Cognitive map

A cognitive map (sometimes called, but

should not be confused with, a mental
map or mental model) is a type of mental
representation which serves an individual
to acquire, code, store, recall, and decode
information about the relative locations
and attributes of phenomena in their
everyday or metaphorical spatial
environment. The concept was introduced
by Edward Tolman in 1948.[1] The concept
was used to explain the behavior of rats
that appeared to learn the spatial layout of
a maze, and subsequently the concept
was applied to other animals, including
humans.[2] The term was later generalized
by some researchers, especially in the field
of operations research, to refer to a kind of
semantic network representing an
individual's personal knowledge or
schemas.[3][4][5]

Overview
Cognitive maps have been studied in
various fields, such as psychology,
education, archaeology, planning,
geography, cartography, architecture,
landscape architecture, urban planning,
management and history.[6] Because of the
broad use and study of cognitive maps, it
has become a colloquialism for just about
any mental representation or model.[6] As
a consequence, these mental models are
often referred to, variously, as cognitive
maps, mental maps, scripts, schemata,
and frames of reference.

Cognitive maps serve the construction and

accumulation of spatial knowledge,
allowing the "mind's eye" to visualize
images in order to reduce cognitive load,
enhance recall and learning of information.
This type of spatial thinking can also be
used as a metaphor for non-spatial tasks,
where people performing non-spatial tasks
involving memory and imaging use spatial
knowledge to aid in processing the task.[7]

The neural correlates of a cognitive map

have been speculated to be the place cell
system in the hippocampus[8] and the
recently discovered grid cells in the
entorhinal cortex.[9]

Neurological basis
Cognitive mapping is believed to largely be
a function of the hippocampus. The
hippocampus is connected to the rest of
the brain in such a way that it is ideal for
integrating both spatial and nonspatial
information. Connections from the
postrhinal cortex and the medial entorhinal
cortex provide spatial information to the
hippocampus. Connections from the
perirhinal cortex and lateral entorhinal
cortex provide nonspatial information. The
integration of this information in the
hippocampus makes the hippocampus a
practical location for cognitive mapping,
which necessarily involves combining
information about an object's location and
its other features.[10]
O'Keefe and Nadel were the first to outline
a relationship between the hippocampus
and cognitive mapping.[8] Many additional
studies have shown additional evidence
that supports this conclusion.[11]
Specifically, pyramidal cells (place cells,
boundary cells, and grid cells) have been
implicated as the neuronal basis for
cognitive maps within the hippocampal
system.

Numerous studies by O'Keefe have

implicated the involvement of place cells.
Individual place cells within the
hippocampus correspond to separate
locations in the environment with the sum
of all cells contributing to a single map of
an entire environment. The strength of the
connections between the cells represents
the distances between them in the actual
environment. The same cells can be used
for constructing several environments,
though individual cells' relationships to
each other may differ on a map by map
basis.[8] The possible involvement of place
cells in cognitive mapping has been seen
in a number of mammalian species,
including rats and macaque monkeys.[11]
Additionally, in a study of rats by Manns
and Eichenbaum, pyramidal cells from
within the hippocampus were also
involved in representing object location
and object identity, indicating their
involvement in the creation of cognitive
maps.[10] However, there has been some
dispute as to whether such studies of
mammalian species indicate the presence
of a cognitive map and not another,
simpler method of determining one's
environment.[12]

While not located in the hippocampus, grid

cells from within the medial entorhinal
cortex have also been implicated in the
process of path integration, actually
playing the role of the path integrator while
place cells display the output of the
information gained through path
integration.[13] The results of path
integration are then later used by the
hippocampus to generate the cognitive
map.[14] The cognitive map likely exists on
a circuit involving much more than just the
hippocampus, even if it is primarily based
there. Other than the medial entorhinal
cortex, the presubiculum and parietal
cortex have also been implicated in the
generation of cognitive maps.[11]

Parallel map theory E…

There has been some evidence for the

idea that the cognitive map is represented
in the hippocampus by two separate
maps. The first is the bearing map, which
represents the environment through self-
movement cues and gradient cues. The
use of these vector-based cues creates a
rough, 2D map of the environment. The
second map would be the sketch map that
works off of positional cues. The second
map integrates specific objects, or
landmarks, and their relative locations to
create a 2D map of the environment. The
cognitive map is thus obtained by the
integration of these two separate maps.[14]
This leads to an understanding that it is
not just one map but three that help us
create this mental process. It should be
clear that parallel map theory is still
growing. The sketch map has foundation
in previous neurobiological processes and
explanations while the bearing map has
very little research to support its evidence.
[15]

Generation
The cognitive map is generated from a
number of sources, both from the visual
system and elsewhere. Much of the
cognitive map is created through self-
generated movement cues. Inputs from
senses like vision, proprioception,
olfaction, and hearing are all used to
deduce a person's location within their
environment as they move through it. This
allows for path integration, the creation of
a vector that represents one's position and
direction within one's environment,
specifically in comparison to an earlier
reference point. This resulting vector can
be passed along to the hippocampal place
cells where it is interpreted to provide
more information about the environment
and one's location within the context of the
cognitive map.[14]

Directional cues and positional landmarks

are also used to create the cognitive map.
Within directional cues, both explicit cues,
like markings on a compass, as well as
gradients, like shading or magnetic fields,
are used as inputs to create the cognitive
map. Directional cues can be used both
statically, when a person does not move
within his environment while interpreting it,
and dynamically, when movement through
a gradient is used to provide information
about the nature of the surrounding
environment. Positional landmarks provide
information about the environment by
comparing the relative position of specific
objects, whereas directional cues give
information about the shape of the
environment itself. These landmarks are
processed by the hippocampus together to
provide a graph of the environment
through relative locations.[14]

History
The idea of a cognitive map was first
developed by Edward C. Tolman. Tolman,
one of the early cognitive psychologists,
introduced this idea when doing an
experiment involving rats and mazes. In
Tolman's experiment, a rat was placed in a
cross shaped maze and allowed to explore
it. After this initial exploration, the rat was
placed at one arm of the cross and food
was placed at the next arm to the
immediate right. The rat was conditioned
to this layout and learned to turn right at
the intersection in order to get to the food.
When placed at different arms of the cross
maze however, the rat still went in the
correct direction to obtain the food
because of the initial cognitive map it had
created of the maze. Rather than just
deciding to turn right at the intersection no
matter what, the rat was able to determine
the correct way to the food no matter
where in the maze it was placed.[16]

Unfortunately, further research was

slowed due to the behaviorist point of view
prevalent in the field of psychology at the
time. [17] In later years, O'Keefe and Nadel
attributed Tolman’s research to the
hippocampus, stating that it was the key to
the rats mental representation of its
surroundings. This observation furthered
research in this area and consequently
much of hippocampus activity is explained
through cognitive map making. [18]

As time went on, the cognitive map was

researched in other prospective fields that
found it useful, therefore leading to
broader and differentiating definitions and
applications. A very prominent researcher,
Colin Eden, has specifically mentioned his
application of cognitive mapping simply as
any representation of thinking models. [19]
Criticism
In a review, Andrew T.D. Bennett argued
that there is no clear evidence for
cognitive maps in non-human animals (i.e.
cognitive map according to Tolman's
definition).[12] This argument is based on
analyses of studies where it has been
found that simpler explanations can
account for experimental results. Bennett
highlights three simpler alternatives that
cannot be ruled out in tests of cognitive
maps in non-human animals "These
alternatives are (1) that the apparently
novel short-cut is not truly novel; (2) that
path integration is being used; and (3) that
familiar landmarks are being recognised
from a new angle, followed by movement
towards them."

Mental Map Distinction

A cognitive map is a spatial representation
of the outside world that is kept within the
mind, until an actual manifestation
(usually, a drawing) of this perceived
knowledge is generated, a mental map.
Cognitive mapping is the implicit, mental
mapping the explicit part of the same
process. In most cases, a cognitive map
exists independently of a mental map, an
article covering just cognitive maps would
remain limited to theoretical
considerations.

Mental mapping is typically associated

with landmarks, locations, and geography
when demonstrated. Creating mental
maps depends on the individual and their
perceptions whether they are influenced by
media, real-life, or other sources. Because
of their factual storage mental maps can
be useful when giving directions and
navigating. [20] [21] As stated previously this
distinction is hard to identify when posed
with almost identical definitions,
nevertheless there is a distinction. [22]
In some uses, mental map refers to a
practice done by urban theorists by having
city dwellers draw a map, from memory, of
their city or the place they live. This allows
the theorist to get a sense of which parts
of the city or dwelling are more substantial
or imaginable. This, in turn, lends itself to a
decisive idea of how well urban planning
has been conducted.[23]

See also
Cognitive geography is distinctive
because of its emphasis on geography
as well as perception of space and
environment. [24]
 Fuzzy cognitive map establishes and
important connection between concepts
and actual events. [25]
Motion perception is more directly
related to speed and direction
processing. [26]
Repertory grid is a technique for
identifying meaning. [27]
Mind map is directly related to
expanding on a particular subject with
physical diagrams. [20]

References
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"In the practical setting of work in
with a team of busy managers
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