mapping are well described in classical texts on geological field methods.
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Fig. A.18
Median size (Md ), sorting coefficient ( ), and frequency distribution of pumice (light gray),
crystals (white), and lithic clasts (black) for the Fogo A tephra. (a) These variations show
vertical changes that are documented within a stratigraphic section. (b) These
variations show lateral changes documented within the deposit with
increasing distance from the vent.
(Adapted from Walker and Croasdale, 1972.)
For instance, Compton (1962) discusses the scale and detail, types of data and
observations to be included, ways maps address specific themes or problems, note-taking
and location protocol, field equipment required, sampling procedures, sample density,
and traverse plans.
Generally, mapping is first approached from the reconnaissance level where previous
reports and maps are compiled, accessibility is determined, and land ownerships are
determined. Many of these issues were covered at the beginning of this appendix. Often
maps and orientations provided by previous workers can be compiled into a working
reconnaissance map. The mapping process then progresses from observations of type
localities for development of the stratigraphic framework to field checking major
geological contacts determined by previous work. Most useful reconnaissance traverses
are along areas with outcrops, such as streams, roads, ridges, and trails that cross
structural and stratigraphic contacts. At the end of the reconnaissance stage, when the area
of interest has been placed in a regional context, the size of the area to be studied and the
level of detail required can be determined; in addition, specific areas can be selected for
detailed mapping.
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Fig. A.19
Variation of pyroclast constituents for samples from the scoria cone section shown in Fig. A.12.
The curves depict variations for the size fractions indicated.
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Fig. A.20
SEM photographs illustrating four common pyroclast textures. (a) Vesicularity is well
developed for this pyroclast sampled at Surtsey. (b) Grain angularity is prominent in a
hydroclastic sample from Surtsey. (c) Grain rounding indicates transport abrasion in this
poorly vesicular pyroclast from Kilbourne Hole maar in New Mexico. (d) Surface
alteration coats this pyroclast from the Coliseum Diatreme maar in Arizona.
Scale and Graphic Detail
Topographic maps for most areas are available at scales of 1:250,000 to 1:25,000. The
scales of satellite and aerial photo images vary, but satellite images are generally more
regional. It is often satisfactory to photographically enlarge topographic base maps for
more detailed investigations, but this process can make it difficult to judge absolute
distances correctly and triangulation methods will be necessary.
For geothermal fields, the scale of the map may be determined by the size of the volcanic
field with which it is associated. For example, if a hydrothermal system strongly interacts
with regional aquifers, related hydro-thermal manifestations, geochemical survey points,
and sampling locations may extend over regions of up to several hundred square
kilometers. In such cases, a large-scale geological reconnaissance map helps identify the
geological control of the hydrothermal manifestations and their possible relationships
with primary hydrothermal prospects. These large-scale maps are valuable in establishing
hydrologic recharge and hydrothermal outflow areas, which are a function of the regional
hydrologic gradient. As a part of the geological and hydro-
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Fig. A.21
Variation plot for pyroclast textures determined by SEM vs scoria cone
stratigraphy (Fig. A.12). The vesicularity in magmatic (cone-forming eruptions)
samples is greater than that in samples from the hydrovolcanic tuff ring, but
the hydrovolcanic phases show greater grain alteration and blocky (angular) textures.
Pyroclast rounding is increased in samples abraded during surge transport.
geochemical survey, evaluations of the regional groundwater budget often play a major
role in modeling the productivity of a hydrothermal system.
When exploration has progressed to the drilling/coring stage and production drilling plans
are being considered, a detailed plane-table map showing the target area's topographic
contours, geological contacts, lithology, and structures is beneficial. This process may
require scales in the range of 1:1,000 to 1:10,000, which will make it easier not only to
determine the well site, but also to locate geologic details and project depths accurately.
Thematic Mapping
Geological maps can be very different, depending on the theme of the mapwhether it
focuses on bedrock lithology, detailed volcanologic or tectonic structure, rock facies
determined by chemical or physical properties, or geothermal manifestations. The most
useful type of map is
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Fig. A.22
SEM of microcrystalline alteration materials coating a vesicular pyroclast from Surtsey.
The mineralogy of these materials can constrain the alteration environment.
geovolcanological and shows aspects of bedrock lithology, volcano structure, and
cognate lithologies (suites of rocks all erupted from the same volcanic edifice). A
geovolcanological map adds these structural interpretations to more classical geologic
base maps. Producing this type of map requires that the field geologists
recognize related rock types that can be grouped as co-genetic suites related to the
evolution of particular vents;
delineate subunits or facies of rocks that reflect their genesis;
map geomorphological changes that reflect concealed vent structures; and
distinguish between regional tectonic structural fabrics and local volcanic ones.
Several map themes we have found particularly useful in specific areas are discussed in
more detail below. Creating multiple maps of a geothermal area can be very useful in
separating different data sets and observations so they can be judged on their internal
consistency; however, multiple maps are also useful as a group when they are over-laid
so as to determine areas of greatest data correspondence. (Map overlays will be discussed
in the later section on 3-D models.)
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Lithological
A geological map that emphasizes only rock data and observations illustrates the greatest
number of mapped geological units and structural contacts but places little emphasis on
volcanic or tectonic structure. These maps are employed to show rock sample locations
and subtle variations in rock properties. However, because the detail can obscure
volcanological and structural interpretations, this type of map may not be the most
suitable for illustrating key rock and structural elements that control a geothermal system.
The geological map of Usu volcano (Fig. 5.34) is typical of a lithological approach that
shows variations of rock types according to their age, petrography, and geomorphology.
Structural
A map that emphasizes tectonic and volcanological structure may have some interpretive
elements that are based on grouping of lithological units and the delineation of individual
volcanic edifices by geomorphological features. Because only major rock units are
shown, much greater emphasis is
Fig. A.23
Variation in glass-surface chemistry for samples taken from stratigraphic sections of four
volcanoes: Crater Elegante and Cerro Colorado in Sonora, Mexico, and Panum
Crater and Obsidian Dome from the Inyo-Mono volcanic field of California.
Sample types are designated as fall (F), sandwave surge (SW), massive surge (M),
and planar surge (P). Fall samples are most representative of magmatic compositions
(stippled patterns), whereas the surge samples show hydrovolcanic tephra compositions
that result from the rapid alteration of the magma through its interaction with water.
The vertical line on plots for Crater Elegante and Cerro Colorado separates essentially
magmatic samples (left) and later-erupted hydrovolcanic samples (right).
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placed on structural features that affect subsurface conditions and locations of
hydrothermal systems. Relative ages and the amount of recent fault movement can be
depicted by variable thicknesses of contacts. Figure 5.24 provides a prototype in the
detailed structural map for the Coso volcanic field.
Facies
Volcanic facies (lateral and vertical variations in single eruptive units) are manifest as
gradation changes in physical or chemical properties. Some examples of mappable facies
discussed in previous chapters include
downslope variations in composite cones, from lavas to lavas intercalated with
pyroclastic units to dominantly epiclastic and pyroclastic textures;
variations in pyroclastic units related to median grain size, sorting, and bedding
structures;
pyroclastic and lava facies of silicic domes;
contrast between caldera fill and caldera outflow rocks;
plateau forming, horizontally outcropping rocks of basin fills; and
dipping and unconformable rock strata of near-vent facies.
Other examples are described by Cas and Wright (1987).
Facies variations shown in plan view can provide information on porosity/permeability
relationships that are meaningful when a potential hydrothermal reservoir must be
delineated. In other cases, facies variations in some pyroclastic units can point to potential
vent areas that have been eroded or concealed under younger units. Wohletz and
Sheridan (1979) discussed one example of ways in which pyroclastic surge facies can
indicate vent area, and another example, shown in Fig. 2.34, suggests how dry-to-wet
pyroclastic rock facies might help constrain the degree of aquifer interaction for a given
eruptive unit.
Geothermal Manifestations
Chapter 3 outlined aspects of geothermal manifestations, including thermal spring and
fumarole locations, silica sinter and travertine deposits, hydrothermally altered rocks, and
phreatic explosion craters and breccias. A map indicating locations of such manifestations
is very useful for hydrogeochemical surveys; it not only points to individual sample
localities, it also becomes a base map (like that shown in Fig. A.25) for plotting
hydrogeochemical samples and subsequent interpretations.
Cross Sections
Construction of cross sections should begin before field work actually commences. The
following approach works well to stimulate ideas about the area's geologic history and
framework; it also allows the geologist to identify inconsistencies and deficiencies while
still in the field.
Topographic Profile
After previous topographic maps, aerial photographs, and any other available data have
been examined, it is possible to establish lines for cross sections through critical parts of
the field area. If topographic maps are available, the geologist prepares topographic
profiles for the cross sections at the same scale used for the working copy of the map.
After the profiles are completed, several copies are made with indelible ink on sturdy
paper (cross-section paper is good) or plastic mylar (Fig. A.26). No vertical exaggeration
is used, especially when sketching in lithologic units and structural features; cross sections
with vertical exaggeration are often deceptive and can lead to later problems in siting
wells.
Preliminary Interpretation
At this point, the geologist has examined all the older data, aerial photographs, and
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Fig. A.24
Variation of major-element chemistry for surfaces of pyroclast samples taken from the scoria
cone described in Fig. A.12. Strong variations are evident in major-element abundances
for the hydrovolcanic, magmatic, and lava samples.
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topographic maps and has some preliminary ideas about the structure of the area from
geomorphological clues. Folds, faults, and major lithologic breaks are sketched in pencil
on the cross-sections (Fig. A.26). Studying these preliminary cross sections can help in
planning field traverses.
In the Field
Each evening in the field, appropriate changes are made to the working cross sections,
based on the day's lithologic descriptions as well as observations of faults, attitudes, areas
of alteration, etc. Sometimes it is necessary to erase an earlier interpretation or add new
lines. This messy working cross section evolves, along with the geologist's ideas about the
field area (Fig. A.26); the daily review exercise is stimulating and sharpens perceptions
for the next day's observations.
By the end of the field season, the geologist has a fairly sophisticated set of cross-sections
that are consistent with the geologic map, working hypotheses, and the logical framework
within which samples were collected.
Additional Information from Drill Holes
The ultimate test of the three-dimensional view of the field area is a comparison of the
map, cross-sections, and data gained through drilling. A proposed stratigraphy, based on
field work, is created for the drillers; this exercise helps them prepare a drilling plan and
cost estimates. In return, the drilling provides the geologist with hard data about
subsurface geological features. As drilling proceeds, numerous changes to the cross-
sections may be necessary. On the other hand, well-founded cross sections may be useful
for interpreting core or cuttings that are difficult to classify.
The ideal exploration well is a corehole that has been sampled to its full depth. Wireline
coring is a proven technology and eliminates guessing about the rock types and the degree
of alteration or fracturing. Procedures for the curation and description of core samples are
outlined in Appendix F. If no cores are to be collected, careful evaluation of drill cuttings
can be useful; however, it is important to take into consideration the limitations of this
method when cuttings from different strata are mixed during their rise to the surface and
there is a time lag involved. Onsite petrographic identification of cuttings is aided by hand
lens and a binocular microscope, but ideally a geologist should set up a simple thin-
section preparation system with basic equipment: quick-setting glue (super-glue) or
epoxy to fix the cuttings on a glass slide, a hot plate to set the glue, and a grinder or
abrasives to grind down the cuttings mounted on the slide to the appropriate thickness.
Because this method takes only a few minutes per thin section, it allows the geologist to
keep up with the drilling operations.
When calibrated against core or cuttings, geophysical logs provide critical information on
lithologies, temperatures, and permeability (see Appendix F). Integrating these
dataperhaps with the aid of a professional well-log analystis time-consuming but well
worth the effort if the geologist is to understand the third dimension within the
geothermal field.
''Final" Versions of Cross-Sections
At this stage, the field geologist has confidence in the cross sections. If the cross sections
are to be used in a publications or report, it is desirable to use a technical illustrator for
the final drafting. However created, the final maps and cross sections should be drawn on
a plastic base or good quality paper that will exhibit minimal expansion and contraction
with changes in humidity. One way to avoid many problems is to prepare the cross
sections and map with a computer that has computer-assisted design programs or a
geographic information system
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Fig. A.25
Example of a spring map from a site near Azacualpa, Honduras. Descriptions
and measurements of hot springs include details of local landmarks such as streams,
large boulders, and canyon walls.
(Adapted from Eppler et al., 1987.)
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program. Distinct patterns or conventional symbols should be used for lithologic units.
Horizontal and vertical scales must be included; it is impossible to use either cross
sections or maps accurately without clearly labeled scales.
The final cross sections should be laid across the map parallel to the profile lines
(Fig.A.26) and several questions should be asked: do the interpretations still appear to be
reasonable? Is the scale correct? Do key points on the map (for example, faults) correlate
with those same features on the cross section?
The process of creating these maps is lengthy and involves many stages. The last,
extremely necessary step is to proof the completed map: checking the data and spelling of
place names as well as myriad other details that have been assimilated during the mapping
process.
Three-Dimensional Model from Maps, Cross Sections, and Drillhole Data
The final stage of a geovolcanological field study is the compilation of all data, including
maps, cross sections, stratigraphic sections, well logs, and rock chemical and physical
data. At this stage of a geothermal investigation, if complementary hydrogeochemical and
geophysical survey data are available and if there are any drillhole logs, a complete
geothermal model might be developed. Cross sections drawn from geovolcanological
maps can be greatly enhanced by drill core and cutting information (Appendix F), as
discussed above, and the resulting lithological and structural sections can be compared to
geophysical lines such as electrical and gravity profiles. This comparison is used in the
interpretation of the geophysical data and further constrains the vertical dimension of the
geological study. In addition, geochemical surveys suggest areas of recharge and outflow
of thermal waters and can constrain rock chemistries of potential reservoirs (Wohletz et
al., 1984).
By developing the superposition and adjustment of the geological, geophysical, and
hydrogeochemical cross sections, it is possible to formulate a three-dimensional model.
This exercise generally simplifies each of the data sets but produces an internally
consistent picture of the subsurface. The degree to which interpretation plays a role in
developing a generalized cross sectional illustration depends largely on supporting
evidence from analyses and observations that are not typically shown on thematic maps.
For example, where hydrovolcanic vents have been mapped, the type and abundance of
lithic constituents of pyroclastic deposits indicate the lithology of potential reservoir rocks
at depth under the vents. With stratigraphic information, the projected section below the
vent can be interpreted and the lithologic and structural character of the potential
reservoir can be determined.
This modeling stage can be the most critical stage of a field geothermal study, even if all
the desired data sets are not available. A carefully designed model portrays the dominant
controlling features of a geothermal system; it is formulated to be easily tested and readily
understandable. Such a model combines observed constraints on subsurface conditions
with many of the more subtle aspects of field observations that can not always be easily
interpreted in their raw form. A model can be a single or several
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two-or three-dimensional illustrations or a set of numerical calculations that reproduce the
quantitative features of a geothermal system. We emphasize that such a model is a
hypothesisone that can be tested by further detailed geological studies and specific
geophysical surveys. The richness of detail portrayed by a model also indicates something
about the completeness of the field study. The uncertainties shown by the model are also
of great significance because they emphasize missing information and point to potential
methods of obtaining that data.
Recommendations and Justification for Drilling
In the final report of a field study, data and observations must be clearly separated from
interpretations and conclusions. After documentation of all the studies and their
associated conclusions, a formulation of required future work and a summary should be
added.
Following an extended field study (whether it has been accomplished by reconnaissance
or detailed field work), the project reaches a point when one must justify future work and
specify the direction it should take. Field researchers evaluate both their supporting data
and their overall inclination about the potential success of a geothermal exploration
project. If data and observations are sufficient to produce a three-dimensional model that
can be tested by further studies such as geophysical surveys, thermal gradient boreholes,
or core drilling, the justification must be succinctly presented and a strategy that will work
within this framework should be suggested.
It is our experience that even if shallow thermal gradient wells are indicated, the cost of
obtaining core from these boreholes is not a significant additional expense; core
information greatly enhances the overall body of data that can be extracted from drilling.
The location of these boreholes should be determined by (a) drilling targets specified by
various field investigators; (b) ways in which the three-dimensional model can be best
tested and augmented by drilling information; and (c) considerations of access and
property rights.
The field geologist can also emphasize conclusions about the size of the heat source in
locations where young volcanism will allow application of the methods described by
Smith and Shaw (1975), which are discussed in Chapter 2. Such estimations are
supported by field observations of geothermal manifestations, such as surface heat flow
that can be determined from hot spring and fumarolic areas (also discussed in Chapter 3).
After the temperature of a potential hydrothermal system is constrained (either through
direct, surface-temperature measurements or analysis of hydrothermal-mineral
assemblages) conversions of thermal resource to available heat for production and
electric power generation can be generalized from graphs shown in Appendix D. Such
exercises produce only crude numerical estimations of a geothermal resource, but the
information could emphasize the relative potential of a geothermal prospect and help
justify or discourage exploration drilling.
The final step in writing a report is a summary that compiles all aspects of the work,
including the perceived regional importance; geological, hydrogeochemical, and
geophysical conclusions; an overall geothermal model; the projected size and temperature
of the potential resource; and recommendations for continuation or culmination of the
exploration. Nontechnical language should
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Fig. A.26
Cross-section development shown in stages.
Page 336
be used wherever possible in this summary because it will be read by individuals of
diverse backgrounds. Optimism about the project and its success must be carefully
balanced against the data; the possibility that an exploration project does not satisfactorily
justify future development is a valid recommendation. If the recommendation is to
discontinue a project, it may be necessary to consider culminating work, such as releasing
property rights and effecting environmental restoration where field work has infringed
(such as might be required if geophysical lines caused topographic modifications or if
boreholes must be capped and cemented). On the other hand, if continuation is
recommended, aspects of property ownership, environmental restoration (access,
governmental restrictions, and logistics), and local operational support should be
discussed. These considerations can greatly facilitate promotion of future work.
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Appendix B
Volcanic Rock Classifications and Data
Classification Methods
Classification methods have been developed for pyroclastic materials, lavas, and in some
cases, their intrusive equivalents. The following classification schemes are taken from
Williams et al. (1982) and Fisher and Schmincke (1984). In general, classification systems
include a rock chemistry designation, which may be derived from either a major-element
chemical analysis or color and phenocryst content. Some textural classifications are based
on hand sample inspection, but in the case of fine-grained rocks and tuffs or rocks that
have been altered during diagenesis or metamorphism, it is necessary to use in addition a
textural analysis by petrographic or scanning electron microscope.
Chemical Classification
Most volcanic rocks are composed of silicate minerals and glass; notable exceptions are
carbonatites, which are composed of carbonate minerals, and rare lavas that are
dominated by magnetite or sulfur. The SiO2 content is the most general basis for
classification: Silicic (acid) rocks have >66 wt%, intermediate rocks range from 52 to 66
wt%, mafic (basic) rocks have between 45 to 52 wt%, and ultramafic (ultrabasic) rocks
<45 wt%. Alkali-silica variation diagrams (see Fig. 1.3) are widely used to classify
volcanic rocks. Table B.1 shows average major-element chemical compositions for
common volcanic rock types in order of increasing silica content.
A simple petrographic technique can also be used to estimate the SiO2 content of volcanic
rocks that contain glass. This technique is based on the decreasing refractive index of
nonhydrated glass with increasing SiO2 content; such a relationship is shown in Fig. B.1.
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Table B.1. Average Chemical Compositions of Selected Common Volcanic
Rocksa
Tholeiitic
Oxide Nephelinite Basanite HawaiiteTephrite Basalt Mugearite
Basalt
SiO2 42.43 45.46 48.65 50.06 50.06 52.72 52.48
TiO2 2.71 2.56 3.30 1.80 1.86 1.96 2.11
Al2O3 14.90 14.89 16.32 17.31 15.99 14.98 16.98
Fe2O3 5.78 4.14 4.92 4.21 3.92 3.51 5.17
FeO 6.60 8.02 7.73 5.48 7.46 8.22 6.52
MgO 6.76 8.93 5.15 4.80 6.96 7.38 2.52
CaO 12.32 10.53 8.21 9.34 9.66 10.35 6.14
Na2O 4.97 3.58 4.15 3.77 2.97 2.44 4.87
K2O 3.53 1.88 1.58 4.58 1.12 0.45 2.46
Oxide Andesite PhonoliteTrachyte Latite Dacite Rhyodacite Rhyolite
SiO2 56.86 57.49 62.61 62.80 66.36 67.52 74.00
TiO2 0.88 0.64 0.71 0.83 0.58 0.60 0.27
Al2O3 17.22 19.47 17.26 16.37 16.12 15.53 13.53
Fe2O3 3.29 2.87 3.07 3.34 2.39 2.46 1.47
FeO 4.26 2.28 2.42 2.27 2.41 1.80 1.16
MgO 3.40 1.12 0.95 2.25 1.74 1.68 0.41
CaO 6.87 2.80 2.34 4.27 4.29 3.35 1.16
Na2O 3.54 7.98 5.57 3.88 3.89 3.90 3.62
K2O 1.67 5.38 5.08 3.98 2.22 3.16 4.38
aFrom Le Maitre (1976).
Williams et al. (1982) demonstrated that a reasonable chemical classification can be

assigned to rocks and tephra containing phenocrysts because these minerals have
characteristic SiO2 contents that are a key to the bulk composition. Williams et al. (1982)
listed the SiO2 contents of felsic and mafic minerals as a useful guide.
Identification of the phenocryst content also makes it possible to use the international
classification scheme of Streckheisen (1967), which was discussed in Chapter 1 (Fig. 1.3).
Silicic Minerals %
quartz 100
alkali feldspars 64 to 66
oligoclase 62
labradorite 52 to 53
bytownite 47
leucite ~54
~40 to
nepheline
44
kalsilite 39
Mafic Minerals %
magnesian and diopsidic
50 to 55
pyroxenes
augites 47 to 51
titaniferous augites 46 to 47
hornblendes 2 to 50
biotites 35 to 38
opaque oxides 0
Where phenocryst abundances are significant (>4%), the rock name can be prefixed by
the names of the significant phenocrysts in order of increasing abundance (for example,
hornblende-biotite rhyodacite, pyroxene andesite, and olivine basalt).
Textural Classification
Textural classification can be very detailed, especially if it is determined by petrographic
microscopic observation. Williams et al.
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Fig. B.1
The range of glass refractive index as a function
of silica content is shown by the shaded
band; the average values for several volcanic
rock types are indicated by dots.
(Adapted from Best, 1982.)
(1982) described and illustrated many textural features of volcanic rocks, but for the sake
of simplicity here, we limit lava textural terminology to some hand-sample features (Table
B.2).
Pyroclastic rocks in general are called tephra where they are unconsolidated and
pyroclastic rock where they are consolidated. In the case of ash-size pyroclasts (see Table
B.3), the unconsolidated deposit is simply termed ash, whereas the consolidated deposit is
denoted tuff. Fisher and Schmincke (1984) based the textural classification of well-sorted
pyroclasts on their granulometric character. For volcanic rocks composed of poorly
sorted pyroclasts, Fisher and Schmincke advocated the system shown in Table B.4;
however, some samples may contain a mixture of pyroclasts that spans the
Table B.2. Simple Textural Classification of Lava
Hand Samples
Classification Phenocrysts Glass
Aphyric None None to subordinate
Porphyritic Present Minor to subordinate
Obsidian None to minor Dominant
Vitrophyre Present Present
size categories (Table B.3), and in that case, the ternary classification system shown in
Fig. B.2 is prescribed.
Because pyroclastic rocks are composed of various proportions of vitric, crystal, and
lithic constituents of juvenile, cognate, or accidental origin, the classification should also
be made according to the proportion of these constituents in a sample, as is illustrated in
Fig. B.3.
Finally, where the environment of deposition or mode of emplacement can be determined
(as discussed in Chapter 1), classification may include such a designation. For example,
tuff deposited in a marine environment is called submarine tuff, which distinguishes it
from subaerial or lacustrine tuff. Tuff deposited by fallout is denoted fallout tuff, but
tuff emplaced by pyroclastic flow is generally termed ash-flow tuff. Reworked tuff may
be aeolian tuff where wind-reworked or fluvial tuff where deposited by a river or a
stream. Combining these classification schemes produces terms such as crystal-lithic
lapilli tuff, lithic tuffaceous breccia, or lithic-vitric fallout agglomerate.
Density
Volcanic rocks show a range of densitiesfrom <1.0 Mg/m3 for silicic pumice to ~2.9
Mg/m3 for basalt. Because of the degree of vesiculation, crystallization, fragmentation,
and postemplacement compaction, it is clear that after eruption, volcanic rock densities
change from those of their parental magma. Bottinga and Weill
Page 340
Table B.3. Granulometric Classification of Pyroclasts and Unimodal, Well-
Sorted Pyroclastic Depositsa
Pyroclastic Deposit
Mainly
Clast Size Mainly Consolidated:
Pyroclast Unconsolidated:
(mm) Pyroclastic Rock
Tephra
Agglomerate, bed
of blocks Agglomerate, pyroclastic
64 Block, bomb
or bomb, block breccia
tephra
Layer, bed of lapilli
Lapillus Lapillistone
or lapilli tephra
Coarse ash grain Coarse ash Coarse (ash) tuff
2
Fine ash grain
1/16 Fine ash (dust) Fine (ash) tuff (dust tuff)
(dust grain)
a From Schmid (1981).
(1970) demonstrated the relationship of magma density to composition as a function of

temperature. With increasing water content, magma densities generally decreaseas do their
vesiculated volcanic equivalents. Table B.5 lists some average densities for common
volcanic and intrusive rock types. The densities for intrusive equivalents exhibit
maximum ranges for a given composition, whereas those for volcanic glasses fall in the
minimum ranges. Because tuffs have pore space as a result of vesicles and intergranular
voids, their densities (shown in Table B.5 for silicic rocks) are commonly 40 to 60% of
those for their glassy lava equivalents. Vesicles may make up as much as 80% of the
volume of pumices, for example.
Porosity and Permeability
Although there is no direct relationship between porosity and permeability, both of these
rock properties are extremely important when assessing the reservoir potential of a given
rock type. Porosity in volcanic rocks is mainly defined by the abundance of vesicles. In
the case of pyroclastic rocks, grain size distribution and sorting determine the packing
density of clasts. The porosity of a pyroclastic rock generally imparts a primary
permeability; if subjected to hydrothermal fluid circulation, this permeability may change
as a result of the dissolution of glass and the growth of secondary minerals. As we said
earlier in the section on density, the porosity of pyroclastic rocks may reach 80%, but for
fresh, nonaltered pyroclastic rock, porosity is generally in the range of 40 to 60%. Lavas,
on the other hand, exhibit porosity only if they are brecciated during emplacement or
contain vesicles and other gas cavities such as lithophysae; in these cases, lava porosity is
generally <20%.
The bulk permeability of volcanic rocks is a function of primary and secondary
permeability. Primary permeability (sometimes called formation permeability), as
discussed above, develops from the original texture of the rock (for example,
interconnected pores and vesicles and grain boundaries). In contrast, secondary
permeability (sometimes called fracture permeability) is promoted by rock fracture and
foliation, and where it occurs, it is generally the dominant type of permeability. Volcanic
rock fracture has numerous origins, such as tectonic movement and proximity to faults,
differential compaction that causes stress fractures, cooling contractions, thermal
spallation, and eruptive/emplacement brecciation. Typical permeabilities for all rock types
range from 10-20 m2 (0.01 µDarcy) to 10-7 m2
Page 341
Table B.4. Terms for Mixed Pyroclastic-Epiclastic Rocks
Tuffites Epiclastic Average
Pyroclasticb (Volcanic and/or (Mixed Pyroclastic- Clast Size
Nonvolcanic) Epiclastic) (mm)
Agglomerate,
agglutinate, Tuffaceous conglomerate, Conglomerate,
64
pyroclastic tuffaceous breccia breccia
breccia
Lapillistone
(Ash) tuffcoarse Tuffaceous sandstone Sandstone 2
fine Tuffaceous siltstone Siltstone 1/16
Tuffaceous mudstone shale Mudstone, shale 1/256
a From Schmid (1981).

b Terms are those used in Table B.3.
Fig. B.2
Classification scheme for pyroclastic samples
composed of a mixture of fragment sizes;
the term lapilli-tuff is
synonymous with lapillistone.
(Adapted from Schmid, 1981.)
Fig. B.3
Classification scheme for pyroclastic samples
composed of a mixture of constituents.
(Adapted from Cook, 1965.)
Page 342
Table B.5. Average Densities for Common Igneous Rocksa
Range of Density Mean Density
Rock Type
(Mg/m3) (Mg/m3)
Silicic
Rhyolitic pumice 0.5001.500 1.000
Rhyolitic tuff 1.0001.800 1.400
Rhyolitic welded tuff 1.8002.400 2.100
Rhyolitic obsidian 2.3302.413 2.370
Rhyolite 2.51
Granite 2.5162.809 2.667
Intermediate
Trachytic obsidian 2.4352.467 2.450
Trachyte 2.57
Andesitic glass 2.402.537 2.474
Andesite 2.65
Syenite 2.6302.899 2.757
Granodiorite 2.6682.785 2.716
Quartz diorite 2.6802.960 2.806
Mafic
Leucitic tephritic glass 2.522.58 2.55
Basaltic glass 2.7042.851 2.772
Basalt 2.74
Diorite 2.7212.960 2.839
a From Daly et al. (1966) and Johnson and Olhoeft (1984).
(0.1 MDarcy), as shown in Table B.6. The permeabilities of unaltered pyroclastic rocks
should be similar to those of silty and clean sandin the range of 10-14 to 10-10 m2 (0.01 to
100.0 Darcy).
A set of geophysical properties for a volcanic rock includes its elastic constants, strength,
seismic velocity, heat capacity and thermal conductivity, radioactivity, electrical
resistivity, and well-log parameters. Although data for many volcanic rock types are
sparse, in Tables B.7 through B.13 we list some typical values [chiefly from Clark (1966)
and Carmichael (1984)]. However, volcanic rocks show considerable variability in their
geophysical properties and these values listed below are provided as examplesuseful for
rough calculation but not for strict application in geothermal exploration. Needless to say,
specific data should be obtained for volcanic rocks in the field of interest.
Page 343
Table B.6. Range of Permeabilities for Common Rock Typesa
Table B.7. Elastic Constants of Selected Volcanic Rocksa

Rock Density Young's Modulus Shear Modulus Poisson's
Type (Mg/m3) [E] (Mb) [G] (Mb) Ratio [v]
Obsidian 2.446 0.656 0.303 0.08
0.652 0.278 0.17
0.718 0.303 0.18
Silicic
Tuff
Lithic 1.45 0.14 0.11
Bedded 1.6 0.042 0.021
Welded 2.2 0.116 0.054 0.12
Andesite 2.57 0.54 0.18
Basalt 2.85 0.61 0.27
2.97 0.85 0.34
2.74 0.63 0.25
2.82 0.485 0.384
a From Birch (1966).
Page 344
Table B.8. Strength of Selected Volcanic Rocksa
Ultimate Strength Crushing Strength Cohesive Strength
Rock Type
(kb) (kb) (kb)
Rhyoliteb 8.00
Rhyolitec 10.47
Rhyolite Tuffd 0.067-0.482
Lithic Tuff 0.250 0.050
Andesite 1.320 0.290
1.290 0.280
Basalte
T=297 K 15.40
T=673 K 13.80
T=873 K 10.30
T=973 K 5.31
T=1073 2.63
Basaltf 2.62
a From Handin (1966).
b Confining pressure = 1.01 kb; temperature = 423 K.
c Confining pressure = 5.05 kb; temperature = 773 K.
d Information from Zalessky (1961).
e Confining pressure = 5.00 to 5.07 kb.
f Confining pressure = 0.00 kb; Temperature = 297 K.
Table B.9. Seismic Velocities of Selected

Volcanic Rocksa
vp vs
Rock Type
(km/s) (km/s)
Tuff 1.43 0.87
0.76-4.57b
Silicic Tuff 2.16 0.83
Rhyolite 3.27 1.98
Latite 3.77 2.21
Volcanic Breccia 4.22 2.49
Trachyte 5.41 3.05
Andesite 5.23 3.06
Basalt 3.35 1.64
4.76 2.19
5.06 2.72
5.41 3.21
6.4 3.2
Basaltic Scoria 4.33 2.51
aAdapted from Press (1966) and
Christensen (1984); vp = compressional
velocity and vs = shear velocity.
b Gardner and House (1987.)
Page 345
Table B.10. Heat Capacities and Thermal Conductivities of Selected
Volcanic Rocksa
Heat
Conductivity Range Conductivity Mean
Rock Type Capacity
(W/m-K) (W/m-K)
(kJ/kg-K)
Rhyolitic
0.200.40 0.3
Tuffb
Rhyolite 1.06c 1.584.33 3.0
Obsidian
T = 273 K 1.34
T = 373 K 1.46
T = 473 K 1.56
T = 573 K 1.67
T = 673 K 1.78
T = 773 K 1.89
Altered
3.13.7 3.44
Rhyolite
Dacited 1.17 0.540.97 0.69
Andesite 1.04c 1.354.86 3.7
Lavae 2.63.6 3.10
Lavae 2.73.3 3.01
Lavaf 1.72.8 2.10
Basalt 1.05c 1.122.38 1.8
Diabasic
Basalt
T = 303 K 1.69
T = 348 K 1.73
a From Clark (1966) and Nathenson et al. (1982).
b From W. Sibbett, personal communication (1978).
c Heat capacity at 1000 K; from Bacon (1975).
d From Friedman et al. (1981) for Mount St. Helens dacite.
e Ventersdorp Lava, Orange Free State.
f Portage Lake Lava, Calumet, Michigan.
Table B.11. Radioactivity in Selected Volcanic Rocks as

Noted by Potassium, Uranium, and Thorium
Abundancesa
Potassium Uranium Thorium
Rock Type
(%) (ppm) (ppm)
Rhyolite 4.2 5
Feldspathic Tuff 2.04 5.96 1.56
Andesite 1.7 0.8 1.9
Basalt
Alkali 0.61 0.99 4.6
Alkali-Olivine <1.4 <1.4 3.9
Tholeiite
Orogenic <0.6 <0.25 <0.05
Nonorogenic <1.3 <0.50 <2.0
a From Fertl and Overton (1982).
Page 346
Table B.12. Electrical Resistivity
Ranges of Selected Water-Bearing
Volcanic Rocksa
Lower Upper
Rock Type
( -m) ( -m)
Volcanic Rocks
Quaternary-Tertiary 10 200
Mesozoic 20 500
Carboniferous 50 1000
Paleozoic 100 2000
Precambrian 200 5000
Tertiary Tuff
Granular 17.2 59.1
Welded 217 1410
a From Keller (1966).
Table B.13. Simple Classification of Volcanic Rocks by Well Log Response

Parametersa
Page 347
Appendix C
Notation
A Area
Af two-dimensional, fracture-fluid flux
area of tephra deposit where its
Ad thickness is at least 1% of its
maximum
Av vent area
a acceleration
ah ellipsoid halfwidth
B availability
e-folding distance of plume centerline
be
velocity
bh ellipsoid half-length
C specific heat
Cd drag coefficient
Cf fracturing fluid coefficient
Cm specific heat of magma
Cp specific heat at constant pressure
specific heat at constant pressure of
Cpw
water
Cs specific heat of solids
Cv specific heat at constant volume
specific heat at constant volume of
Cvw
water
°C degrees Celsius
ch ellipsoid half-thickness
concentration of chemical species
cl existing in the liquid during fractional
crystallization or melting
concentration of chemical species in
co the liquid before fractional
crystallization or melting
cs gas dynamic sound speed
cx
the mixed magma
c1
magma 1
c2
magma 2
D characteristic length
Db depth of burial
ratio of penetration depths for thermal
Dd
to hydraulic diffusivities = ( t/ )1/2
Page 348
weighted average solid/liquid partition
Do
coefficient
d particle diameter
dm size-distribution mode diameter
dmmparticle diameter in millimeters
E Young's modulus
Ek kinetic energy
Ep potential energy
Et thermal energy
F fraction of melt remaining
°F degrees Fahrenheit
wt% tephra finer than 1 mm found
Ft along dispersal axis where thickness is
10% of its maximum
modified isentropic exponent for
f
mixture
g gravitational acceleration
exponent in sequential
gf
fragmentation/transport model
H enthalpy or heat content
enthalpy of water at ambient
Ha
temperature
enthalpy of radioactive decay
Hi
component i
Hlv enthalpy of water vaporization
Hq heat flux
Hr enthalpy of reservoir fluid
Htr thermal resource energy
h vertical distance or height
hb plume height of neutral buoyancy
hc column collapse height
hmc magma chamber thickness
ho vent elevation
hp plume height
ht plume-top height
h1 height of location 1
h2 height of location 2
Ji chemical reaction heat of component
K Kelvin
Ki stress intensity factor
normalization constant for tephra size
Ks
distributions
Nernst distribution coefficient of
kd
element
proportionality constant for plume
kh
height
ki isopach half-thickness constant
kt thermal conductivity
ktx thermal conductivity along x axis
kty thermal conductivity along y axis
L fracture length
pyroclastic flow/surge energy line
Le
runout distance
Lf total pyroclastic flow runout distance
Lp lava plug thickness
maximum thickness of pyroclastic
Li
deposits
measure of crack tip length
M Mach number
Md median diameter
m mass
mass fraction of solids in solid and
mf
vapor mixture
mm magma mass
mm1mass of magma 1
mm2mass of magma 2
Page 349
mw water mass
n gas weight fraction
acceleration function of Taylor
na
instability
bulk partition coefficient for melting
P
phases
p pressure
patm atmospheric pressure
pb formation break-down pressure
pf final pressure
ph hydrostatic pressure
pi initial pressure
pl lithostatic pressure
po stagnation pressure
pp pore-fluid pressure
ppi fluid injection pressure
ps static pressure
p1 pressure at location 1
p2 pressure at location 2
p pressure at an infinite distance
Q fracture volume
fracture-fluid volume flux or pumping
Qf
rate
ratio of average column velocity to its
q
centerline velocity
R universal gas constant
°R degrees Rankine
Ra Rayleigh number
Re Reynolds number
Rm ratio of water to magma
absolute value of difference between
RmRm and Rm at optimum explosive
ratios
r radial distance
rc conduit radius
final runout distance of pyroclastic
rf
flow or surge
rh radius of isopach half-thickness
ri vesicle radius before burst
magma fragment size after thermal
rm
detonation
rmc magma chamber radius
rp plume radius
rr radial or runout distance
rv vent radius
rw well-bore radius
rx radius of elliptical isopach major axis
ry radius of elliptical isopach minor axis
S entropy
Sz overburden pressure
incrementally small distance from end
s
of a crack
T temperature
Ta ambient temperature
temperature at high-pressure thermal
Te
equilibrium
Tf temperature of spring water
Ti initial temperature
Tm initial temperature of magma
Tr reservoir-fluid temperature
Ts rock tensile strength
Tw initial temperature of water
T2 temperature at atmospheric pressure
t time
Um internal energy of magma
Uw internal energy of water
Page 350
Umix total internal energy of mixture
u velocity
velocity vector
uconv convection velocity
usonicsonic velocity
uf final velocity
uc plume centerline velocity
uv vertical velocity
ur radial velocity
relative velocity between magma and
urel
water
u1 velocity at location 1
u2 velocity at location 2
V volume
Vcir volume enclosed by circular isopachs
Vdre volume of dense rock equivalent
volume enclosed by elliptical
Ve
isopachs
volume fraction of hot spring water
Vf
measured in stream
volume difference between liquid
Vlv
and vapor states
Vsys total volume of system
Vtr volume of thermal resource
v velocity
ve ejecta velocity
initial velocity of pyroclastic flow or
vo
surge
vx fracture-fluid velocity
W fracture width
Wh fracture half-width
Wnet work converted to electrical power
Wsys total work of system
x distance
xe steam fraction
xr radial distance from plume axis
xs thickness of steam cap
steam fraction at atmospheric
x2
pressure
y distance
vertical distance over which rock
ym
mass is moved
zd depth of drilling limit
zh depth of hydrologically active zone
isobaric coefficient of thermal

expansion
magnitude of thermal expansion
m
( T)
s shearing stress angle
isothermal coefficient of
compressibility
ratio of elliptical isopach minor axis
e
to major axis radius
designates change
Nabla vector operator = / x + / y +
/ z
Laplacian operator = 2/ x2 + 2/ y2+
2
2/ z2
abundance of 18O relative to standard
18O
mean ocean water
e eccentricity of elliptical isopachs
conversion efficiency or ratio of
c kinetic or mechanical energy to
thermal energy
gas isentropic exponent Cp/Cv
size-distribution parameter in
f sequential fragmentation/transport
model
Page 351
i radioactive decay constant
k nondimensional stress intensity factor
fh frictional head loss
permeability
effective heat transfer coefficient as
h
function of permeability
t thermal diffusivity
Taylor wavelength
critcritical Taylor wavelength
µ viscosity
µh Heim coefficient of energy line
µs shear modulus
Boltzmann variable [x/(4 tt)1/2]
c power plant cycle efficiency
t amplitude of Taylor instability
v Poisson's ratio
pi; 3.14159
logarithmic grain size
f internal angle of friction
p porosity
density
a air density
b bulk density
g gas density
m magma density
p solid-particle density
w water density
normal stress
d standard deviation
eff effective normal stress
s surface tension
z effective vertical stress
Inman sorting coefficient
1 greatest principal stress
3 least principal stress
constant in ideal gas equation of state
e radiometric age of eruptive products
s shear stress
o zero-normal stress; shearing strength
of rock
topographic slope angle
e slope of energy line
p particle volume fraction
minimum temperature required for
tr
economic heat extraction
hydraulic diffusivity ( / pµ )
normalized distance constant in
o sequential fragmentation/transport
model
Page 353
Appendix D
Conversion Factors, Steam Properties, and Conversion of Geothermal Heat
to Electricity
Conversion Factors
Conversion factors shown in Table D.1 are presented as basic equivalents in English, cgs
(centimeter/gram/second), and SI (International System) units to facilitate computations in
volcanological and mechanical engineering models.
Thermodynamic Properties of Steam
Throughout this book, heat flow through rocks and heat transfer to water are discussed as
important concepts to consider when attempting to understand volcanic and hydrothermal
behavior. Although water is not pure in volcanic hydrothermal systems and contains
variable amounts of dissolved gases, ionic species, and molecular species, it is possible to
estimate the pressure/volume relationships of fluids on a first-order approximation by
considering the phase relationships of pure water. We recommend using the U.S. National
Bureau of Standards steam tables (Haar et al., 1984), which are published in SI units for
temperatures between ambient (273 K) and 1273 K at pressures from atmospheric (0.1
MPa) to 1500 MPa (15 kbar). The quick-reference table in this appendix (Table D.2) lists
values for some of these conditions.
Page 354
Table D.1. Basic Equivalents for Major Measurement Systems
Unit English cgs SI
Length 1.0 in. 2.54000 cm 0.02540000 m
Mass 1.0 lb 453.59237 g 0.45359237 kg
Temperature 212.0°F 100.0°C 373.0 K
453.59237 gf 0.45359237 kgf
Force 1.0 lbf
444,822.2 dynes 4.448222 N
1,000,000.00
Pressure 1.0 bar dynes/cm2 100,000.0 Pa
(1 atma) 14.696 lb/ft21,013,250.00 101,325.0 Pa
dynes/cm2
1054.350 J
Energy 1.0 Btu 1.054 × 1010 ergs
0.292875 W-hr
1.1626 × 106 kW-
1.0 kt 4.184 × 1019 ergs
hr
Work 1.0 ft/lb 0.32405 g-cal 1.355818 J
1.0 Btu/hr 0.0699988 g-cal/s 0.292875 W
Power
1.0 hp 178.2263 g-cals/s 745.6999 W
Specific heat
1.0
and 1.0 cal/g-°C 4.184 kJ/kg-K
Btu/lb-°R
specific entropy
Specific volume1.0 ft3/lb 62.428 cm3/g 0.06248 m3/kg
aAt sea level.
Conversion of Geothermal Heat to Electricity

Production of electricity from a geothermal heat source is limited by the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, which specifies that it is impossible to convert all the heat energy from
a system into mechanicalhence, electricalenergy (Gokcen, 1975). For an idealized
geothermal power conversion process, the total maximum work that can be extracted
from a geothermal fluid is often termed availability (B), which is given by
where H and S are the enthalpy and entropy differences between ambient conditions
and the geothermal fluid's wellhead pressure and temperature; Ta = ambient temperature.
Figure D.1 (a) is a plot of B as a function of wellhead temperature for saturated vapor
and saturated liquid cooled to three different ambient temperatures. The actual amount of
work converted to electrical power (Wnet) is a function of the cycle efficiency of the
power plant ( c)
Figure D.1 (b) shows typical cycle efficiencies for geothermal plants as a function of
wellhead temperature for a range of condensing temperatures. The discarded or reinjected
fluids above ambient temperatures are not counted as thermodynamic losses in
calculations of cycle efficiency; thus c can be proportionately larger than the utilized
efficiency for some applications (Tester, 1982).
Page 355
Fig. D.1
(a) Plot of B as a function of wellhead temperature
for saturated vapor and saturated liquid that have
cooled to three different ambient temperatures.
(b) Typical cycle efficiencies for geothermal plants
are shown as a function of wellhead temperature
for a range of condensing temperatures.
(Adapted from Tester, 1982.)
Document
Page 356
Table D.2. Abbreviated Steam Tablea
Temperature Density Enthalpy Entropy Heat Capacity Isentropic
(°C) (kg/m3) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg-K) (kJ/kg-K) Coefficient
1.0 Bar
0.0 999.83 0.06 -0.00015 4.228
99.6 (I) 958.66 417.51 1.30273
99.6 (v) 0.5902 2675.1 7.3589
100 0.5896 2675.9 7.3609 2.042 1.33
200 0.46035 2874.8 7.8335 1.975 1.31
300 0.37896 3073.9 8.2152 2.013 1.30
400 0.32230 3278.0 8.5432 2.070 1.29
500 0.28046 3488.2 8.8342 2.135 1.28
600 0.24827 3705.0 9.0979 2.203 1.27
700 0.22272 3928.8 9.3405 2.273 1.26
800 0.20194 4159.7 9.5662 2.343 1.25
900 0.18472 4397.5 9.7781 2.412 1.24
1000 0.17020 4642.0 9.9781 2.478 1.23
25.0 Bar
0 1001.05 2.51 0.00003 4.215
100 959.52 420.87 1.30502 4.211
200 865.47 852.76 2.32926 4.484
224.0 (I) 835.19 961.97 2.55438
224.0 (v) 12.508 2802.2 6.2560
300 10.113 3008.0 6.6424 2.433 1.29
400 8.327 3239.2 7.0146 2.245 1.29
500 7.144 3462.2 7.3235 2.228 1.28
600 6.287 3686.3 7.5960 2.259 1.27
700 5.608 3914.7 7.8436 2.310 1.26
800 5.071 4148.6 8.0724 2.370 1.25
900 4.6305 4388.7 8.2862 2.431 1.24
1000 4.2616 4634.9 8.4876 2.493 1.23
50.0 Bar
0 1002.31 5.05 0.00020 4.202 400
100 960.68 422.75 1.3038 4.206 450
200 867.35 853.79 2.32533 4.469 250
264.0 (I) 777.52 1154.20 2.92011
264.0 (v) 25.355 2793.7 5.9725
300 22.073 2923.5 6.2067 3.181 1.28
400 17.299 3195.5 6.6456 2.468 1.28
500 14.586 3433.9 6.9760 2.335 1.28
600 12.709 3666.2 7.2586 2.322 1.27
700 11.299 3899.7 7.5117 2.351 1.26
800 10.189 4137.0 7.7438 2.398 1.25
900 9.287 4379.4 7.9598 2.452 1.24
1000 8.536 4627.4 8.1626 2.508 1.24
(table continued on next page)

Document
Page 357
D.2. Abbreviated Steam Table (cont.)
74.0 Bar
0 1003.52 7.48 0.00033 4.190 250
100 961.79 424.56 1.30123 4.200 250
200 869.13 854.80 2.32162 4.456 225
289.6 (l) 732.83 1287.24 3.15622
289.6 (v) 38.892 2766.4 5.7845
300 36.713 2817.5 .8744 4.642 1.27
400 26.665 3150.0 6.4128 2.736 1.28
500 22.041 3405.7 6.7674 2.448 1.28
600 19.036 3646.5 7.0604 2.386 1.27
700 16.843 3885.0 7.3190 2.392 1.26
800 15.145 4125.7 7.5544 2.425 1.25
900 13.780 4370.5 7.7725 2.472 1.24
1000 12.652 4620.3 7.9767 2.523 1.24
100.0 Bar
0 1004.81 10.10 0.00045 4.177 200
100 962.98 426.52 1.29924 4.195 225
200 871.03 855.91 2.31766 4.442 170
300 715.58 1342.38 3.24697 5.675 60
311.0 (l) 688.63 1407.28 3.35912
311.0 (v) 55.48 2724.5 5.6139
400 37.867 3096.1 6.2114 3.100 1.28
500 30.503 3374.0 6.5971 2.584 1.28
600 26.068 3624.7 6.9022 2.458 1.27
700 22.941 3869.0 7.1671 2.437 1.26
800 20.982 4112.5 7.3963 2.456 1.26
900 19.050 4360.1 7.6169 2.494 1.25
1000 17.466 4612.0 7.8229 2.540 1.24
150.0 Bar
0 1007.28 15.11 0.00060 4.153 150
100 965.25 430.29 1.29546 4.184 160
200 874.6 858.1 2.3102 4.41 110
300 725.9 1337.4 3.2261 5.470 45
342.2 (l) 603.5 1609.8 3.6837
342.2400
(v) 96.72 2610.1 5.3092
63.89 2974.7 5.8799 4.177 1.28
500 48.08 3309.3 6.3452 2.891 1.29
600 40.15 3581.5 6.6767 2.610 1.28
700 34.94 3837.6 6.9544 2.529 1.27
800 31.12 4089.6 7.2009 2.518 1.26
900 28.15 4342.2 7.4260 2.538 1.26
1000 25.75 4597.7 7.6350 2.573 1.25

Document
Page 358
Table D.2. Abbreviated Steam Table (cont.)
200.0 Bar
0 1010.21 21.08 0.00066 4.130 100
100 967.92 434.83 1.29098 4.174 125
200 878.7 860.9 2.3015 4.394 90
300 735.0 1333.4 3.2073 5.311 40
365.8 (I) 491.2 1826.7 4.0146
365.8 (v) 170.25 2413.6 4.9330
400 100.54 2816.9 5.5521 6.371 1.29
500 67.71 3239.4 6.1417 3.269 1.30
600 55.04 3536.7 6.5039 2.778 1.29
700 47.32 3805.5 6.7955 2.627 1.28
800 41.87 4065.4 7.0498 2.583 1.27
900 37.72 4323.5 7.2797 2.583 1.26
1000 34.42 4582.8 7.4919 2.606 1.26
300.0 Bar
0 1014.53 29.92 0.00051 4.089 70
100 971.86 441.64 1.28439 4.154 80
200 884.7 865.2 2.2890 4.350 60
300 750.9 1328.0 3.1744 5.075 25
400 358.05 2150.7 4.4723 25.080 2
500 115.26 3083.5 5.7936 4.312 1.34
600 87.48 3443.1 6.2324 3.160 1.32
700 73.23 3740.1 6.5547 2.836 1.31
800 63.92 4016.7 6.8254 2.716 1.29
900 57.13 4285.9 7.0653 2.677 1.28
1000 51.87 4553.3 7.2840 2.674 1.27
400.0 Bar
0 1019.23 39.63 0.00003 4.053 60
100 976.12 449.24 1.27722 4.135 70
200 891.0 870.1 2.2758 4.312 45
300 764.6 1324.8 3.1457 4.906 25
400 523.7 1930.8 4.1134 8.717 5
500 177.97 2906.7 5.4745 5.799 1.45
600 123.81 3345.8 6.0111 3.597 1.37
700 100.71 3673.8 6.3673 3.057 1.34
800 86.68 3967.8 6.6551 2.854 1.31
900 76.86 4248.5 6.9052 2.771 1.30
1000 69.44 4523.9 7.1305 2.743 1.29

Page 359
Table D.2. Abbreviated Steam Table (cont.)
500.0 Bar
0 1023.82 49.20 -0.00076 4.021 45
100 980.27 456.84 1.27021 4.117 55
200 897.0 875.3 2.2631 4.277 40
300 776.6 1323.1 3.1202 4.775 22
400 578.0 1874.1 4.0022 6.789 7
500 257.0 2724.2 5.1780 7.239 1.8
600 163.99 3247.7 5.8184 4.062 1.45
700 129.64 3607.8 6.2097 3.283 1.37
800 110.09 3919.5 6.5148 2.992 1.34
900 96.88 4211.5 6.7751 2.866 1.32
1000 87.12 4495.0 7.0070 2.812 1.31
1,000.0 Bar
0 1045.31 95.40 -0.00854 3.909 30
100 999.70 495.00 1.23713 4.139 35
200 923.7 903.6 2.2068 4.141 25
300 823.2 1328.2 3.0202 4.391 15
400 692.6 1790.9 3.7632 4.911 8
500 528.2 2316.2 4.4897 5.557 4
600 373.9 2863.4 5.1558 5.123 2.5
700 282.4 3323.1 5.6552 4.129 1.75
800 231.03 3704.3 6.0286 3.561 1.55
900 198.45 4044.3 6.3317 3.269 1.45
1000 75.61 4362.6 6.5921 3.113 1.42
a Temperature and pressure units shown as bar and Celsius scales, respectively,
to correspond to tabulated tables from Haar et al. (1984). Values denoting
liquid (I) and vapor (v) saturation are shown in bold. Isentropic (expansion)
coefficients are approximated from graphical data in Fig. 7 of Haar et al.
(1984).
Page 361
Appendix E
Heat Flow (Two-Dimensional Diffusion Code)
Time-dependent heat diffusion expressed by Fick's second law of diffusion [Eq. (2-9);
Chapter 2] is an important tool for evaluating thermal resource [Eq. (2-6); Chapter 2].
Because the temporal and spatial variation of temperature in a sequence of rocks of
varying character is the desired solution, Eq. (2-9) can be written in a two-dimensional,
nonlinear Cartesian form using thermal conductivity (kt) and temperature (T):
where ktx and kty are the thermal conductivities in the x and y directions, respectively.
The following computer program uses a two-dimensional, finite-difference numerical
solution based on an algorithm given by Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter (1970). It
calculates time-dependent heat diffusion for an array of variable rock properties, using an
averaging technique to obtain the spatially varying thermal conductivity coefficients.
Important initial conditions include regional thermal gradient, variation of vertical and
horizontal conductivities as a function of user-specified stratigraphy, and time and spatial
step size. This code is written for interactive use; results are printed out to an external file
as well as to the screen.
The program requests
(1) the number of rows and columns in the array that represents a vertical cross section of
the desired model,
(2) the spatial and temporal step for the array, and
(3) the number of rock types.
After the numerical representation of the simulated cross-section is entered by rock type,
the array is saved to an external file for
Page 362
access in future runs. By specifying conductivity coefficients for each rock type, the
program calculates effective convective coefficients for locations in which vertical
conductivities are greater than horizontal ones. Finally, the program calculates whether
the specified time step is small enough to result in stable solutions for the desired mesh.
Source Code Listing
The source code, listed below, is written in VAX FORTRAN, which makes use of
virtual memory. Implementation of this program on a personal computer requires a
FORTRAN compiler, and the source code may require some changes of array sizes,
variable declarations, and assignment of external files. Standard code format requires that
each statement is indented at least 7 spaces and line continuation characters (denoted here
as '&') are typed in the sixth space of each line.
c............program 2DHF.....................
c........... Two dimensional heat diffusion in heterogeneous

c............materials by solution of Fick's second law
c...........of diffusion, utilizing finite difference technique
c...........of Harbaugh and Bonham-Carter,
c..........."Computer Simulation in Geololgy",
c...........Wiley Interscience, 1970, p. 225
common krock(50,50),temp(50,50),tempi(50,50),
&ntempi(50,50),coefx(50,50),coefy(50,50),ntgradi(50),
&ntemp(1000,50,50),l(50),tempnew(50,50),
&ntgrad(1000,50)
write(5,10)
1 format('1','* * * * * * * 2-D HETEROGENEOUS',
&'HEAT FLOW* * * * * * * * * * * * *')
c....Define grid size and geology..................
write(5,10)
10 format(///,' Enter ncol, nrow, dxy (km), and nrock',/,
&'(number of rock types up to 4, excluding the magma,'/,
&'for the computational mesh:',/)
read(5,*) ncol, nrow, ddxy, nrock
dxy = ddxy* 1.0e+05

nj = ncol/2
write(5,15)
15 format(/,' Enter magma temperature and',
&'regional geothermal gradient (deg C/km):',/)
read(5,*) tm, tg
cv = 0.6
c....Read in geologic stucture and rock characteristics..
50 call grid(nrow,ncol,nrock,tm,tg,dxy,ddxy,cv,coef0,
&coef1x,coef1y,coef2x,coef2y,coef3x,coef3y,coef4x,
&coef4y,conv0,conv1,conv2,conv3,conv4)
c.....Stabilize initial heat flow in grid...........
hfb = 1.0
hft = 1.0
stab = 0.0
call stabil (stab,hfb,hft,nrow,ncol,nj,tm,tg,dxy,cv,

&coef1x,coef1y,conv0,conv1,conv2,conv3,conv4)
c.....Set dt for time step...................
90 write(5,92) hfb,hft
92 format(/,' hfb = ',f7.4,'; hft = ',f7.4,//,
&'What is the time-step (yrs)?',/,
&'If time-step is too large, program will go unstable',//)
read(5,*) dt
dt = dt*3.1536e+7
c.....Reset grid ..................
do 94 i=1,nrow
do 93 j=1,ncol
temp(i,j) = tempi(i,j)
if(krock(i,j).eq.0) then
coefx(i,j) = coef0/cv
coefy(i,j) = coef0/cv
end if
93 continue
94 continue
nt = 1
ntt = 0
factor = dt/dxy**2.0
tmax = 0.0
tmin = tm
itt = 1
write(5,95)
95 format(//,' Grid all set up for calculation,',/,
&'do you wish to continue?<y>')
read(5,'(a)') ano 1
if(ano1.eq.'n'.or.ano1.eq.'N') go to 200
write(5,96)
96 format(",//,10x,' nt',5x,' tmax ',5x,' tmin',/)
c....Begin diffusion loop.........

Page 363
100 call diffus (stab,hfb,hft,ntt,nt,tmax,tmin,nrow,nj,
& ncol,factor,conv0,conv1,conv2,conv3,conv4)
c....Record every 1000*dt calculation of thermal state.....
id = 1.0/ddxy + 0.5
do 170 i=1,nrow
do 160 j=1,ncol
ntemp(nt,i,j) = temp(i,j) + 0.5
if(i.eq.id) ntgrad(nt,j) = (temp(i,j)-20.0) + 0.5
160 continue
170 continue
write(5,175)nt,tmax,tmin
175 format(10x,i3,5x,f6.2,5x,f6.2)
if(nt.eq.1.or.nt.eq.5.or.nt.eq.(itt*10)) then
write(5,180)
read(5,'(a)') ano
if(ano.eq.'y'.or.ano.eq.'Y') go to 90
write(5,181)
read(5,'(a)') ayes1
if(ayes1.eq.'n'.or.ayes1.eq.'N') go to 190
end if
180 format(//,' Do you wish to change time step? <n>')
181 format(' Do you wish to continue? <y>')
190 if(tm.ge.300.0) then

if(tmax.le.300.0) go to 200
if(nt.ge.199.or.ntt.lt.1000) go to 200
end if
if(ntt.eq.1000) ntt = 0
if(ayes1.eq.'n'.or.ayes1.eq.'N') go to 200
nt = nt + 1
if(nt.gt.(itt*10)) itt = itt + 1
go to 100
c....Write out results, timef (ka).................
200 ncy = nt
nccy = ntt
timef = ((ncy*1000.0+nccy)*dt)/3.1536e+07
tntt = (dt*1000.0)/3.1536e+07
tint = 0.0
space = dxy/1.0e+05
time = 1.0
write(5,250) timef,tmax,nt,tntt
250 format('1',///,' Calculation Complete',/,' ',
&'___________________________________________',//,
&' Cooling time = ',8x,f10.1,' years',/,
&' Maximum magma temperature = ',f5.1,' deg C'/,
&' Number of plots = ',i3,'at',f10.2,' year intervals',//,
&' Do you wish printout of initial geometry? <y>',//)
read(5,'(a)') ano
if(ano.eq.'n'.or.ano.eq.'N') goto 320
c....Initial time plots...............

write(5,309) space, tint, (l(j),j=1,ncol)
do 300 i=1,nrow
write(5,311) i, (krock(i,j), j=1,ncol)
300 continue
309 format('1',' 2-D HEAT FLOW PLOT',//,

&' Grid spacing = ',f4.2,' km',
&' Time = ',f12.1,' yrs ',//,5x,<ncol>i4,//)
310 format('1',' 2-D HEAT FLOW PLOT',//,
&' Grid spacing = ',f4.2,' km',
&' Time = ',f12.1,' yrs',//,
&5x,<ncol>i4,/,' d/km',<ncol>i4,//,' 0',2x,<ncol>('20'))
311 format(",i2,2x,<ncol>i4)
320 write(5,330)
330 format(/,' Do you wish printout of init. temperatures?<y>')
read(5,'(a)') ano
write(5,310) space, tint, (l(j),j=1,ncol),(ntgradi(j),j=1,ncol)

do 340 i=1,nrow
write(5,311) i, (ntempi(i,j),j=1,ncol)
340 continue
c....Calculated-time plots............
350 if(ano1.eq.'n'.or.ano1.eq.'N') go to 402

360 write(5,370)
370 format('For which time interval do you wish a plot?',/,
&' enter 0 for initial time plot, (-1) for none.')
read(5,*)time
if(time.eq.-1.0) go to 400
if(time.eq.0.) go to 320
ncy = time
nccy = 0
if(ncy.eq.nt) nccy = ntt
tint = (ncy*1000.0+nccy)*dt/3.1536e+07
write(5,310) space,tint,(l(j),j=1,ncol),
&(ntgrad(ncy,j),j=1,ncol)
do 380 i=1,nrow
write(5,311)i, (ntemp(ncy,i,j),j=1,ncol)
380 continue
write(5,390)
390 format('','Do you wish another time plot?<y>')
read(5,'(a)')ano
go to 360
400 if(ayes1.eq.'n'.or.ayes1.eq.'N') then

402 write(5,405)
read(5,'(a)')ano
if(ano.eq.'n') go to 409
ayes 1 = 'y'
go to 190
end if
Page 364
405 format(/,'Do you wish to continue this calculation? <y>')
409 write(5,410)
410 format(/,'Do you wish to reset the conductivities and',
&'time step? <n>')
read(5,'(a)')ayes
if(ayes.eq.'y') go to 50
500 stop
end
c.........SUBROUTINE GRID.......................
subroutine grid (nrow,ncol,nrock,tm,tg,dxy,ddxy,cv,

&coef0,coef1x,coef1y,coef2x,coef2y,coef3x,coef3y,
&coef4x,coef4y,conv0,conv1,conv2,conv3,conv4)
&ntemp(1000,50,50),l(50),tempnew(50,50),
&ntgrad(1000,50)
open(unit=8,status='unknown',file='2dhdif.dat')
c....Set up initial rock geometry in grid......
write(5,10)
10 format(//' Read rock-grid file? <y>')
read(5,'(a)') ano
if(ano.eq.'n'.or.ano.eq.'N') go to 30
do 20 i=1,nrow
read(8,45) (krock(i,j), j=1,ncol)
20 continue
go to 50
30 write(5,35)
35 format(/,'Enter rock types in grid by row,',/,
&' 0 = magma, 1 for deepest basement rock,',
&'2,3,4 for other rocks:',/)
do 40 i=1,nrow
read(5,*) (krock(i,j), j=1,ncol)
write(8,45) (krock(i,j), j=1,ncol)
40 continue
45 format(<ncol>i3)
c......Enter x and y conductivity constants.......

c......set constant volume heat capacity .........
c......for cp = 0.24 cal/g-deg, rho = 2.5 g/cm3..
c......to cv = 0.60..........................................
50 coef0 = 0.005
coef = coef0*1000.0
conv0 = 3.0
convf = 1000.0
write(5,51) coef
51 format(/,' Enter x and y conductivities (mcal/cm-s-deg)',
&'by rock type.',/,' For veritcal convection y > x,',
&' for horizontal convection (to the right) x > y):'/,
&' Magma conductivity = ',f3.1,' mcal/cm-s-deg'//,
&' Rock 1 conductivities = ')
read(5,*) coef1x,coef1y
conv1 = 1.0
if(coef1y.gt.coef1x) then
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)') ayes
if(ayes.eq.'y'.or.ayes.eq.'Y')
& conv1 = convf*coef1y/coef1x
end if
if(coef1x.gt.coef1y) then
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)') ayes
& conv1 = -convf* coef1x/coef1y
end if
if(nrock.eq.1) go to 60
write(5,53)
53 format(/,' Rock 2 conductivities = ')
conv2 = 1.0
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)') ayes
& conv2 = convf* coef2y/coef2x
end if
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)') ayes
& conv2 = -convf* coef2x/coef2y
end if
write(5,55)
55 format(/,' Rock 3 conductivities = ')
conv3 = 1.0
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)') ayes
& conv3 = convf* coef3y/coef3x
end if
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)')ayes
& conv3 =-convf* coef3x/coef3y
end if
Page 365
write(5,57)
57 format(/,' Rock 4 conductivities =')
conv4 = 1.0
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)') ayes
f(ayes.eq.'y'.or.ayes.eq.'Y')
& conv4 = convf*coef4y/coef4x
end if
write (5,59)
read(5,'(a)') ayes
& conv4 = -convf*coef4x/coef4y
end if
59 format(/'Is this rock unit convective?<n>')
c....Place initial temperatures in grid.........
60 idd = 1.0/ddxy + 0.5

do 80 i=1, nrow
do 70 j=1,ncol
l(j) = j
tempi(i,j) = tm
ntempi(i,j) = tempi(i,j) + 0.5
end if
if(krock(i,j).gt.0) then
tempi(i,j) = 20.0 + (tg*i*dxy/1.0e+05)
ntempi(i,j) = tempi(i,j) + 0.5
end if
if(i.eq.idd) ntgradi(j) = (tempi(idd,j)-20.0) + 0.5
70 continue
80 continue
c....Place diffusivity coefficients in grid.........
do 100 i=1, nrow

do 90 j=1,ncol
coefx(i,j) = coef0/cv
coefy(i,j) = coef0/cv
end if
coefx(i,j) = 0.001*coef1x/cv
coefy(i,j) = 0.001*coef1y/cv
end if
end if
end if
end if
90 continue
100 continue
close(unit=8,status='keep')
return
end
c..........SUBROUTINE STABIL.......................
Subroutine stabil (stab,hfb,hft,nrow,ncol,nj,tm,tg,dxy,cv,

& coef1x,coef1y,conv0,conv1,conv2,conv3,conv4)
&ntemp(1000,50,50),l(50),tempnew(50,50),
&ntgrad(1000,50)
if(stab.eq.1.0) go to 100
10 write(5,10)
10 format(///,' Stabilizing ambient heat flow')
do 30 i=1,nrow
do 20 j=1,ncol
temp(i,j) = 20.0 + (tg*i*dxy/1.0e+05)
if(krock(i,j).eq.0)coefx(i,j) = 0.001*coef1x/cv
coefy(i,j) = coefx(i,j)
20 continue
30 continue
nt = 0
ntt = 0
tob = tempi(nrow,nj)
tot = tempi(1,nj)
tmax = 0.0
tmin = tm
dt = 10.0 * 3.1536e+7 * ((dxy/1.0e+05)**2.0)
factor = dt/dxy**2.0
40 call diffus (stab,hfb,hft,ntt,nt,tmax,tmin,nrow,nj,

if(ntt.eq.2000) go to 100
tnb = temp(nrow,nj)
tnt = temp(1,nj)
hf = hfb
tn = tnb
to = tob
i2 = 1
50 if(i2.eq.2) then
hf = hft
tn = tnt
to = tot
Page 366
end if
if(tn.gt.(to+0.01)) hf=hf+0.1
if(tn.gt.(to+0.005)) hf=hf+0.01
if(tn.gt.(to+0.001)) hf=hf+0.002
if(tn.gt.(to+0.0005)) hf=hf+0.0005
if(tn.gt.(to+0.0001)) hf=hf+0.00002
if(tn.gt.(to+0.00005))hf=hf+0.000005
if(tn.lt.(to-0.01)) hf=hf-0.1
if(tn.lt.(to-0.005)) hf=hf-0.01
if(tn.lt.(to-0.001)) hf=hf-0.002
if(tn.lt.(to-0.0005)) hf=hf-0.0005
if(tn.lt.(to-0.0001)) hf=hf-0.00002
if(tn.lt.(to-0.0001)) hf=hf-0.000005
if(i2.eq.1) then
hfb = hf
tob = tn
end if
if(i2.eq.2) then
hft = hf
tot = tn
end if
if(i2.eq.2) go to 40
i2 = i2 + 1
go to 50
100 stab = 1.0
return
end
c.........SUBROUTINE DIFFUS...................
subroutine diffus (stab,hfb,hft,ntt,nt,tmax,tmin,nrow,nj,

common krock(50,50),temp(50,50),tempi(50,50)
&ntemp(1000,50,50),|(50),tempnew(50,50),
&ntgrad(1000,50)
character large*28/' Time-step too large!'/

c....Begin diffusional loop..........
c....First determine heat flow to stabilize grid...
105 ntt = ntt + 1

tmaxnew = 0.0
do 140 i=1,nrow
do 130 j=1,ncol
c......Calculate new temperatures from diffusion

equation.
c......with appropriate boundary conditions and
diffusion.
c......coefficients......................................
if(i.eq.1.and.j.eq.1) go to 110
if(i.eq.1.and.j.gt.1.and.j.lt.ncol) go to 112
if(i.eq.1.and.j.eq.ncol) go to 114
if(i.gt.1.and.i.lt.nrow.and.j.eq.ncol) go to 116
if(i.eq.nrow.and.j.eq.ncol) go to 118
if(i.eq.nrow.and.j.gt.1.and.j.lt.ncol) go to 120
if(i.eq.nrow.and.j.eq.1) go to 122
if(i.gt.1.and.i.lt.nrow.and.j.eq.1) go to 124
c....Non-boundary cells with convection.................c
convy = 1.0
convx = 1.0
if(conv0.lt.0.0) convx = -conv0
if(conv0.gt.0.0) convy = conv0
end if
end if
end if
end if
end if
109 cx1 = (convy * coefx(i,j) + coefx(i+1,j))/2.0

cx2 = (coefx(i-1,j) + coefx(i,j))/2.0
cx = (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy1 = (convx * coefy(i,j) + coefy(i,j+1))/2.0
cy2 = (coefy(i,j-1) + coefy(i,j))/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0
tempnew(i,j) = temp(i,j) + factor *-

& ( (temp(i-1,j)*cx2) + (temp(i+1,j)*cx1) -
& (2.0*temp(i,j)*cx) +
& (temp(i,j-1)*cy2) + (temp(i,j+1)*cy1) -
& (2.0*temp(i,j)*cy))
go to 125
c....Top left corner cell.......................
110 cx1 = (coefx(i,j) + coefx(i+1,j))/2.0

cx2 = (2.0 * coefx(i,j))/2.0
cx = hft * (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy1 = (coefy(i,j) + coefy(i,j+1))/2.0
cy2 = (2.0 * coefy(i,j))/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0
tempnew(i,j) = temp(i,j) + factor *

& ((temp(i,j+1)*cy1) - (temp(i,j)*cy) +
& (temp(i+1,j)*cx1) - (temp(i,j)*cx))
Page 367
go to 125
c....Top margin of grid........................c

cx2 = (2.0 * coefx(i,j))/2.0
cx = hft * (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0

& ((temp(i,j-1)*cy2) + (temp(i,j+1)*cy1)-
& (2.0*temp(i,j)*cy) +
go to 125
c....Top right corner cell.......................

cx2 = 2.0 * coefx(i,j))/2.0
cx = hft * (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy1 = (2.0 * coefy(i,j))/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0
tempnew(i,j) = temp(i,j) + factor*

& ((temp(i,j-1)*cy2) - (temp(i,j)*cy) +
go to 125
c....Right margin of grid.......................

cx = (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy1 = (2.0 * coefy(i,j))/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0

& ( (temp(i,j-1)*cy2) - (temp(i,j)*cy) +
& (temp(i-1,j)*cx2) + (temp(i+1,j)*cx1)-
& (2.0*temp(i,j)*cx))
go to 125
c....Bottom right corner cell, maintain heat flow.........
118 cx1 = (2.0 * coefx(i,j))/2.0

cx = hfb * (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy1 = (2.0 * coefy(i,j))/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0

& ( (temp(i,j-1)*cy2) - (temp(i,j)*cy) +
& (temp(i-1,j)*cx2) - (temp(i,j)*cx))
go to 125
c....Bottom margin of grid, maintain heat flow.........
120 cx1 = (2.0 * coefx(i,j))/2.0

cx = hfb * (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0
& ((temp(i,j-1)* cy2) + (temp(i,j+1)*cy1)-
& (2.0*temp(i,j)*cy) +
go to 125
c....Bottom left corner cell, maintain heat

flow..............
122 cx1 = (2.0 * coefx(i,j))/2.0

cx = hfb * (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy2 = (2.0 * coefy(i,j))/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0

go to 125
c....Left margin of grid........................

cx = (cx1 + cx2)/2.0
cy1 = (coefy(i,j) + coefy (i,j+1))/2.0
cy2 = (2.0 * coefy (i,j))/2.0
cy = (cy1 + cy2)/2.0

& (temp(i-1,j)*cx2) + (temp(i+1,j)*cx1)-
& (2.0*temp(i,j)*cx))
go to 125
c....Set new max and min magma

temperature......................
125 if((temp(i,j)-tempnew(i,j)).gt.500) then

write(5,'(//,28a)') large
go to 500
end if
if(tempnew(i,j).ge.tmaxnew)
& tmaxnew = tempnew(i,j)
if(tempnew(i,j).le. tmin) tmin = tempnew(i,j)
end if
130 continue
140 continue
c....Reset temp and test for stability.............

Page 368
do 144 i=1, nrow
do 142 j=1, ncol
temp(i,j) = tempnew (i,j)
142 continue
144 continue
if(tmaxnew.le.600.0) conv0 = 1.0

if(tmaxnew.gt.tmax.and.nt.gt.5) then
write(5,200)
go to 500
end if
200 format(///,'MELT DOWN!!! (Magma is heating up)')
tmax = tmaxnew
if(ntt.lt.1000) go to 105
500 return
end
Page 369
Appendix F
Core and Drill Cuttings:
Geothermal Well Logs
Cores
In geothermal exploration, continuous coring and geophysical logging techniques are an
effective means of evaluating the lithologies, permeabilities, degree of hydrothermal
alteration, temperatures, and reservoir potential. Continuous wireline coring (lowering
core barrels on a cable into the drilling string) is used to retrieve 2.5- to 7.5-cm-diameter
cores. Wireline retrieval is commonly used in the mining industry, but it can also be used
effectively for geothermal-gradient well drilling. Although larger diameter cores can be
collected, this process usually requires pulling up the entire drill string to retrieve the
core. For a comprehensive review of coring technologies, see Rowley (1985).
If cores are to be used efficiently, an on-site geologist is needed during the entire coring
operation. This person's job can be tedious, but it is essential for the successful collection
and use of the cores. Before the drilling rig is in place, the well-site geologists should
agree on consistent record-keeping procedures, description forms, and the best means of
storing the core. This consistent approach is extremely important because by the time the
project is complete, there may be several thousand meters of core.
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For each core brought up by the drilling crew, the geologist should:
(1) mark the top and bottom of the core and draw a line down the long axis;
(2) note the well number and depth from which the core was taken;
(3) provide a brief lithologic description (a more complete description should be
completed after drilling, when time permits detailed examination;
(4) note and mark with a number or letter all of the pieces of the core (in geothermal
areas, cores rarely arrive in one piece because of fracturing and hydrothermal alteration);
(5) wrap the core with foil and then dip it in hot wax to retain fluids within the rock if this
is crucial for any laboratory geophysical measurements;
(6) note the length of core and compare that measurement with the depth drilled (obtained
from the driller) to determine the percentage of core recovery; and
(7) box the core and number the box.
More detailed procedures for core curation are described in Goff (1986), SPWLA (1982),
and in many oil, mining, or geothermal company handbooks.
After drilling is complete, the cores can be described in a more pleasant environment,
removed from the pressures of the next core barrel or rainstorm. After the major
lithologic units have been identified, pieces can be cut for thin sections or chemical
analysis, the hydrothermal minerals from major fractures can be sampled, and fracture
orientations and frequency can be measured. These fracture data are useful for later
comparison with well log measurements of temperature and flow from the reservoir.
All the core information should be ploted and interpreted on long strips of paper (Fig.
F.1). If done by hand and pencil, this can be a very slow job; it is much more efficient to
store the observational data in a computer where the output can be continuously modified
and quickly printed out at nearly any scale. Some of this work might easily be done onsite
with a portable computer.
Drill Cuttings
Rocks in geothermal areas are usually hydrothermally altered and fractured. Drill cuttings
from geothermal areas, brought to the surface by circulating drilling mud, are sometimes
difficult to interpret. The production of cuttings depends on not only the rock type itself,
but also the type of drill bit, drilling speed, and the characteristics of the drilling mud
(Hulen and Sibbett, 1982).
To maximize the data from drill cuttings, cuttings should be collected from shaker screens
through which the mud is sieved. A sample should be collected for every 3 m drilled. If
the wells are drilled with compressed air, cuttings can be collected from the mound
around the wellhead orifice or from the muffler.
Cuttings should be placed in cloth or plastic bags and labeled with the current drilling
depth in waterproof marking ink. However, the drilling depth is likely to be greater than
the actual depth from which the sample came and must be corrected (Low, 1977). This
discrepancy between recorded and actual depths is negligible if the well is being drilled
with air.
After cuttings are washed, the coarser fractions should be examined with a binocular
microscope before thin sections of epoxy-impregnated cuttings are prepared. Cuttings can
be examined quickly if representative samples are mounted on continuous strips with an
adhesive; these ''chip boards" are an efficient means of storing samples and provide a
stratigraphic record (Hulen and Sibbett, 1982).
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Fig. F.1
Summarized geologic log for geothermal well VC-2B in the Valles Caldera of New Mexico.
(From Jeff Hulen, University of Utah Research Institute.)
Cuttings can be contaminated by collapse of portions of the drillhole, materials added to
the drilling mud, etc. Most of these contaminants can be recognized because they are very
different from the materials in the cuttings; for a full treatment of this problem, consult
Hulen and Sibbett (1982), who discussed potential problems with different rock types and
drilling methods.
Geothermal Well Logs
Geophysical well logging in geothermal fields can be used in place of lithologic logs
(although they are not as accurate) or as a supplement to lithologic logs (for which they
are quite accurate). Logging is necessary for characterizing reservoir characteristics and
size (Mathews, 1982), which in turn
Page 372
can be used to measure temperature, pressure, flow, borehole geometry, and fracture
frequency (Table F.1). Most of these parameters are controlled by the reservoir and its
fluids; they change with time and cannot be determined solely from the core or cuttings.
The interpretation of well logs requires specific training, which can be acquired from
intensive short courses followed by work with experienced well log analysts. Another
approach is to work directly with well log analysts employed by a logging service.
Most logging tools and cables available from commercial logging services have an upper
operating temperature of 260°C and cannot be used in some geothermal systems. Some
high-temperature tools have been developed, but they are not yet available commercially.
Table F.1. Essential Parameters for Well Log Interpretation of Geothermal
Reservoirs
Formation Evaluation: Production Management: Measurements in or near
Measurements made in the the wellbore that require engineering expertise to
borehole that are ultimately keep the well producing over a number of years
used to characterize the entire and to provide data for design and operation of
geothermal reservoir surface facilities
Time-lapse temperature profile
measurements for true formation
temperature profile
Lithology, depth, and thickness
of formations
Both intergranular (matrix) and
fracture permeability
Both intergranular (matrix) and Flow profile, including flow rate
fracture porosity
Pressure profile
Location, depth, orientation,
permeability, and other Fluid composition
characteristics of fracture Hole and/or casing mechanical conditions such as
systems (a) scaling, (b) corrosion, (c) cement quality, and
Borehole geometry as an (d) mechanical properties of the borehole itself
indicator of fractures
Fluid composition
Thermal conductivity and heat
capacity
Elastic moduli of rocks;
properties useful in designing
well-stimulation procedures
a From Mathews(1982).
Page 373
Appendix G
Glossary
Terms and explanations in this glossary reflect the latest usage in the volcanological
literature cited within the text. Wherever possible, the definitions are adapted from those
in the American Geological Institute Glossary (1980).
A
Aa lava
Hawaiian term for lava flows characterized by a rough, jagged, spiny surface.
Accretionary lapilli
More or less spherical masses of cemented ash ranging in diameter from a few millimeters
to several centimeters; sometimes referred to as volcanic bailstones, pisolites, or volcanic
mudballs.
Adiabatic
Refers to a process that causes no change in the heat content of a system; for example,
when a gas or fluid is compressed or expanded.
Advection
Spatial transfer of physical properties, such as heat, through a system.
Agglutinate
Vitric pyroclasts consisting of a cluster of smaller pyroclasts that are annealed or "welded"
to one another.
Aphanitic
Texture of a fine-grained igneous rock in which the crystalline components are not visible
to the naked eye.
Aphyric
Igneous texture in which phenocrysts are absent in a fine-grained or glassy groundmass.
Aquagene
Synonym for hyaloclastic.
Aquifer
Body of rock or unconsolidated deposits with enough permeability to conduct a
significant amount of groundwater.
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Aquitard
Rocks that confine, but do not necessarily prevent leakage from an aquifer.
Argillic
Type of rock alteration in which the products are mostly kaolin- and smectite-group
minerals.
Ash fall
Rain of airborne volcanic ash from an eruption cloud and the resulting deposit. Synonym:
Ash fallout.
Ash flow
Synonym for pyroclastic flow but referring to pyroclastic flows that consist of ash.
Asthenosphere
Region below the Earth's lithosphere in which magmas may be generated and seismic
waves are strongly attenuated. Synonym: upper mantle.
Audiomagnetotelluric
Geophysical survey technique that measures global electric and magnetic fields in
audiofrequencies.
Authigenic
New minerals formed in place; for example, authigenic clays formed during alteration of
volcanic glass by hot water.
B
Batholith
Large, usually composite mass of plutonic rock.
Block
Pyroclast larger than 64 mm that was solid when ejected. It may be juvenile or torn from
older rocks in the vent or crater walls.
Blocky
Grain shape characterized by planar or curviplanar surfaces that intersect at nearly right
angles.
Bomb
Pyroclast larger than 64 mm that was partly or completely fluid when ejected.
Breccia
Fragmental rock composed of highly angular coarse fragments with or without a fine-
grained matrix.
C
Calc-alkalic
Igneous rocks in which the weight percent of SiO2 is between 56 and 61 and the weight
percents of CaO and K2O+Na2O are nearly equal. Also denotes igneous rock suites
composed dominantly of feldspar with lesser amounts of quartz, biotite, amphibole,
pyroxene, and other accessory minerals.
Caldera
Volcanic crater formed by collapse during an eruption.
Caprock
Rock layer or zone with low permeability, often related to authigenic cementation;
restricts fluid migration from a hydrothermal system below it.
Cinder
Synonym for scoria.
Cinder cone
Synonym for scoria cone.
Clast
Individual fragment or grain within a fragmental rock. Within volcanic rocks, clasts
derive from mechanical disintegration of the rising magma, fracturing of
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conduit wall rocks, and/or pieces of substrata incorporated by flows.
Coignimbrite
Usually refers to fallout tephra formed during an ignimbrite eruption, including breccias
composed of large clasts emplaced near the vent by a pyroclastic flow and fine-grained
ash elutriated from the top of a pyroclastic flow by the turbulent rise of hot gases.
Comminution
Decrease in size of a substance to a powder or dust by crushing, grinding, or rubbing.
Synonym: pulverization.
Composite cone
Large volcanoes that consist of multiple volcanic landforms and interbedded pyroclastic
rocks, lavas, and volcanic sediments. Synonym: Stratovolcano or stratocone.
Connate
Originating at the same time as the adjacent material; for example, water trapped within a
rock at the time of deposition.
Crossbed
Bed inclined at an angle to the plane of stratification.
Cryptodome
Uplift of the ground surface by intrusion at very shallow depths. The final land-form
consists of a lava dome with a thin carapace of older rock and soil.
D
Dense-rock equivalent (DRE)
Volume of igneous rock erupted after all pore space caused by vesiculation, fracturing,
and intergranular porosity has been subtracted. This calculation is used to determine the
volume of magma that reached the surface during an eruption.
Devitrification
Conversion of glass to crystalline materials.
Diagenesis
Chemical and physical changes in a rock after its deposition and during and after
lithification.
Diamicton
Poorly sorted clastic deposit that contains a wide range of particle sizes; for example, a
lapilli clast in a matrix of fine ash.
Diapir
Rock mass that has risen buoyantly to cut or deform overlying rocks. Diapirs can refer to
magma bodies, salt, or mud.
Diatreme
General term for a volcanic vent or conduit drilled upward through enclosing rocks by
the explosive energy of gas-charged magmas. The surface expression of a diatreme is a
maar crater or, after extensive erosion, a tuff or tuff-breccia neck.
Dike swarm
Group of closely spaced dikes intruded during the same intrusive/eruptive episode.
Dry eruption cycle
Eruptions producing pyroclastic products that show textural features characteristic of
decreasing water:magma ratios during the course of the eruption.
Dry surge
Pyroclastic surge containing steam that is mostly superheated. Surge deposits show little
textural evidence of the presence of moisture during emplacement.
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E
Endogenous
Geologic process (or its resultant features or rocks) that originates within the Earth; refers
to plutonic and volcanic rocks.
Energy line
Loci of points where a potential energy surface intersects a topographic surface. The
term's application to pyroclastic flows has evolved from studies of rock-fall debris
streams.
Equant
Refers to a rock fragment or crystal that has the same or nearly the same diameter in all
directions.
Eruption cycle
Sequence of events or changes in behavior during a volcanic eruption. Synonym:
eruption (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984).
Eruption plume
Convoluted, rolling mass of partly condensed water vapor, magmatic gases, dust, and ash
that often rises to great heights. Synonym: eruption cloud.
Eruption unit
Deposits of volcanic material from an eruptive pulse, eruptive phase, or eruption (Fisher
and Schmincke, 1984).
Euhedral
Refers to a mineral grain completely bounded by its own crystallographic faces, with no
interference by surrounding minerals.
Exogenous
Refers to a geologic process at or above a planetary surface; for example, an extrusive
volcanic dome. Contrast with endogenous.
Expansion wave
Perturbation in fluid flow that propagates at the local sound speed while causing the flow
to accelerate, expand in volume, and decrease in density and pressure.
Explosion pit
Bowl-shaped crater surrounded by a low ejecta rim; generally formed by phreatic or
phreatomagmatic explosions in which little or no juvenile material is ejected.
Exsolution
Process whereby an initially homogeneous solid separates into two or more distinct
crystalline phases without addition or removal of material.
Extrusive
Refers to igneous rock that has been erupted onto a planetary surface.
F
Facies
Physical, chemical, and biological variations of rock bodies deposited within a specific
geologic time interval.
Felsic
Somewhat archaic general term for silicic igneous rocks.
Fissure vents
Long, narrow cracks or fissures along which eruptions occur.
Flank vents
Vents located on the flanks of a larger volcano, which have their own plumbing systems
that are independent of those from the larger volcano.
Fluidal
Refers to pyroclasts with smooth, round surfaces formed by surface tension within a
droplet.
Fluvial
Pertaining to a river and its deposits.
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Fumarole
Vent from which volcanic gases are emitted.
G
Geobarometry
Method that uses pressure-sensitive mineral reactions to indirectly determine the pressure
conditions under which a rock formed.
Geothermometer
Mineral or mineral assemblage whose compositions are fixed within known temperature
limits.
Glomeroporphyritic
Igneous texture denoting clustering of phenocrysts in a finely crystalline or glassy
groundmass.
Granulometry
Measurement of grain sizes.
Groundmass
Fine-grained material between phenocrysts in a porphyritic volcanic rock.
H
Hawaiian eruption
Eruption of low-viscosity gas-charged magmas as lava fountains and thin, rapidly moving
lava flows.
Heat flow
Amount of heat leaving the Earth; determined by measuring the thermal gradient (degrees
per kilometer of depth), thermal conductivity of rocks (W/m-K), and other factors such as
permeability. One heat flow unit (HFU) = 41.84 mW/m2 = 10-6 cal/cm2-s.
Hot-dry-rock (HDR)
Geothermal resource derived from the thermal energy within rocks that lack permeability
or have very low permeability. Heat transfer within these resources is by conduction only;
however, the resource can be exploited by creating fractures and circulating fluids
through those fractures.
Hot spring
Thermal spring whose temperature is above that of the human body (Meinzer, 1923).
Hyaloclastite
Volcaniclastic rocks generated by nonexplosive to mildly explosive granulation of
volcanic glass when magmas are quenched on contact with water. These are common
products of deep-sea volcanism.
Hyalotuff
Pyroclastic rocks generated by phreatomagmatic explosions in shallow surface water.
Hydration
Transfer of H2O from a fluid phase into the structure of a mineral or glass.
Hydraulic fracturing
Fracturing of rock by fluid overpressure.
Hydroclast
Clasts formed during hydroclastic eruptions.
Hydrofracture
Shortened synonym for hydraulic fracturing.
Hydrogeochemistry
Chemistry of ground and surface waters and the fluids in hydrothermal systems.
Hydromagmatic
General term for all processessubsurface or surfaceinvolving interaction of magma or
magmatic heat with meteoric or connate water in the Earth.
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Hydrothermal systems
Natural hot water or steam systems caused by circulation of groundwater through
permeable rock units over a natural source of heat; for instance, elevated heat flow in
regions where there is a thin crust or a magma body.
Hydrothermal eruption
Synonym for phreatic eruption.
Hydrothermal reservoir
Combination of a heat source and permeable rock that allows the convective circulation
of hot fluids; an accumulation of hot water and steam.
Hydrovolcanic
Term encompassing all volcanic activity that results from the interaction between lava,
magmatic heat, or gases and meteoric or connate water at or near the surface of the Earth.
Synonym: Phreatomagmatic.
I
Ignimbrite
Rock unit of consolidated tuff deposited by pyroclastic flows.
Intraplate volcanism
Volcanism occurring within tectonic plates, away from plate margins.
Isentropic
Refers to an idealized process that causes no change in entropy.
Isobaric
Refers to an idealized process that causes no change in pressure or a system in which all
locations have equal pressure.
Isopach
Line on a map drawn through points of equal thickness of a designated rock unit.
Isopleth
Line on a map drawn through points of equal or constant size, composition, or
abundance. In volcanology, these lines show areal distributions for values such as the
diameter of pumice or lithic clasts.
Isotherm
Line connecting points of equal temperature.
Isothermal
Refers to an idealized process that causes no change in temperature or a system in which
all locations have equal temperature
J
Jet
High-velocity stream of pressurized fluid forced out of a narrow or restricted opening.
L
Laccolith
Shallow igneous intrusion with a flat floor and deformed roof that is found in sequences
of bedded rocks.
Lag breccia
Concentrations of large, comparatively dense lithic clasts at the base of a pyroclastic flow
unit. These clasts are deposited close to the vent during sedimentation from the
pyroclastic flow.
Lahar
Debris flow or mudflow of pyroclastic material that is mainly derived from pyroclastic
deposits. Indonesian term for volcanic mudflow.
Lapilli (singular: lapillus)
Pyroclasts between 2 and 64 mm.
Page 379
Lava fountain
Jet of molten lava driven by hydrostatic pressure and/or expansion of magmatic gases;
erupted nearly vertically from vent.
Lava lake
Lake of molten lava in a crater; also applies to a solidified lake.
Liquidus
Loci of points in a temperature-composition diagram that represent conditions of
maximum solubility for a solid component or phase in the liquid phase. In a binary
system, it is a line and in a ternary system, a surface. It can also refer to the temperatures
above which the system is completely liquid.
Lithic pyroclasts
Pyroclasts consisting of previously formed rocks; fragments of igneous, metamorphic, or
sedimentary rock; or pieces of earlier lavas from the vent that are included in a pyroclastic
deposit.
Lithophysae (singular: lithophysa)
Spherical structures composed of radially oriented, finely crystalline mineralsusually
alkali feldspar and silica minerals; found in glassy silicic lavas and densely welded tuffs.
Some lithophysae are hollow.
Lithosphere
Solid portion of the Earth; in most definitions, this includes the crust and part of the
upper mantle.
Littoral cone
Tuff cone formed on or adjacent to a lava flow where it entered a body of water. Such
cones are formed by steam explosions. Synonym: rootless cone.
M
Maar
Small volcano characterized by a crater that is wide (several hundred meters to several
kilometers in diameter) relative to its height and whose floor commonly lies below the
general level of surrounding topography. Maar volcanoes can form during hydrovolcanic
eruptions or very energetic gas eruptions.
Mafic
Refers to an igneous rock that is composed chiefly of ferromagnesian minerals and is low
in SiO2 content.
Magma
Molten rock within a terrestrial planet.
Maturity
Progression of a volcano through a lifetime of eruptive periods, during which it changes
in composition, magnitude, volcanic landforms, and associated hydrothermal activity.
Progression from first activity to complete dormancy.
Megabreccia
Clasts larger than a single outcrop that are slump deposits formed by wall collapse during
caldera collapse.
Merapian
Volcanic activity caused by disintegration and collapse of a silicic dome or lava flow.
Mesobreccia
Concentrations of small lithic clasts interlayered with caldera-filling tuffs.
Microlites
Small crystals, usually of tabular or prismatic habit, that are often contained in a glassy
matrix.
Microseismicity
Natural background noise that affects seismographs. Within geothermal areas, systematic
variations in microseismic activity can be used to study fluid motions and natural
fracturing within the system.
Page 380
Mineral spring
Spring whose water contains enough mineral matter to give it a definite taste (Gary et al.,
1973). By convention, this term is applied only to nonthermal springs (Mariner et al.,
1990).
Moberg
Table mountain formed by a fissure eruption of basalt under a glacier.
Mohorovicic discontinuity
Seismic-velocity discontinuity that separates the Earth's crust from the underlying mantle;
its depth ranges from 5 to 10 km beneath the ocean floor to 35 to 60 km under the
continents.
Monogenetic volcano
Volcano constructed during a single phase of eruptive activity.
N
Noncondensible
Characteristic of a fluid when it passes directly from a gas to a solid with decreasing
temperature.
Nuée ardente
''Glowing cloud" that consists of a mixture of pyroclasts and hot gases and moves rapidly
down the flanks of a volcano as a density current. Synonym: pyroclastic flow.
O
Overpressure
Pressure in excess of lithostatic or atmospheric pressure.
P
Pahoehoe lava
Hawaiian term for a basaltic lava flow typified by a smooth, billowy, or ropy surface.
Palagonite
General term used to describe the alteration products of basaltic glass. Mineral phases in
palagonite include smectite clays, iron oxides, calcite, and zeolites. Products may be
formed during lithification of the deposit, weathering, or hydrothermal alteration of the
glass phases.
Paleosol
Buried soil horizon of the geologic past.
Paragenesis
Characteristic order or sequence in which a group of minerals is formed; a reflection of
the physical and chemical conditions under which the rock was formed.
Parasitic vents
Volcanic vent occurring on the flank of a larger volcano that is linked to the central
conduit of the larger volcano. In contrast, flank vents occur on the flanks of a larger
volcano but are not linked to its central plumbing system.
Peléean eruption
Characterized by explosions of moderate to extreme violence in which solid or viscous
hot fragments of new lava are ejectedcommonly as pyroclastic fallout and pyroclastic
flows. These eruptions are usually associated with silicic magmas.
Peperite
Breccia-like rock formed as lava intrudes water-saturated sediment.
Peralkaline
Igneous rock in which molecular proportions of Na2O+K2O are greater than those of
Al2O3
Perlite
Glassy silicic lava or welded tuff with a relatively high water content. Perlitic
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texture is characterized by multiple spheroidally curved cracks.
Petrogenesis
Study of rock origins.
Phenocryst
Large, conspicuous crystal in a porphyritic igneous rock.
Phi ( )
Logarithmic scale of particle diameters where = -log2 (diameter in millimeters).
Phreatic eruption
Explosion that follows transformation of groundwater into steam. No incandescent or
juvenile material is erupted.
Phreatomagmatic eruption
Explosive volcanic eruption caused, at least in part, by interaction of magma with
meteoric water (groundwater or shallow surface water). Synonym: hydrovolcanic.
Phreatoplinian eruption
Plinian eruption during which interaction of vesiculating magma and near-surface water
produces very fine ash and abundant steam in an eruption column that reaches great
heights.
Pillow lava
Lavas displaying pillow- or tube-like forms that have formed in a subaqueous
environment.
Pit crater
Small crater formed by collapse during magma withdrawal; not always a vent.
Platy
1. Particle texture in which length is more than three times its thickness.
2. Planar flow structure within a lava flow.
Plinian eruption
Paroxysmal ejection of large volumes of ash and pumice as a well-defined eruption
column or "jet;" often precedes caldera collapse. The resulting tephra fallout covers an
area of more than 500 km2.
Pluton
Igneous intrusion.
Polygenetic
Resulting from more than one formation process, derived from more than one source, or
originating at various places and times.
Porphyritic
Refers to the texture of an igneous rock in which the larger crystals (phenocrysts) are set
in a fine-grained groundmass.
Proppant
Particles within a fracture that hold the fracture open.
Pumice
Highly vesicular pyroclasts with very low bulk density and thin vesicle walls.
Pyroclast
Any fragment ejected during an explosive volcanic eruption.
Pyroclastic flow
Eruption cloud consisting of hot pyroclasts and gases that are driven by gravity and move
across the ground as a density current. Many flows are generated by collapse of a particle-
laden eruption column. Most flows move at high velocity downslope and along drainage
systems, but some have enough energy to move across hills and valleys as well.
R
Rarefaction wave
Expansion wave that initially moves in the opposite direction from an associated
Page 382
shock wave; for instance, down a volcanic conduit during an explosive eruption.
Resurgent caldera
Caldera in which the downdropped block is uplifted by magmatic intrusion following
crater formation.
Reworked
Refers to any geologic material that has been removed or displaced naturally and
incorporated into a younger geologic unit.
Rheomorphic tuff
Densely welded tuff that has flowed after deposition; often so similar to a silicic lava flow
that it is difficult to distinguish between them in the field.
Ring faults
Steep, cylindrical, or semicylindrical faults bounding a collapse crater or caldera. Ring
dikes, commonly associated with ring faults, have moved along these faults after caldera
collapse.
S
Sandwave
Any sand dune or wave-like bedform in clastic rocks. A large and asymmetrical bedform.
Scoria
Vesicular, coarse-grained (lapilli-size or coarser) pyroclasts of basaltic or basaltic andesite
composition. Vesicle walls are usually thick (much thicker than those in pumice
pyroclasts). Synonym: Cinder.
SEM
Scanning electron microscope.
Shard
Glass fragment (vitric pyroclast) that has been broken from a vesicle wall (in magmatic
eruptions) or formed during chilling and fragmentation (in phreato-magmatic eruptions).
It may be flat, curved, blocky, or Y-shaped, depending upon the bubble-wall segment
from which it was broken.
Shock wave
Hydrodynamic discontinuity in a fluid that is set up when the flow suddenly changes
from subsonic to supersonic. Shock waves are characterized by instantaneous increases in
temperature, pressure, and density.
Sideromelane
Basaltic glass; clear, brown glass found in basaltic ash and lava flow margins.
Silicic
Refers to a silica-rich igneous rock or magma. In most classifications, the amount of SiO2
is at least 65%. Granite and rhyolite are typical silicic rocks.
Silica sinter
Chemical sedimentary rock deposited as a hard encrustation by precipitation from hot
springs.
Soda spring
Mineral spring whose waters effervesce carbon dioxide (Mariner et al., 1990).
Solidus
On a temperature-composition diagram, the loci of points in a system above which solid
and liquid are in equilibrium and below which the system is completely solid.
Spatter
Accumulation of fluid, coarse pyroclasts around a vent. In most spatter accumulations,
the pyroclasts are welded to one another.
Stable isotope
Nuclide that does not undergo radioactive decay.
Page 383
Stratocone or stratovolcano
Volcano made up of many different volcanic landforms and deposits: interbedded lavas,
pyroclastic deposits, and sedimentary deposits. Synonym: composite cone.
Strombolian eruption
Weak-to-violent, sporadic, ballistic eruptions of tephra, generally of moderately fluid
basaltic or andesitic magma. Scoria cones are constructed by this type of activity.
Subplinian eruption
Small-scale Plinian eruptionintermediate between Strombolian and Plinian activitythat is
characterized by pumice and ash deposits covering less than 500 km2.
Supercritical
Thermodynamic state of a system at which its temperature is greater than its critical
temperature and in which it displays both liquid and vapor behavior.
Superheat
Heat in excess of that (a) required for a fluid (water) to exist as a saturated vapor or (b)
necessary to cause complete melting of a solid (magma).
Surge
Density current pulse that moves laterally outward from an explosion column either by
directed blast or column collapse. Surge deposits are thinly bedded and may consist of
dune-like beds, inversely graded flat-lying beds, and massive beds.
Surtseyan eruption
Eruptions characterized by steam explosions that eject new lava fragments as pyroclastic
surges and fallout. Activity typified by the eruptions of the volcano Surtsey in Iceland,
where rising basaltic magma explosively vaporized near-surface water. Synonyms:
phreatomagmatic and hydrovolcanic.
T
Tachylite
Hyalocrystalline pyroclasts; that is, pyroclasts consisting of groundmass minerals
separated by glass. These are basalticor sometimes andesiticand, in hand-specimen and
under transmitted-light microscopes, they appear black or brown.
Tephra
Collective term (generally plural) used for all materialregardless of sizeejected during an
explosive volcanic eruption. From the Greek term for volcanic ash, it was originally used
by Aristotle and was revived by Thorarinsson in 1944.
Tephrochronology
Use of tephra layers for correlation and dating.
Thermal regime
Systematic patterns of heat flow within the Earth's asthenosphere and crust that are linked
to dynamic conditions imposed by tectonic patterns, ground-water movement, rock
chemistry, or plutonic/volcanic history.
Thermal spring
Spring whose water temperature is appreciably higher than the local mean annual
atmospheric temperature; either a warm spring or a hot spring (Meinzer, 1923).
Thermal resource
Total heat contained in a body of rock; for example, a magma body.
Thermite
Incendiary mixture of fine aluminum powder and a metallic oxide, which when ignited
yields intense heat through an oxidation-reduction reaction.
Tuff
Consolidated pyroclastic rock.
Page 384
Tuff ring
Volcano constructed by pyroclastic deposits with low depositional slopes (2 to 10°) that
encircle a relatively wide crater.
Tuff cone
Volcano composed of indurated ash with 20 to 30° slopes.
U
Ultraplinian
Highly energetic eruption in which the area of pumice and ash fall exceeds 50,000 km2.
V
Vapor-phase alteration
Alteration of tuffs that results from crystallization of silica minerals (tridymite and
cristobalite), alkali feldspar, and minor amounts of other minerals within porous zones of
pyroclastic flows and lava flows. The alteration occurs when gases released during
compaction of hot ash deposits interact with glass shards and pumice.
Vesicle
Bubble formed when molten rock approaches the ground surface and volatiles come out
of solution at the lower pressures. Vesicularity refers to the vesicle volume in a rock.
Vitric
Glassy; for instance, a vitric tuff, which consists mostly of glass pyroclasts.
Vitrophyre
Igneous rock with a glassy groundmass.
Volcaniclastic
Clastic rock containing volcanic material in any proportion, regardless of its origin or
environment.
Vulcanian eruption
Moderate to violent ejection of solid or very viscous hot fragments of new lava in short-
lived, cannon-like bursts. Ash and fine ash are emitted with gases and ascend to form a
cauliflower-like eruption cloud.
W
Warm spring
Thermal spring whose temperature is appreciably above the local mean annual
temperature but below that of the human body (Meinzer, 1923).
Wet eruption cycle
Eruption sequence producing pyroclastic deposits that have textural features indicative of
increasing water:magma ratios.
Wet surge
Pyroclastic surge containing saturated steam. This designation reflects the physical state of
the tephra after deposition; wet surge deposits show textural and diagenetic evidence of
being wet when emplaced.
Working fluid
Any fluid that produces pressure-volume work during changes in pressure and/or
temperature. In geothermal systems, the working fluid is water.
X
Xenocryst
Crystal that resembles a phenocryst but is foreign to the body of rock in which it is found.
Xenolith
Foreign rock fragment in an igneous rock; lithic clast or lithic fragment.
Page 385
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Page 415
Index
A
Aa lava 239, 308, 373
Aerial photography 3, 296
Accretionary lapilli 60, 195, 373
Acoustic
emission 100, 102
perturbations 31
Adiabatic 373
(see also isentropic)
equation 10
temperature gradient 9
Advection 373
Agglutinate (welded spatter) 269-272, 373
Ahuachapán, El Salvador 286-287
Alaskan Peninsula 282
Alban Hills, Italy (Albani volcanic complex) 98-99
Aleutian arc 282
dike swarms 282
Augustine Volcano 278
Alkalic 13
Alteration 129-140
(see also hydrothermal)
acid 130
argillic 93, 133
chemical 33
facies 91
depth 134-135
mineral assemblages 134-135
temperature 134-135
fumarolic 130-135, 187, 278
microcrystalline 327
palagonitization (see palagonite)
phyllic 93, 133
propylitic 93, 133
tephra 63, 66, 68, 320, 328, 329
vapor phase 187
x-ray analysis 312
Analysis
energy dispersive x-ray 321
fluid inclusion 89
geochemical 4, 321
granulometric (see granulometry)
mineral 311
petrographic 4, 310-311
pyroclastic components 68, 313, 317-320
scanning electron microscopy 66, 180, 313, 320, 320, 325
water (see hydrogeochemistry)
whole-rock 311
Aphanitic 339, 373
Aphyric 339, 373
Aquagene 30, 373
Aquifer 83-84, 115, 373
carbonate rocks 60, 161-166
depth 83-84
interaction with magma 161-166
"perched" 230
shallow 83-84
Page 416
Aquitard 90, 374
Argillic 93, 374
Ash (see pyroclastic rocks)
Ash fall (see pyroclastic fall)
Ash flow (see pyroclastic flow)
Asthenosphere 374
Audiomagnetotelluric 374
Authigenic 374
B
Baccano caldera, Italy 92, 163
Basaltic volcanoes 5, 225-259
geothermal exploration 225-259
geothermal systems 225-259
Hawaiian eruption 269-271
Heimaey, Iceland 253-256
islands
geothermal potential 253-256
oceanic 225-259
Kilauea, Hawaii 226, 231-246
Koolau, Hawaii 236-241
Krafla, Iceland 247-252
lava lakes 231, 233
magma 225, 234-239
energy 231, 233
Mauna Loa, Hawaii 233-239
Réunion Island 255-257
scoria cones 226-230
shield volcanoes 226, 230, 236
Strombolian eruptions 271-273
Surtsey, Iceland 252-255
thermal energy 228, 234-239, 250-252
tuff rings 229
Base surge (see pyroclastic surge)
Batholith 142-146, 374
Bedforms (see pyroclastic rocks)
Bernoulli equation 9, 24
Bishop Tuff 17, 150
Block 374
Blocky 374
Bomb 374
Boiling
(see also temperature; thermal; water)
hydrostatic reference curve 51, 117, 245
hydrothermal 97, 120-121
film 52
metastable (superheating) 78, 127
spontaneous nucleation 78, 121
Bolsena caldera, Italy 165
Bouillante, Guadeloupe 289-290
Breccia 101, 111-112, 374
explosion 55, 185, 128-129
fault 111-112
hydrothermal (phreatic) 111-112, 128-129
laharic 82
intrusive 33
Broken Top volcano, Oregon 281-282
C
Calc-alkalic 13, 374
Calderas 5, 141-175, 374
area 14
ash-flow sheets 14
Baccano, Italy 92, 163
Bolsena, Italy 165
Cerro Galan, Argentina 156
collapse process 146-150
complex (multiple calderas) 158
Crater Lake, Oregon 141, 146, 153
crater lakes 150
Creede, Colorado 150, 154
downsagged 158
eruption processes 40, 146-150
geomorphology 142, 156-159
Hakone Volcano, Japan 285
hydrovolcanism 161, 173
intracaldera deposits 149, 151
intrusion 142, 146
Ishizuchi, Japan 159
Iwo-Jima, Japan 155
Kilauea, Hawaii 238-239
Koolau, Hawaii 236-241
lag breccia 149, 153
Lake City caldera, Colorado 144, 152, 162
La Primavera, Mexico 151, 154
Latera, Italy 161
Latium volcanoes, Italy 161-166
Long Valley, California 150
magma
bodies 142-146
composition 40
megabreccias 149
mesobreccias 149
Phlegrean Fields (Campi Flegrei), Italy 166-170
Platoro caldera, Colorado 162
postcaldera eruptions 155
Qualibou caldera, St. Lucia
ring fault 156
resurgence 150-156
shape 156-159
Shishimuta, Japan 157
structure 156-159
Taupo volcanic center, New Zealand 170-175
Toba, Sumatra 158
Toya caldera, Japan 207, 215
Tuscolano-Artemisio caldera, Italy 92, 98-99
thermal energy 160
Page 417
(Calderas, cont.)
thermal models 160
''trapdoor" 153, 156, 160
Valles/Toledo complex, New Mexico 144, 155, 157, 160, 162
vent distribution 146-149
volume 147, 166
Capelinhos, Azores 52
Cap rock 4, 190, 374
failure 127-129
seal (cementation) 127-129, 131
Campanian ignimbrite, Italy 166
Carbon dioxide 50, 127, 217
Carbonate rocks 161
Central Cascade Range, U.S. 266-268
Chemistry
(see also geochemistry)
mineral 311
whole rock 311, 338
Chemical processes 10-11
Berthelot-Nernst equation 10
fractional crystallization 11
isotopic tracers 11, 73, 77
magma chemistry 10
magma mixing 11
mass balance equation 11
partial melting 10
Rayleigh equation 10
reaction 9
Soret 19
Christmas Mountains, Texas 193
Cinder 374
Cinder cone (see scoria cone)
Cinder Cone, California 273
Classification
alkali-silica variation 14
chemical 14, 337, 338
magmas 13-14
major elements 14, 338
oxide concentration 14
refractive index 339
silica content 338
textural 338-339
lava 310
pyroclastic rocks 312
volcanic rocks 310, 312
Clast 374
Clay (see mineral)
Coignimbrite 375
(see also pyroclastic fall; flow)
Comminution (fragmentation) 375
(see also fuel-coolant interaction; granulometry)
dome lavas 185
Composite cone 5, 261-294, 375
Alaskan volcanoes 282-283
Ahuachapán, Salvador 286-287
Bouillante, Guadeloupe 289-290
Broken Top, Oregon 281-282
Central Cascade Range, U.S. 266-270, 285
distribution 262-265
eruption
phenomena 40, 268-279
rates 265-267
evolution 269-279
framework 279-284
geothermal systems 278, 284-293
Hakone volcano, Japan 284
Kawah Kamodjang, Indonesia 284-290
magma
composition 40, 262, 263, 267, 269
extrusion rate 265-267
intrusive volume 268
intrusive/extrusive ratio 268-269
reservoirs 261-263
supply 262-263
volumes of magma types 265-268
Matsukawa, Japan 288-289
maturity 269-279
immature stage 269-273
mature stage 275-279
submature stage 273-275
Meager Mountain, Canada 285-286
models 279-284
Momotombo, Nicaragua 286-288
Mount Fuji, Japan 292
Mount Adams, Washington 292
Mount Hood, Oregon 291-292
Mount Jefferson, Oregon 268
Mount Shasta, California 290
Mount St. Helens, Washington 278, 284
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 280
Ngauruhoe, New Zealand 274
Ohnuma, Japan 287-288
"rain curtain" 285
Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand 284
Soufrière de Guadeloupe 278
sector collapse 275, 278, 282
segmented arcs 262-266
subduction zones 261
Summer Coon volcano, Colorado 283-284
Tamagawa Spa, Japan 289
Three Sisters, Oregon 268
Tieton volcano, Washington 281
Volcanic mudflows 274
Computer 7, 361-368
Page 418
Conduit 9
(see also eruption; vent)
erosion (widening) 88
fragmentation level (surface) 86, 88
overpressure 88
water access 88
Connate 375
Continental Scientific Drilling Program 111
Conversion
factors 353-354
basic equivalents 354
geothermal heat to electricity 354-355
efficiency 355
ratio (see thermodynamic)
Core (see drill; well)
Coso volcanic field, California
geologic setting 194-199
age 197
basement 194, 210
domes 195-201
structure 195-201
tephra 195
volcanic rocks 195-198
geophysics 201-204
electrical 204, 209
gravity 204
heat flow 202-205
magnetics 204, 209
seismicity 203, 206
geothermal system 194
hydrogeochemistry 200-201
analyses 203
manifestations 22
volcanological interpretation 204-205, 210
Crater 4
dome 189
dimensions 43
efficiency 42
excavation 43
high explosives (TNT) 42-43
lakes 150
phreatic 4, 127-129
Crater Lake, Oregon 141
Creede, Colorado 150, 154
Crossbed (sandwave, dune) 55, 375
Cross section 331-335
drill-hole information 332
field 332
interpretation 332-334
preliminary interpretation 332
schematic 301
topographic profile 331
Cryptodome 207-212, 375
Crystal (see phenocryst)
Cuttings (see drill; well)
D
Density
bulk 10, 42
dense-rock equivalent (DRE) 46, 375
fluidization 81
gas 10
particle (solid) 10
volcanic rocks
Detonation (see fuel-coolant interaction)
Devitrification 375
Diamicton 375
Diagenesis (see alteration)
Diapir 20, 375
Diatreme 375
Diffusion 46, 187
(see also heat flow)
heat 46
rate 187
water 187
Dike
depths 236-241, 248-250
fissure swarms 236-241, 248-250, 281-282, 375
heat sources 236-246, 248-250
intensity 236-241
stress field 111
surface deformation 108
systems 236-241, 248-250
volume 248-250
Dome 4, 5, 177
caldera 157, 177, 190-192
coalescing 184
complex 190-191
composite cone 177, 184
composition 40
Coso, California 194-201
cratered 189-190
cryptodome 207-212
destruction 185
evolution 178-179
geothermal (see hydrothermal)
hydrovolcanism 183-185
importance of water 187
lava
density 183
extrusion 178
temperature 183
viscosity 178, 180
occurrences 157
pyroclastic activity 40
Mont Pelée, Martinique 179, 185
Peléean and Merapian 185, 188, 189
phreatic 185-186, 188
phreatomagmatic 182, 186
Plinian 182, 186
Santiaguito, Guatemala 185
Page 419
(Dome, cont.)
Soufriere of St. Vincent 184
Vulcanian 183-184, 187
structure
basin fill 193, 195
endogenous 179
exogenous 179
faults 190-193
intrusive deformation 192-194
Terre Blanche-Belfond, St. Lucia 213-223
tephra 180-186
apron 189
character 185
composition 185
deposits 185
grain size 185
stratigraphy 186
texture 185
volume 183
texture 184, 187
breccia 184
coarse and fine pumice 181
crystallization 180, 184
development 184
foliation 181, 184
lithophysae 180, 184
Little Glass Mountain, California, 182
microcracks 180, 184
quenching 180, 184
stratigraphy 183
surface 182
Usu Volcano, Japan 205-216
Downsag caldera 158
Drilling
(see also well)
core 113, 369-372
cross sections 332, 334-335
cuttings 370
information 4, 334
recommendations 335-336
Dry eruption cycle 33, 375
Dry surge (see pyroclastic surge)
E
Efficiency (conversion ratio) 32
(see also thermodynamic; fuel-coolant interaction)
cycle 355
Ejecta (see pyroclastic rocks)
Electricity
conversion of geothermal heat to 46-47, 354-355
cycle efficiency 354-355
power 47, 354
Endogenous 376
Energy
efficiency (conversion ratio) 42, 77
electrical (see electricity)
equation
adiabatic (isentropic) 41
isothermal 40-41
eruption (explosion) 40-42
geothermal (see geothermal energy)
high explosives 43
internal 32, 78
kinetic 32, 42
line 23, 27, 81, 376
mechanical 32
potential 32
pressure-volume 32
thermal 42
subsurface 42-50
Enthalpy (see heat content)
Entropy
temperature diagram 77
water 77
Equant 71, 76, 376
Equation
adiabatic 10
Bernoulli 9, 24
Berthelot-Nernst 10
conservation
energy 41-42
mass (continuity) 19, 25, 79
momentum 19, 25
energy line 23, 27, 81
flow radius 81
flow volume 81
fluidization 81
gas weight fraction 10
granulometry
log-normal distribution 312
phi scale 312
sequential fragmentation/transport 316
hydraulic fracture
breakdown pressure 97
injection pressure 109-111
length 109-111
nondimensional stress intensity 109
width 105, 109
volume 109
heat flow 46, 361
crustal 9
Fick's second law of diffusion 46, 361
irrotationality 25
isothermal 10
magma mixing 11
motion 22, 24, 41-42
Navier-Stokes 10, 25
Page 420
(Equation, cont.)
pore fluid volume 101
pressure coefficient 101
radial deflation 81
Rayleigh 9
sound speed 42
stable isotope 11
steam fraction 77
stress
breakdown pressure 97
brittle failure 97
normal 97
shear 97
superheated expansion 77
tephra volume
circular isopachs 45
elliptical isopachs 45
thermal (internal) energy 42
thermal plume
height 21
centerline velocity 21
spread velocity 22
thermal resource 44
thermodynamic work 32, 78
Eruption 7
column 10, 18, 21-22, 24, 26
conduit 9, 41, 146
cycles 33, 57-62, 183, 184, 376
effusive 9
explosive 9, 39, 146
blasts 23, 24
dynamics 18-37
ejecta velocity 10
energy line concept 23, 28, 81
jet 22
models 23-37
overpressured 24-29, 85-88
pressure-balanced 85-88
volatile content 10, 41-42
geyser 120-121
Hawaiian 269-221
hydrovolcanic (see hydrovolcanic)
magmatic 40-41
Peléean (see Peléean)
Phreatic 125-127
Phreatoplinian (see Phreatoplinian)
Plinian (see Plinian)
plume 21-22, 376
Strombolian (see Strombolian)
system 18
unit 302, 376
Vulcanian (see Vulcanian)
Euhedral 376
Exogenous 376
Expansion 24, 41-42, 74-81
adiabatic 41
isothermal 10, 24
saturated 74-81
superheated 77
wave 78, 376
Exploration
(see also geothermal)
approach 3, 39, 252, 292-295
conventional methods 2-5
well 335, 369
Explosion
breccia 55, 128-129, 131
energy 40-47
pit 129, 376
Exsolution 376
Extrusive 376
F
Facies 376
alteration 91
caldera 54-58, 144, 152, 165, 301
changes 54-58, 300-301
composite cone 56, 301
dry surge 56
massive 56
planar 56
pyroclastic surge 57
sandwave 56
scoria cone 229
table mountain 251
tephra 56
tuff cone 56
tuff ring 56, 229
vent 56, 229
wet and dry relationships 54-56
wet surge 56
Fault 4
block 192
breccia 111-112
dome 189-190
fracture permeability 155, 160-162
Fall velocity
lithic fragments 315
pumice 315
Felsic 376
Field methods 295-236
aerial photographs 296
cross sections (see cross section)
definition of the problem 295-296
establishing a stratigraphic framework 297-302
approach 300-302
correlation of units 309
Page 421
(Field methods, cont.)
lava flows and domes 306-309
pyroclastic and epiclastic rocks 303-306
volcanic rock units 302-320
land-ownership maps 297
library research 296
lithology and structure 309-322
lava 310-312
pyroclastic rocks 312-321
regional tectonics 321
volcano tectonics 321
map 322-331
(see also map)
data 322-331
three-dimensional modeling 334-335
notes 303-304
preparation
problem definition 295-296
library research 296
geographic materials 296-300
recommendations 335-336
drilling 335
satellite images 296-299
topographic maps 295
Fissure vents 236-239, 248-250, 376
Flank vents 292, 376
Flow
buoyancy 13-19, 106
choked 88
foliation (see lava)
heat (see heat flow)
lava 226, 231, 242, 255, 276-277, 306-309
pyroclastic (see pyroclastic flow)
thermal pressurization 106
Fluid
Bingham 79, 180
flux 109
hydrothermal (see hydrothermal)
inclusions
analyses 89
homogenization temperature 112
multiphase 24
overpressure 95
reservoir 92
viscosity 103, 109, 11
Fluidal 376
Fluvial 376
Fluidization 81
(see also pyroclastic surge)
Fluvial (see water)
Formation 302
Fossa cone (see Vulcano, Italy)
Fracture (crack)
area 103
fluid 103
driven 95
front 102, 234-236
horizontal 111, 234-236
intrusive fillings (pyroclasts) 111-114
length 105, 242, 247, 248-250
permeability 95, 155, 160-162
propagation
fracture resistance 110
stress corrosion 113
viscous resistance 110
shape 111
sheet 236
systems 242
Thingvelir, Iceland 248-250
relation to magma reservoir 248-250, 252
vertical 236, 239, 241, 249
volume 109
width 105, 236, 249
Fragmentation 185
(see fuel-coolant interaction; granulometry)
Fuel-coolant interaction 30, 52, 69-82
analysis 70-79
conductive heat transfer 70
dynamic instabilities 78
Kelvin-Helmholtz 78
Rayleigh-Taylor 78
efficiency (conversion ratio) 32, 75, 77-78
energy 78
experimental designs 72
fragmentation 71-79, 84-86
grain sizes and shapes 70, 75, 76
heat flux 75
interaction phenomena 69-73
mixing 78-79
oxygen isotopes 71-73, 77
results 32, 69-77
steam films 31, 74-79
temperature-entropy diagram 77
theory 31, 74-82
predictions 74-82
thermal detonation 78-79
thermite 72
thermodynamics 74-82
water/melt interface 77
vapor explosion 78
Fumarole 377
activity 130, 132, 178, 185
chemistry 217, 223
acid alteration 132
phreatic eruptions 127
G
Gas
(see volatile; water)
noncondensible (see carbon dioxide)
Gauro Yellow Tuff, Italy 166
Page 422
Geobarometer 311, 377
Geochemistry
(see chemical processes, hydrogeochemistry)
Geomorphology
(see also landforms)
constraints 5
Geothermal
(see also hydrothermal)
energy 1-5
exploration (prospecting) 1-5, 95, 295
gradient (see thermal gradient)
heat
conversion to electricity 354-355
reservoir 4
depth 89-95, 154-160, 243-245, 246
development 171
geometry 89-95, 159-160, 243-245, 250-251
potential 16, 115, 171, 246
pyroclastic deposits 89-95, 159-160
resource
magnitude 42-50, 171
production 46-47, 171
systems
caldera 159-160
basaltic volcanoes 225-259
hot-dry rock 160
hot water 119, 160
surface manifestations 119-140, 159-162
vapor-dominated 120
well (see well)
Geothermometer 311, 377
Geovolcanology (see volcanology)
Geyser
eruption 120-121
Old Faithful, Wyoming 120-121
Glass
(see also pyroclastic rocks)
alteration 94
chemical variations 70
hydration 70
palagonitization 70
basaltic 70
devitrification 187
refractive index 339
silicic 94
solution 131, 135
Glomeroporphyritic 377
Gradient
pressure 88
thermal 51
Grain (clast)
shape 320
size (see granulometry)
texture 320, 326
Granulometry (grain-size distribution) 8, 303, 312-320, 377
basalts 67
class-size intervals 314
classification 21-22, 312, 340-341
dome tephra 185
economic significance 90
hydrovolcanic (hydroclastic) 67-68
interpretation 18, 312-316
log-normal distribution 312
median diameter 314, 316, 318
Mount St. Helens 67, 320
rhyolites 60, 67
sequential fragmentation/transport 315-320, 322
sieving 312
size-frequency distribution 60
Crater Elegante, Mexico 320
Fogo A tephra, Azores 318, 323
Mount St. Helens 320
Vesuvius, Italy 321
sorting 312, 319
subpopulations 315, 320-321
Vulcano 67
Wairakei Formation 60
Gravitational slumps
Hawaii 226
Groundmass 377
Ground surge (see pyroclastic surge)
Ground tilt 97, 102, 107, 108
Groundwater (see water)
H
Hachimantai geothermal area, Japan 139
Hawaii
Kapoho geothermal area 231-246
Kilauea Iki 226, 233
Kilauea volcano 226, 231-246
Koolau volcano 236-241
Mauna Loa volcano 233-239
Hawaiian eruption 19, 22, 239 269-271, 377
Heat
capacity 42, 356-359
content (enthalpy) 356-359
flow (transport) 9, 377
calculation 46-50
code (numerical procedure) 361-368
conduction 9, 16, 46-50
convective 16, 49, 102, 190
cooling 47
diffusion 46
Fick's second law of diffusion 46
fuel-coolant interaction 75
long-term 106
Page 423
(Heat, cont.)
radioactive decay 9
short-term 106
temporal 9
magmatic 44
mining (see hot dry rock)
source
magmatic 40-50
Heimaey volcano, Iceland 252-255
deposits 255
eruption 252
geothermal heating system 255-256
Hokkaido volcanoes 211
Hot dry rock geothermal systems 46, 50, 160, 377
experiments 50
Fenton Hill, New Mexico 50, 160
Hot spring 120, 377
Hyaloclastite 377
Hyalotuff 377
Hydration 377
Hydraulic fracture (hydrofracture) 95-112, 377
concept 95-96
conditions 116
experiments 102
fillings 100-101
bedding 100, 111-114
intrusive pyroclasts 111-114
fluids 103
coefficient 103
pumping rate 103
viscosity 105-116
horizontal 97, 109, 116
hydrothermal breccia 112
Inyo domes, California 111
Jemez fault zone, New Mexico 112
Obsidian dome, California 111-114
petroleum 97, 103
proppants 100
size 103, 105-111
theory 97-104, 116
crack propagation 109
lubrication 109
Valles caldera, New Mexico 111
vertical 97
volcanic 118
Hydroclast 377
Hydrogeochemistry 4, 377
Coso, California 200-201
Terre Blanche-Belfond, St. Lucia 213-223
Usu Volcano, Japan 208, 217
Hydrology
hydrologic conditions 4, 33
hydrologic environment 30
Hydromagmatic 377
Hydrothermal
alteration 129-140, 278
acid-sulfate 130, 278
adularia-sericite 130
advanced argillic 133, 135
alteration rank 130-135
areas 135-140
dating 138
facies 135-140
mapping 135-140
assemblage terminology 133
boiling 97, 127-129
breccia 117, 127-129
caprock 127-129
circulation 189-190
cycle 131
crater 125-129
deposit 125-129, 185
eruption 27, 125-129, 185, 378
fields
area 138-140
volume 138-140
length of activity 138
manifestations 4, 119-140, 200
reservoir 378
areal extent 89, 138-140
depth 92, 138-140, 159-160. 243-245, 246
geometry 83, 90, 138-140, 159-160, 243-245, 250-251
permeability 252, 253
pyroclastic rocks 188-191
pillow lava 250-251
system 378
basaltic volcano 225-259
caldera 159-175
composite cone 279-292
dome 177-193
presence 39
size 39
location 39
theory 102
Hydrovolcanic 378
Hydrovolcanism 26-37, 50-95
analogs (see fuel-coolant interaction)
basic concept 52-54
bedforms 35, 55
breccia 53
caldera 57-62
chemical alteration 31
cycle 33-37
deposit 53-57
dry 54-56
grain size 35, 67, 185
sequence 85-92
textures 34, 53, 55
wet 54-56
Page 424
(Hydrovolcanism, cont.)
depth 30
deep 86, 89
shallow 84-85
dry 184
environment 30, 252
eruption mechanics 31, 52-53, 252
experiments (see fuel-coolant interaction)
explosive paradox 52
facies (see facies)
features 26, 54
fragmentation 67-68, 71-79, 84-86
level 84-86
geothermal importance 37, 90, 82-95
reservoir depth and geometry 83-95
thermal regime 89-93
heat transfer (see fuel-coolant interaction)
hydroclast 62-68
Krakatau 26
landforms 27, 134
oxygen isotope exchange 71-73
phenomena 30-34
Phreatoplinian 86-87
polygenetic volcano 52-67
pyroclasts (tephra or products) 33
constituents 63-67
fine ash beds 58, 67
grain-sizes (see granulometry)
petrography 62-68
stratigraphy 82-88
textures 36, 66
Taupo volcano, New Zealand 57-58
theory (see fuel-coolant interaction)
Vesuvius, Italy 59-65
Vulcano, Italy 58-59
water
abundance 20, 54-94
access to magma 61
water:magma mass ratio 34-37, 70. 84-85, 87-90
wet-dry transition in deposits 80-82
wet 184
I
Iceland
Heimaey volcano 253-256
high-temperature systems 248, 250-252
hot water wells 246
Krafla volcano 247-252
neovolcanic zones 246-247
Reykjanes geothermal area 248
Surtsey volcano 252-255
Ignimbrite 378
(see also pyroclastic flow)
correlation 151
eruption volume 16
Intraplate volcanism 378
Intrusions 142-146
Inyo domes, California
Inyo crater 111-114
Obsidian dome 111-114
Isentropic 378
(see also adiabatic)
expansion 41-42
exponent (coefficient) 10, 42, 356-359
Isobaric 378
coefficient of thermal expansion 101, 105
Isopach 378
area 45
circular volume 45
elliptical volume 45
Isopleth 25, 378
Isothermal 378
coefficient of compressibility 101, 105
equation 10
expansion 24
Isotope
Long Valley caldera, California 73
oxygen exchange 71-73
ratio 73, 77
stable 11
tracer 11
J
Jet 22, 378
cypressoid (cock's tail) 55
Mach disk 28-29
overpressure 28
structure 24, 28-29
supersonic 28-29
K
Kapoho geothermal area, Hawaii 231-246
Kawah Kamodjang, Indonesia 289-290
Kilauea Iki, Hawaii 226, 233, 271
Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii 108, 226, 231-246
caldera 239-243
dike systems 108, 235-241
east rift zone 235
east rift zone geothermal system 239-246
earthquakes 237
electrical generating plant 239-246
research drill hole 233
rift zones 235
rock densities 237
rock permeabilities 237
temperatures 233, 239-246
Koolau volcano, Hawaii 236-241
Krafla volcano, Iceland 248-252
geothermal reservoir 248-252
Page 425
L
La Primavera caldera, Mexico 151, 154
Laacher See volcano, Germany 87
Laboratory analysis 310-321
(see also analysis)
flow chart 313
pyroclastic sample 312-322
Laccolith 192, 378
Christmas mountains, Texas 193
Lag breccia 149, 153, 378
Lahar 82, 193, 274-275, 378
formation 79, 274-275
hydrovolcanic 33, 79
liquefaction 55
remobilization 53, 274-275
water content 79
Lake City caldera, Colorado 144, 152, 162
Landform 5
caldera (see caldera)
composite cone (see composite cone)
explosion pit 129
hydrovolcanic (see hydrovolcanism)
moberg 30, 251
monogenetic 54
polygenetic 57-62
tuff cone (tephra cone) 37, 54
tuff ring 37, 54, 226-230
stapi 30
scoria cones 37, 54, 226-230
Lapilli 378
Latera volcanic field, Italy 91, 161-163
Latium volcanoes, Italy 161-166
Alban Hills 91
Baccano 163
Bolsena 165
Sabatini volcanic complex 91, 92, 97, 101
Vico volcano 91
Vulsini (Latera) volcanic complex 91, 161-163
Lava 306-309
aa 308
brittle failure 185
classification 310
dome (see dome)
flows 306-308
flow layering 306
fountain 269-270, 379
fracture 189, 306-308
jointing 306-308
lake 231-233, 379
pahoehoe 308
petrology 38, 308, 310
pillow 251
sampling 308-309
texture 184, 306
thermal effects 308
thickness 308-309
type 308
viscosity 178
Liquidus 379
Lithic clast 4-5, 379
abundances 89-95
Alban Hills, Italy 92, 98-99
constituents 91-92
geothermal prospecting 95
Nisyros, Greece 93
Sabatini volcanic complex, Italy 92, 100-101
thermally metamorphosed 65
Lithology 309-320
(see also rocks)
log 370-371
Lithophysae 180, 379
Lithosphere 379
Littoral cone 52, 379
Logging
cores and cuttings 369-372
methods 369-370
Long Valley caldera, California 111
oxygen isotope exchange 111
M
Maar 33, 66, 229, 379
Mach
disk shock 28-29, 88
number 24
Mafic 379
Magma 11-18, 379
accumulation 11
alkalic 13
body 44, 142-146, 234-239, 248-250, 261-268, 279-285
calcalkalic 13
classification 6
chamber 7, 13-18
caldera area 16, 142-146
caldera ash-flow sheets 16, 151
depth 142-146, 234-239, 248-250, 261, 279-285
differentiation 17-19
evolved magmas 20
heat resources 42-50, 159-160, 248-250, 279-285
neutral buoyancy theory 234-239
shape 19, 142-146, 234-239, 261, 279-285
silicic 20, 142-146, 279-285
tectonic environment 12, 20, 225-226, 248-250, 261-267
temperature 44
thermal energy 44
Page 426
(Magma, cont.)
volume 16, 44, 248-250, 265-268
zonation 16
chemical evolution 10, 16
composition 4, 180, 338
differentiation 19, 44
elemental enrichment 17
energy 231
generation 12, 227, 234-239
intrusion 112, 189
major-element abundances 14, 338
mixing 11
origin 12
phenocryst content 18
sources 11, 12
tectonic setting 11-13, 227, 234
tholeiitic 13
volatile 17, 112
water 187
interaction (see hydrovolcanism)
Massive bed 55-56, 59, 68, 74
Maturity 379
Map
geologic 3, 321-322
facies 331
geothermal manifestations 330-331
land ownership 297
lithological 328
scale and detail 325-326
structural 328-331
thematic mapping 326-327
topographic 3, 296
Maroa volcanic center, New Zealand 171-175
Matsukawa, Japan 288-289
Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii 233-239
Meager Mountain, Canada 285-286
Megabreccia 149, 379
Merapian eruption 185, 379
Mesobreccia 149, 169-170
Metamorphism
burial 94
thermal 93-94, 131
Microlites 379
Microseismicity 379
Mineral
(see also phenocryst)
mafic 338
secondary
assemblages (see hydrothermal)
clays 94
deposition 102
paragenesis 112
temperature 93-94
zeolites (see zeolites)
silicic 338
springs 120-126, 380
Moberg 251, 380
Mofete geothermal field, Italy 166-170
Mohorovicic discontinuity 12, 380
Momotombo, Nicaragua 286-288
Monogenetic volcano 380
Mount Adams, Washington 292
Mount Fuji, Japan 292
Mount Hood, Oregon 291-292
Mount Jefferson, Oregon 268
Mount Shasta, California 290
Mount St. Helens, Washington 278, 284
N
Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (Tufo Giallo), Italy 166
Neovolcanic zones, Iceland 246
Nernst distribution coefficient 10
Neutral buoyancy theory 236-239
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 280
New Zealand
hydrothermal resources 171
Kawerau geothermal field 171
Ngauruhoe volcano 274
Taupo volcanic zone 57-61, 136, 170-175
Ruapehu 284
Wairakei geothermal field 171-175
Nisyros, Greece 89, 93
Noncondensible gas 380
Nuée ardente 276, 380
Nucleation
(see boiling)
O
Ohnuma, Japan 287-288
OLADE 1, 3
method
Step 1 3-4
Step 2 4
Step 3 4-5
feasibility 3
prefeasibility 3
reconnaissance 3
Oruanui Pumice Formation, New Zealand
(see Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand)
Overpressure 95, 111, 116, 380
conduit 42, 84
eruption column 87
P
Pahoehoe lava 239, 308, 380
Palagonite 68, 380
chemical alteration (variation) 70, 250-253
temperature dependence 70
thickness 70
tuff grain size 69
Paleosol 380
Paragenesis 380
Page 427
Parasitic vent 380
Parícutin volcano, Mexico 228
Peléean eruption 21, 185, 276, 277, 380
Peperite (peperini) 33, 380
Peralkaline 380
''Perched" aquifer 230
Perlite 380
Permeability 39, 340, 343
effective 95
formation (primary) 189, 239, 251-252
fracture (secondary) 95, 192, 239
relative 251
Petrogenesis 381
Petrography
(see also analysis)
thin section 310
Petroleum exploration 100
Phenocryst 381
abundance 18
classification usage 15
Phi 381
Phlegrean Fields, Italy 166-170
Phreatic
crater 4, 125-129, 189, 193, 213, 278
deposit 125-129, 185, 278
eruption 381
tephra 125-129, 185, 278
Phreatomagmatic eruption 381
Phreatoplinian 22, 381
(see also hydrovolcanism)
Physical processes 8-10
adiabatic 9-10
Bernoulli equation 9, 24
convection 9
energy
equation 41-42
line (Heim coefficient) 23, 81
transfer 9
fluidization 81
fragmentation 84-86
gravitational acceleration 9
heat flow (see heat flow)
isothermal 9-10, 24
mass 9, 19, 25, 79
momentum equation 19, 25
motion equation 22, 24, 41-42
Navier-Stokes equations 10, 25
numerical solutions 22
perfect gas law 19
Rayleigh number 9
Reynolds number 9
Pillow lava 251, 381
Pit crater 234, 381
Piton de la Fournaise volcano, 255-259
Planar bed 55-59
Platoro caldera, Colorado 162
Platy 381
Plinian eruption 10, 19, 21, 24, 26, 40-41, 87, 115, 276, 381
Pluton 381
(see also magma chamber)
subvolcanic 247
Poisson's ratio 109
Polygenetic volcano 381
caldera 141-175
composite cone 261-294
Porosity
fluidization (void space) 81
volcanic rock 340
Porphyritic 339, 381
Pressure
breakdown 97
coefficient 101, 105
confining 31, 97-98
differential 103
gradient 88, 101, 104, 106
hydrostatic 61, 84-85, 97, 112
injection 97
lithostatic 101-104
overburden 97
pore-fluid 85, 101-102, 104
stagnation 24
static 24
Production
management 372
Proppant 381
Pumice 381
Pyroclast 381
Pyroclastic rocks (tephra) 7, 39-95
accretionary lapilli 60
alteration 69-70, 94
bedding (bedforms) 21, 305
massive 53
planar 53
sandwave 53
caldera 151
chemistry
zonation 17
chilling (see quenching)
classification 21, 303-305
granulometric 312-316
textural 320
clast orientation 305
component (constituents) 63-67, 317-320
crystal (phenocryst) abundance 45
dense-rock equivalent (DRE) 46
deposit 7, 79
stratigraphy 302-306
thickness 45, 303
diagenesis (see alteration)
Page 428
(Pyroclastic rocks, cont.)
dispersal 21, 24
dome (see dome tephra)
eruption types 21
facies (see facies)
fallout (see pyroclastic fallout)
flow (see pyroclastic flow)
fragmentation (see fragmentation)
grading 305
grain shape and texture (morphology) 66, 71, 320, 326
grain size (see granulometry)
hydroclastic 33, 39
hyaloclastite 30
hyalotuff 30
hydrovolcanic 5, 33, 40
impact sag 195
isopach area 45
isopleth 25
laboratory analysis 312-321
lithification 305
magmatic 33, 182-183
Merapian 185
mixed pyroclastic-epiclastic 341
Peléean 185
peperite 33
petrography 317
hydroclastic 66
Plinian 185
physical properties
density 188-189, 340
permeability 343
porosity 340
pumice 151, 276
sampling 305-306
stratigraphy 82-88, 297-306
idealized 301
surge (see pyroclastic surge)
tephra cone (see tuff cone)
thermal remnant magnetization 305
thickness 303
velocity 10, 24
vesicle 189
volume 45
Vulcanian (Surtseyan) 58-59, 67, 185
welding 305
Pyroclastic fallout 21-22, 374
bedform 21
dispersal 21, 276
emplacement 21
isopachs 45
isopleths 25
modeling 21
terminal velocity 315
Pyroclastic flow (ignimbrite) 74, 22-23, 305, 374, 381
dispersal and emplacement 21
energy line (see physical processes)
gravitational collapse 22-23, 27
vapor condensation 80-82
Pyroclastic surge 24-26, 305
bedform 23
blast 23, 30
dispersal 21
dry 79, 375
energy line (see physical processes)
facies (see facies)
fludization 81
grain sizes (see granulometry)
jet structure 24
overpressure 24-25, 80-81
vapor condensation 80-82
wet 79
Q
Qualibou caldera, St. Lucia 192, 275
Quantitative methods 8-11
Quenching 75
R
Radar 296
side-looking airborne (SLAR) 5, 296
space shuttle imaging 299
Radioactivity 9, 345
(see also rock)
"Rain curtain" 285, 292-293
Rarefaction wave 30, 381
Reservoir (see geothermal; hydrothermal)
Reynolds number 9
Reykjanes geothermal area, Iceland 248
Resurgent caldera 382
Reworked 382
Rheomorphic tuff 382
Rift zones 225-258
Ring faults 156, 382
Rock
basement 89, 93, 97, 99
families 310
fracture 97
geophysical properties
elastic constants 343
electrical resistivity 346
heat capacity 345
permeability 343
Poisson's ratio 343
radioactivity 345
seismic velocities 344
shear modulus 343
strength 344
stress intensity factor 109-110
Page 429
(Rock, cont.)
thermal conductivity 345
well-log response 346
Young's modulus 343
sedimentary 97, 99
thermal regime 89, 93
unit 302-303
volcanic (see volcanic)
Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand 284
S
Sabatini volcanic complex, Italy 92, 97, 101
San Ignacio, Honduras 123
San Juan volcanic field, Colorado 161
Sandwave (dune, crossbed) 53-57, 382
Satellite image 3, 296-299
earth resources technology (ERTS) 297
landsat 298
radar 299
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) 299
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) 382
(see also analysis)
microcrystalline alteration 327
pyroclast textures 66
Scoria (cinder) 374, 382
cones 37, 53, 226-230, 253, 270-273
bedding 226-229
height:width ratio 53
Lathrop Wells, Nevada 319, 324
lithology 226-229
ejecta dispersal 228
water source 228-229
Sector collapse 278, 282
Sediment
permeability 343
units 301
Segmented arcs 262-265
Seismic
fracturing 112
properties 344
tremor 208
harmonic 208
Sha-Kaleri complex, Nigeria 144
Shard 382
Shear modulus 109, 343
Shield volcanoes 230, 233, 236
Shock wave 28-29, 78, 88, 382
Sideromelane 253, 382
Silica
content 18
sinter 382
Siliceous sinter 33, 83, 121, 136
amorphous silica solubility 121
chalcedonic sinter 122
form and extent 122
fragmental sinter 122
older spring deposits 125
opaline sinter 121, 122
sinter cement 121, 136
Silicic, 382
glass 94
lava 177-180, 276-277
volcanism 276-277
Silicic dome (see dome)
Soda spring 119-121, 382
Solidus 382
Soil 5
Soufrière de Guadeloupe 97, 278, 289-290
Sound speed 24
equation 42
multiphase (mixture) 42
sonic transition 88
Spatter 264, 282, 382
Stable isotope 11, 382
Statistical methods 8-9
Steam
chimney 42
dome (two-phase region) 74
fields 51
fraction 77-78
saturated vapor (wet) 33
superheated (dry) 33
thermodynamic properties (table) 356-359
Steamboat springs, Nevada 121, 124
Stratovolcano (stratocone) 383
Stratigraphic framework 297-302
approach 300-302
correlation 321-322
facies 300-301
tephrochronology 309
volcanic rock units 302-321
Stratigraphy 297-309
analysis 300
basement (subvolcanic) 99
dome lava 306-309
hydrovolcanic
idealized 89, 92-93
sequence 85
lithic 89-95
regional setting 300, 321
section 303-305
working 300, 332
volcanic field 89, 301-302
Stress
compressive 105-109
corrosion 113
horizontal 108
in situ 100
intensity factor 109
Mohr diagram 97
normal 97
Page 430
(Stress, cont.)
principal 104
greatest (maximum) 97, 108
least 97
regional 97
rock strength 344
shear 97, 344
vertical 97
Strombolian eruption 10, 19, 41, 271-273, 383
Structure 321-322
basin fill 193
caldera 156-159
geophysical 101
interpretation 210
volcanic 321
regional tectonic control 321
Subduction zone 12, 265-267
Subplinian eruption 22, 383
Summer Coon volcano, Colorado 283-284
Supercritical 383
Superheat 383
Surge 383
Surface tension 78
Surtsey volcano, Iceland 52, 252-255
eruption 52, 252-253
permeability 253
temperatures 253, 255
Surtseyan eruption 252, 383
(see also Vulcanian eruption)
Survey 2-5
geophysical 2-5
hydrogeochemical 2-5
T
Taal volcano, Philippines 52
Tachylite 383
Tamagawa Spa, Japan 289
Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand 57-58, 136, 170-175
Maroa volcanic center 171-175
Oruanui Pumice Formation 58
Wairakei (see Wairakei)
Tectonic setting 12, 97
Temperature
boiling 51, 117
economic minimum 44
homogenization (see fluid inclusions)
solidus 46
Tephra 383
Tephrochronology 309, 383
Terre Blanche-Belfond, St. Lucia
geology 213-220
cross sections 220-221
model 222-223
stratigraphy 218
volcanism 213-214
geophysics 216-221
electrical 216, 221
gravity 216
hydrogeochemistry 216-223
compositions 217, 223
model 222
Qualibou caldera 213, 223
volcanological interpretation 218
Texbooks 8
Thermal
anomalies 4
conduction 9
detonation (see fuel-coolant interaction)
diffusion 46
energy 42-45
expansion 9
gradient 9, 47, 51, 106
conductive 233
convective 243-246
hydrostatic boiling reference curve 245
manifestations 4, 119-140
modeling parameters 233, 345, 361-362
regime 24, 89, 93, 234-239, 383
resource 44, 159-160, 383
hydrothermal component 159-160
modeling 44
volume 46, 160, 171
spring 119-121, 383
Thermite 383
Thermodynamic
(see also fuel-coolant interaction)
efficiency (conversion ratio) 42, 77
parameters 356-359
state 40
work 32
Thingvelir fracture swarm, Iceland 249
Three Sisters, Oregon 267
Tieton Volcano, Washington 281-282
Tiltmetry 97
Trapdoor caldera 156, 160
Travertine 33, 123
fissure ridge 125
hot spring cones or tower 125
terraces 125
Tuff 383
breccia 101
cone 37, 40, 53, 384
palagonitic 250-253
rings 37, 40, 53, 229, 384
height:width ratio 228-229
water source 229
zeolitic 33
Tuscolano-Artemisio caldera, Italy 92, 98-99
Page 431
U
Ultraplinian eruption 22, 384
Usu Volcano, Japan
geology 205-213
phreatic explosion 207-213
recent volcanism 207-208
geophysics 208-216
gravity 208, 215
seismic 208, 216
hydrogeochemistry 208, 217
geothermal manifestations 208
V
Valles/Toledo calderas, New Mexico 144, 157, 160, 162
Vapor
condensation 81-82
explosion (see fuel-coolant interaction)
phase alteration 384
vaporization 78
Vent 84-86, 147-148, 226-230, 234-239
Vesicle 189, 384
Vesuvius, Italy 59-65
accretionary lapilli 60
archaeological excavation 64
deposits 64
AD 79 eruption 64
model 65
hydrovolcanism 65
stratigraphy 64
Vico volcano, Italy 96
Viscosity
fracturing fluid 109-111
lava 178
water 105
Vitric 384
Vitrophyre 339, 384
Volatile
(see also vapor)
carbon dioxide 50
magmatic 17
overpressure 42
Volcaniclastic 384
Volcanology 1-2
geothermal prospecting 2-5
models 2
observations 3
principles 5
Volcanic
ash (see pyroclastic rocks)
conduit 19
hydrofractures (see hydraulic fracturing)
mudflows (lahars) 274-275
recent 4
volume periodicity 44
Volcanic rocks (products) 302-321
classification 14, 337-341
density 339-340, 342
geophysical properties 342-346
elastic constants 343
electrical resistivity 346
heat capacity 345
radioactivity 345
permeability 343
seismic velocities 344
shear modulus 343
thermal conductivity 345
well-log response 340
intermediate 4, 337
mafic 4, 337
phenocryst content 15, 18
porosity 340
samples 4, 305-306
silicic 4, 337
subglacial 250-251
units 302-309
characteristics 303-309
classification 303
color 303
contact relationships 303
Volume
dense-rock equivalent (DRE) 46
extrusive 46
magma chamber 248-250, 268
particle fraction 81
pyroclastic rock 45
thermal resource
water 356-359
Vulcanian eruption 10, 21-22, 58-59, 274-275
dome growth and destruction 183, 184, 187, 384
kinetic energy 42
mechanism 41-42
overpressure 41-42
Soufriere of St. Vincent 184
tephra
dry and wet surge 185
pumice 59
Vulcano, Italy 58-63
eruption cycles 58
Fossa cone 62, 184
grain sizes 67
hydrovolcanism 58-59
stratigraphy 62
Vulsini (Latera) volcanic complex, Italy
W
Wairakei, New Zealand 58-60, 171-175
eruption model 61
formation 60

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Volcanology and Geothermal Energy

Volcanology and Geothermal Energy

Edited by Jody H. Heiken

For our families, who have provided inspiration,

Geothermal Importance of Hydrovolcanism 82

Peléean and Merapian Dome Destruction 185

Models of Composite Cones 279

Appendix D: Conversion Factors, Steam Properties, and

Flow diagram showing steps of the OLADE

where uconv is the velocity of convection, which can in turn be approximated by a

where = the gas isentropic exponent (Wilson, 1980).

In contrast to fractional crystallization and partial melting, the concentration of a chemical

Explosive Eruptions and Quantitative Models

which express conservation of mass and momentum, respectively, for one-dimensional

Self (1983) presented an extensively documented account of the Wairakei eruption

Experimental and Theoretical Aspects of Hydrovolcanism

In these equations, E = Young's modulus; v = Poisson's ratio; and Q = the fracture

where µs = the shear modulus; v = Poisson's ratio; Wh = the crack half-thickness; s = a

Variations in compaction and Variation in the degree of

Maroa Volcanic Center and Wairakei Geothermal Field

a From Bonnichsen and Kauffman (1987).

Peléean and Merapian Dome Destruction

Hydrothermal Systems Associated with Domes

tephra aprons surrounding domes,

Coso California Geothermal Field

Terre Blanche-Belfond in St. Lucia

attitudes (strikes and dips) can be useful. An altimeter is employed to determine

8. Modes by Point Count:

Williams et al. (1982) demonstrated that a reasonable chemical classification can be

(1970) demonstrated the relationship of magma density to composition as a function of

a From Schmid (1981).

Table B.7. Elastic Constants of Selected Volcanic Rocksa

Table B.9. Seismic Velocities of Selected

Table B.11. Radioactivity in Selected Volcanic Rocks as

Table B.13. Simple Classification of Volcanic Rocks by Well Log Response

isobaric coefficient of thermal

Conversion of Geothermal Heat to Electricity

(table continued on next page)

(table continued on next page)

(table continued on next page)

c........... Two dimensional heat diffusion in heterogeneous

dxy = ddxy* 1.0e+05

c....Read in geologic stucture and rock characteristics..

c.....Stabilize initial heat flow in grid...........

call stabil (stab,hfb,hft,nrow,ncol,nj,tm,tg,dxy,cv,

c.....Set dt for time step...................

c.....Reset grid ..................

c....Begin diffusion loop.........

c....Record every 1000*dt calculation of thermal state.....

190 if(tm.ge.300.0) then

c....Write out results, timef (ka).................

c....Initial time plots...............

309 format('1',' 2-D HEAT FLOW PLOT',//,

write(5,310) space, tint, (l(j),j=1,ncol),(ntgradi(j),j=1,ncol)

350 if(ano1.eq.'n'.or.ano1.eq.'N') go to 402

400 if(ayes1.eq.'n'.or.ayes1.eq.'N') then

subroutine grid (nrow,ncol,nrock,tm,tg,dxy,ddxy,cv,