46 Animal Reproduction

Animal Reproduction
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: Doubling Up for Sexual
Reproduction
• The two earthworms in this picture are mating
• Each worm produces both sperm and eggs,
which will fertilize
– And in a few weeks, new worms will hatch
Figure 46.1
• A population transcends finite life spans
– Only by reproduction

• Concept 46.1: Both asexual and sexual
reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
• Asexual reproduction is the creation of new
individuals
– Whose genes all come from one parent

• Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring
– By the fusion of male and female gametes to
form a zygote
• The female gamete is the egg

• The male gamete is the sperm

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by
fission
– The separation of a parent into two or more
individuals of approximately the same size
Figure 46.2
• Also common in invertebrates is budding
– In which two new individuals arise from
outgrowths of existing ones
• Another type of asexual reproduction is

fragmentation, which
– Is the breaking of the body into several pieces,
some or all of which develop into complete
adults
– Must be accompanied by regeneration, the
regrowth of lost body parts
Reproductive Cycles and Patterns
• Most animals exhibit cycles in reproductive
activity
– Often related to changing seasons
• Reproductive cycles
– Are controlled by hormones and environmental
cues

• Animals may reproduce exclusively asexually
or sexually
– Or they may alternate between the two
• Some animals reproduce by parthenogenesis

– A process in which an egg develops without
being fertilized

• Among vertebrates, several genera of fishes,
amphibians, and lizards, including whiptail lizards
– Reproduce exclusively by a complex form of
parthenogenesis
(a) Both lizards in this photograph are C. uniparens

females. The one on top is playing the role of
a male. Every two or three weeks during the
breeding season, individuals switch sex roles.
Ovary
size
Ovulation Ovulation
Progesterone
Estrogen
Hormones
Time (b) The sexual behavior of C. uniparens is correlated

with the cycle of ovulation mediated by sex hormones.
As blood levels of estrogen rise, the ovaries grow,
Behavior
and the lizard behaves like a female. After ovulation,

the estrogen level drops abruptly, and the
Female- Male- Female- Male-
progesterone level rises; these hormone levels
like like
Figure 46.3a, b like like
correlate with male behavior.

• Sexual reproduction presents a special
problem for certain organisms
– That seldom encounter a mate
• One solution to this problem is

hermaphroditism
– In which each individual has both male and
female reproductive systems

• Another remarkable reproductive pattern is
sequential hermaphroditism
– In which an individual reverses its sex during
its lifetime
Figure 46.4
• Concept 46.2: Fertilization depends on
mechanisms that help sperm meet eggs of the
same species
• The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of
egg and sperm
– Play an important part in sexual reproduction

• Some species have external fertilization, in
which
– Eggs shed by the female are fertilized by
sperm in the external environment
Eggs
Figure 46.5
• Other species have internal fertilization, in
which
– Sperm are deposited in or near the female
reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs
within the tract

• In either situation, fertilization requires critical
timing
– Often mediated by environmental cues,
pheromones, and/or courtship behavior
• Internal fertilization
– Requires important behavioral interactions
between male and female animals
– Requires compatible copulatory organs

Ensuring the Survival of Offspring
• All species produce more offspring than the
environment can handle
– But the proportion that survives is quite small

• The embryos of many terrestrial animals
– Develop in eggs that can withstand harsh
environments
• Instead of secreting a shell around the embryo

– Many animals retain the embryo, which
develops inside the female

• Many different types of animals
– Exhibit parental care to ensure survival of
offspring
Figure 46.6

Gamete Production and Delivery
• To reproduce sexually
– Animals must have systems that produce
gametes

• The least complex systems
– Do not even contain distinct gonads, the
organs that produce gametes in most animals

• The most complex reproductive systems
– Contain many sets of accessory tubes and
glands that carry, nourish, and protect the
gametes and the developing embryos

• Many animals with relatively simple body plans
– Possess highly complex reproductive systems
Genital
pore (Digestive tract)
Female organs:
Male organs:
3 Uterus
4 Seminal
vesicle
Yolk gland
Yolk duct
3 Sperm duct 2 Oviduct
(vas deferens)
1 Ovary
2 Vas efferens
Seminal
1 Testis receptacle
Figure 46.7
(Excretory pore)

• Most insects
– Have separate sexes with complex
reproductive systems
1 Ovary
Accessory
gland
4 Ejaculatory
duct
1 Testis
Oviduct
Spermatheca
2 Vas deferens 5 Penis
3 Vagina
3 Seminal Accessory
vesicle gland
(a) Male honeybee. Sperm form in the testes, (b) Female honeybee. Eggs develop in
pass through the sperm duct (vas deferens), the ovaries and then pass through the
and are stored in the seminal vesicle. oviducts and into the vagina. A pair of
The male ejaculates sperm along with fluid accessory glands (only one is shown)
from the accessory glands. (Males of some add protective secretions to the eggs
species of insects and other arthropods have in the vagina. After mating, sperm are
appendages called claspers that grasp the stored in the spermatheca, a sac
Figure 46.8a, b female during copulation.) connected to the vagina by a short duct.
• Concept 46.3: Reproductive organs produce
and transport gametes: focus on humans

Female Reproductive Anatomy
• The female external reproductive structures
include
– The clitoris
– Two sets of labia

• The internal organs are a pair of gonads
– And a system of ducts and chambers that
carry gametes and house the embryo and
fetus

• Reproductive anatomy of the human female
Uterus
(Urinary bladder)
Oviduct (Pubic bone)
Ovary
(Rectum)
Cervix
Vagina Urethra
Shaft
Glans Clitoris
Bartholin’s gland
Prepuce
Labia minora
Vaginal opening
Figure 46.9 Labia majora
Oviduct
Ovaries
Follicles
Uterine wall
Uterus
Endometrium
Corpus luteum
Cervix
Vagina

Ovaries
• The female gonads, the ovaries
– Lie in the abdominal cavity

• Each ovary
– Is enclosed in a tough protective capsule and
contains many follicles
• A follicle
– Consists of one egg cell surrounded by one or
more layers of follicle cells

• The process of ovulation
– Expels an egg cell from the follicle
• The remaining follicular tissue then grows

within the ovary
– To form a solid mass called the corpus luteum,
which secretes hormones, depending on
whether or not pregnancy occurs

Oviducts and Uterus
• The egg cell is released into the abdominal
cavity
– Near the opening of the oviduct, or fallopian
tube
• Cilia in the tube

– Convey the egg to the uterus

Vagina and Vulva
• The vagina is a thin-walled chamber
– That is the repository for sperm during
copulation
– That serves as the birth canal through which a
baby is born

• The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva
– Which includes the hymen, vestibule, labia
minora, labia majora, and clitoris

Mammary Glands
• The mammary glands are not part of the
reproductive system
– But are important to mammalian reproduction
• Within the glands

– Small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk

Male Reproductive Anatomy
• In most mammalian species
– The male’s external reproductive organs are
the scrotum and penis
• The internal organs

– Consist of the gonads, which produce sperm
and hormones, and accessory glands

• Reproductive anatomy of the human male
Seminal (Urinary
vesicle bladder)
(behind
bladder)
Prostate gland
Urethra Bulbourethral
gland
Erectile tissue
Scrotum of penis
Vas deferens
Epididymis
Glans penis Testis
Figure 46.10
(Urinary
Seminal vesicle
bladder)
(Rectum) (Pubic bone)
Erectile
Vas deferens
tissue of
Ejaculatory duct penis
Prostate gland
Urethra
Bulbourethral gland Glans penis
Vas deferens Epididymis
Testis
Prepuce
Scrotum

Testes
• The male gonads, or testes
– Consist of many highly coiled tubes
surrounded by several layers of connective
tissue
• The tubes are seminiferous tubules

– Where sperm form

• Production of normal sperm
– Cannot occur at the body temperatures of
most mammals
• The testes of humans and many mammals

– Are held outside the abdominal cavity in the
scrotum, where the temperature is lower than
in the abdominal cavity

Ducts
• From the seminiferous tubules of a testis
– The sperm pass into the coiled tubules of the
epididymis
• During ejaculation
– Sperm are propelled through the muscular vas
deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and exit the
penis through the urethra

Glands
• Three sets of accessory glands
– Add secretions to the semen, the fluid that is
ejaculated
• A pair of seminal vesicles

– Contributes about 60% of the total volume of
semen

• The prostate gland
– Secretes its products directly into the urethra
through several small ducts
• The bulbourethral gland

– Secretes a clear mucus before ejaculation that
neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the
urethra

Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract
• Once in the female reproductive tract
– A number of processes, including contractions
of the uterus, help move the sperm up the
uterus

Penis
• The human penis
– Is composed of three cylinders of spongy
erectile tissue
• During sexual arousal

– The erectile tissue fills with blood from the
arteries, causing an erection

Human Sexual Response
• Two types of physiological reactions
predominate in both sexes
– Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood
– Myotonia, increased muscle tension

• The sexual response cycle can be divided into
four phases
– Excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

• Concept 46.4: In humans and other mammals,
a complex interplay of hormones regulates
gametogenesis
• The process of gametogenesis
– Is based on meiosis, but differs in females and
males

• Oogenesis is the development of mature ova
Ovary
Primary germ cell in embryo
Differentiation
Oogonium
2n Oogonium in ovary
Mitotic
division
Primary
oocyte
within
Primary oocyte, follicle
2n arrested in prophase
of meiosis I
(present at birth)
Growing
Completion of meiosis I follicle
and onset of meiosis II
First n Secondary oocyte,

polar n arrested at meta-
body phase of meiosis II
Ovulation
Entry of Mature follicle

n sperm triggers
n
completion of Ruptured
meiosis II follicle
Ovum
Ovulated
secondary oocyte
Corpus luteum
Degenerating
Figure 46.11 corpus luteum

• Spermatogenesis is the production of mature
Epididymis
sperm Seminiferous tubule
Testis
Cross section
of seminiferous
tubule
2n Spermatogonium
Mitotic division, Sertoli cell

producing large numbers nucleus
of spermatogonia
Differentiation and
onset of meiosis I
Primary spermatocyte
2n
(in prophase of meiosis I)
Meiosis I completed
n n Secondary spermatocyte
Meiosis II
Lumen of
Seminiferous tubule
n n n n Early Spermatids
spermatids (at two stages of
differentiation)
Differentiation
(Sertoli cells provide
nutrients)
n n Sperm cells Neck

n n
Head Midpiece Tail
Plasma membrane
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Acrosome
Figure 46.12
• Oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis
– In three major ways

• First, during the meiotic divisions of oogenesis
– Cytokinesis is unequal, with almost all the
cytoplasm monopolized by a single daughter
cell, the secondary oocyte

• Second, sperm are produced continuously
throughout a male’s life
– Which is not the case in oogenesis
• Third, oogenesis has long “resting” periods

– While spermatogenesis produces sperm in
uninterrupted sequence

The Reproductive Cycles of Females
• In females
– The secretion of hormones and the
reproductive events they regulate are cyclic

Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles
• Two different types of cycles occur in females

• Humans and other primates have menstrual
cycles
– While other mammals have estrous cycles
• In both cases ovulation occurs at a time in the

cycle
– After the endometrium has started to thicken in
preparation for implantation

• In menstrual cycles
– The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a
bleeding called menstruation
– Sexual receptivity is not limited to a specific
timeframe
• In estrous cycles
– The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
– Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period

The Human Female Reproductive Cycle: A Closer Look
• The female reproductive cycle
– Is one integrated cycle involving two organs,
the uterus and ovaries

• Cyclic secretion of GnRH from the
hypothalamus
– And of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary
orchestrates the female reproductive cycle
• Five kinds of hormones

– Participate in an elaborate scheme involving
both positive and negative feedback

• The reproductive cycle of the human female (a)
Control by hypothalamus Inhibited by combination of
estrogen and progesterone
Hypothalamus
Stimulated by high levels
1 GnRH of estrogen
Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of
estrogen
2 FSH LH
(b)
Pituitary gonadotropins
in blood 6
LH
FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8
Growing follicle Mature Corpus Degenerating

follicle luteum corpus luteum
Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase

Estrogen secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estrogen secreted
increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d)
Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood 5 LH surge
10
Estrogen Progesterone
Estrogen level Progesterone and estro-

9
very low gen promote thickening
of endometrium
(e) Uterine (menstrual) cycle
Endometrium
Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

Days
Figure 46.13a–e 0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28

The Ovarian Cycle
• In the ovarian cycle
– Hormones stimulate follicle growth, which
results in ovulation
• Following ovulation
– The follicular tissue left behind transforms into
the corpus luteum

The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• Cycle after cycle
– The maturation and release of egg cells from
the ovary are integrated with changes in the
uterus
• If an embryo has not implanted in the

endometrium by the end of the secretory phase
– A new menstrual flow commences

Menopause
• After about 450 cycles, human females
undergo menopause
– The cessation of ovulation and menstruation

Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
• Testosterone and other androgens
– Are directly responsible for the primary and
secondary sex characteristics of the male

• Androgen secretion and sperm production
– Are both controlled by hypothalamic and
pituitary hormones
Stimuli from other
areas in the brain
Hypothalamus
GnRH from the

hypothalamus reg-
Anterior
ulates FSH and LH
pituitary
release from the
anterior pituitary.
Negative
feedback
FSH acts on the
LH stimulates the
Sertoli cells of the
Leydig cells to make
seminiferous
testosterone, which
tubules, promoting
in turn stimulates
spermatogenesis. Leydig cells
sperm production.
make
testosterone
Sertoli cells Primary and
secondary sex
characteristics
Figure 46.14
Spermatogenesis Testis

• Concept 46.5: In humans and other placental
mammals, an embryo grows into a newborn in
the mother’s uterus

Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth
• In humans and most other placental mammals
– Pregnancy, or gestation, is the condition of
carrying one or more embryos in the uterus

• Fertilization of an egg by a sperm, conception
– Occurs in the oviduct
3 Cleavage (cell division) 4 Cleavage continues.
begins in the oviduct By the time the embryo
as the embryo is moved reaches the uterus,
toward the uterus it is a ball of cells.
by peristalsis and the It floats in the uterus for
movements of cilia. Ovary
several days, nourished by
endometrial secretions. It
2 Fertilization occurs. A sperm becomes a blastocyst.
enters the oocyte; meiosis of
the oocyte finishes; and the 5 The blastocyst implants
nuclei of the ovum and sperm in the endometrium
fuse, producing a zygote. about 7 days after conception.
Uterus
1 Ovulation releases a
secondary oocyte, which Endometrium
enters the oviduct.
(a) From ovulation to implantation
Endometrium Inner cell mass
Cavity
Blastocyst Trophoblast
Figure 46.15a, b (b) Implantation of blastocyst

• After fertilization
– The zygote undergoes cleavage and develops
into a blastocyst before implantation in the
endometrium

First Trimester
• Human gestation
– Can be divided into three trimesters of about
three months each
• The first trimester

– Is the time of most radical change for both the
mother and the embryo

• During its first 2 to 4 weeks of development
– The embryo obtains nutrients directly from the
endometrium
• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst

– Mingles with the endometrium and eventually
forms the placenta

• Blood from the embryo
– Travels to the placenta through arteries of the
umbilical cord and returns via the umbilical vein
Maternal Maternal
arteries veins
Placenta
Maternal portion
of placenta
Umbilical cord
Chorionic villus
containing fetal
capillaries Fetal portion of
placenta (chorion)
Maternal blood
pools
Uterus Umbilical arteries

Fetal arteriole
Fetal venule Umbilical vein
Figure 46.16 Umbilical cord

• The first trimester is the main period of
organogenesis
– The development of the body organs
(a) 5 weeks. Limb buds, eyes, the (b) 14 weeks. Growth and (c) 20 weeks. By the end of the
heart, the liver, and rudiments development of the offspring, second trimester (at 24 weeks),
of all other organs have started now called a fetus, continue the fetus grows to about 30 cm
to develop in the embryo, which during the second trimester. in length.
is only about 1 cm long. This fetus is about 6 cm long.
Figure 46.17a–c
Second Trimester
• During the second trimester
– The fetus grows and is very active
– The mother may feel fetal movements
– The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to
become obvious

Third Trimester
• During the third trimester
– The fetus continues to grow and fills the
available space within the embryonic
membranes

• A complex interplay of local regulators and
hormones
– Induces and regulates labor, the process by
which childbirth occurs
Estrogen Oxytocin
Positive feedback
from from fetus
ovaries and mother's
posterior pituitary
Induces oxytocin
receptors on uterus
Stimulates uterus
to contract
Stimulates
placenta to make
Prostaglandins
Stimulate more
Figure 46.18 contractions
of uterus
• Birth, or parturition
– Is brought about by a series of strong, rhythmic
uterine contractions

• The process of labor has three stages
Placenta
Umbilical
cord
Uterus
Cervix
1 Dilation of the cervix
2 Expulsion: delivery of the infant
Uterus
Placenta
(detaching)
Umbilical
cord
Figure 46.19 3 Delivery of the placenta

The Mother’s Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Fetus
• A woman’s acceptance of her “foreign”

offspring
– Is not fully understood
– May be due to the suppression of the immune
response in her uterus

Contraception and Abortion
• Contraception, the deliberate prevention of
pregnancy
– Can be achieved in a number of ways

• Some contraceptive methods
– Prevent the release of mature eggs and sperm
from gonads
– Prevent fertilization by keeping sperm and egg
apart
– Prevent implantation of an embryo

• Mechanisms of some contraceptive methods Male Female
Method Event Event Method
Production of Production of
viable sperm viable oocytes
Vasectomy
Combination
birth control
pill (or injection,
patch, or
Sperm transport Ovulation vaginal ring)
down male
duct system
Abstinence Abstinence
Condom
Coitus
interruptus
(very high Sperm Capture of the
failure rate) deposited oocyte by the
in vagina oviduct
Tubal ligation
Spermicides;
diaphragm;
Sperm Transport cervical cap;
movement of oocyte in progestin alone
through oviduct (minipill, implant,
female or injection)
reproductive
tract
Meeting of sperm and oocyte

in oviduct
Morning-after
Union of sperm and egg pill (MAP)
Progestin alone
Implantation of blastocyst
in properly prepared
endometrium
Figure 46.20 Birth

Modern Reproductive Technology
• Recent scientific and technological advances
– Have made it possible to deal with many
reproductive problems

• Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling
– Are invasive techniques in which amniotic fluid
or fetal cells are obtained for genetic analysis

• Noninvasive procedures
– Usually use ultrasound imaging to detect fetal
condition
Head
Head Body
Body
Figure 46.21
• Modern technology
– Can help infertile couples by in vitro fertilization

46 Animal Reproduction

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Animal Reproduction

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The female gamete is the egg

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Another type of asexual reproduction is

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Some animals reproduce by parthenogenesis

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) Both lizards in this photograph are C. uniparens

Time (b) The sexual behavior of C. uniparens is correlated

and the lizard behaves like a female. After ovulation,

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• One solution to this problem is

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Instead of secreting a shell around the embryo

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The remaining follicular tissue then grows

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Cilia in the tube

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Within the glands

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• The internal organs

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The tubes are seminiferous tubules

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The testes of humans and many mammals

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• A pair of seminal vesicles

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• The bulbourethral gland

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• During sexual arousal

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Primary germ cell in embryo

First n Secondary oocyte,

Entry of Mature follicle