Functions of the Nervous System

 Sensory input: Monitor internal and

external stimuli (change)
 Touch, odor, sound, vision, taste, bp, body
temp.
 Integration. Brain and spinal cord process
sensory input and initiate responses
 Motor output: Controls of muscles and
glands
 Homeostasis. Regulate and coordinate
physiology
 Mental activity. Consciousness, thinking,
memory, emotion
Divisions of the Nervous System
The Neuron

 Special characteristics of neurons

 Longevity – can live and function for a lifetime
 Do not divide (amitotic) – fetal neurons lose their
ability to undergo mitosis; neural stem cells are an
exception
 High metabolic rate – require abundant oxygen and
glucose
 Receive, Carry, and Pass information on to the next
neuron
Neuron
 Cell Body. Aka Soma or Perikaryon
 Contains usual organelles plus other
structures
 Nissl bodies = chromatophilic
substance = rough E.R: primary
site of protein synthesis
 Cytoskeleton of neurofilaments
and neurotubules
 No centrioles (hence its amitotic
nature)
 Major biosynthetic center
 Most neuronal cell bodies
 Located within CNS
 Ganglia - clusters of cell bodies
that lie along nerves in PNS
 Tapers to form axon hillock
 Neuron processes
 Dendrites: short, often highly branched.
 Receptive regions of the neuron
 Axons. Long cytoplasmic process
capable of propagating a nerve impulse
 Neuron has only one

 Transmits impulse away from soma

 Axon hillock: Initial segment

 Few, if any, branches along length

 Multiple branches at end of axon

 Terminal branches (telodendria)

 End in knobs called axon
terminals (aka synaptic
terminals, end bulbs, boutons,
synaptic knobs)
 Contain vesicles filled
with neuro- transmitter
(NT)
Axoplasmic Transport
 Anterograde:
 Axoplasm moved from cell body toward terminals.
 Supply materials for growth, repair, renewal.

 Can move cytoskeletal proteins, organelles away

from cell body toward axon terminals.

 Retrograde
 Away from axonal terminal toward the cell body

 Damaged organelles, recycled plasma membrane,

and substances taken in by endocytosis can be
transported up axon to cell body.
 Rabies and herpes virus can enter axons in

damaged skin and be transported to CNS. Would

include toxins such as heavy metals (the chemical,
not the noise)
Neurons Classified by Structure
Neurons Classified by Function
Supporting Cells (Neuroglial Cells)
 Neuroglia – usually only refers to
supporting cells in the CNS
 Glial cells have branching processes
and a central cell body
 Outnumber neurons 10 to 1

 Make up half the mass of the brain

 Can divide throughout life

 May divide abnormally - glioma - brain
cancer
 Do not transmit nerve impulses
Ependymal Cells
 Line brain ventricles
and spinal cord
central canal
 Specialized versions of
ependymal form
choroid plexuses
 Choroid plexus
 Secrete cerebrospinal
fluid. Cilia help move
fluid thru the cavities
of the brain
Astrocytes
 Largest and most numerous
 Functions include:
1. Form the blood-brain barrier
 Take up and release ions (Na,
K) to control the environment
around neurons
 Regulate what substances
reach the CNS from the blood
2. Recapture and recycle
neurotrans-mitters
3. Involved with synapse formation
in developing neural tissue
4. Aid in repair of damaged neural
tissue
5. Produce molecules necessary
for neural growth (BDTF)
Microglia

 Specialized macrophages
 Respond to inflammation
 Phagocytize necrotic
tissue, microorganisms
and foreign substances
that invade the CNS
Oligodendrocytes

 Form myelin sheaths if surrounding axon

 Single oligodendrocytes can form myelin sheaths
around portions of several axons
Schwann cells
 Schwann cells or
neurolemmocytes:
 Wrap around portion of only
one axon to form myelin
sheath.
 Wrap around many times.
 As cells grow around axon,
cytoplasm is squeezed out
and multiple layers of cell
membrane wrap the axon.
Cell membrane primarily
phospholipid.
 Outer surface of Schwann
cell called the neurilemma
Satellite cells

 surround neuron cell bodies

in ganglia
 provide support and nutrients
Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
 Formed by Schwann cells
 Develop during fetal period
and in the first year of
postnatal life
 Schwann cells wrap in
concentric layers around
the axon
 Neurilemma – material
external to myelin layers
 Nodes of Ranvier – gaps
along axon
Nerve Fiber Types
 Type A fibers
 large-diameter nerve
 Heavily myelinated; conduct impulses at 15-120
m/sec
 Motor neurons supplying skeletal muscles

 Type B
 medium-diameter nerves

 lightly myelinated; conduct at 3-15 m/sec

 Sensory nerves from sensory receptors

 Type C:
 Very small diameter

 Unmyelinated; conduct at 2 m/sec or less

 Part of ANS

 Innervate visceral smooth muscle and glands

The Synapse
 Site at which neurons communicate
 A junction that mediates information transfer from one
neuron:
 to another neuron

 to an effector cell

 Two major types of synapses

 Electrical - not common in nervous system
 Chemical - most common type
Electrical synapse
 Direct connection of two cells
 Correspond to gap junctions found in other
cell types (heart, smooth muscle)
 Location:
 Nc. olivaris inferior
 Lateral vestibular nucleus
 Respiratory centers
 Hippocampus
 Are important in the CNS in:
 Arousal from sleep
 Mental attention
 Emotions and memory
 Ion and water homeostasis
Chemical Synapse

• Presynaptic bulb has secretory

vesicles that contain neurotrans-
mitter chemical (NT)
• NT must pass across the
synaptic cleft, space that
separates pre- and
postsynaptic membranes
• Postsynaptic membrane
contains receptors specific
for each type of NT
Electric vs. Chemical synapses
Electric Chemical
 Direct communication  Synaptic cleft
 Two-way  One-way
 No need for NT  Need NT
 Fast  Slow (delay) 0.3-.05ms
 No fatigue  Fatigue
Types of Chemical Synapses
 Axodendritic
 Most common type of synapse (90%)
 Excitatory
 Axosomatic
 Inhibitory
 Axoaxonic
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials
 Graded potentials
that can initiate an
action potential in
an axon
 Use only

chemically gated
channels
+
 Na influx

 Decreases
negativity
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials
 Reduces the
postsynaptic
neuron’s ability to
produce an action
potential
 Cl influx

 K+ outflux

 Increases

negativity
Summation
 A single EPSP cannot induce an action
potential
 EPSPs must summate temporally or spatially
to induce an action potential
 Temporal summation – presynaptic neurons
transmit impulses in rapid-fire order
 Spatial summation – postsynaptic neuron is
stimulated by a large number of terminals at
the same time
 IPSPs can also summate with EPSPs,
canceling each other out
Summation
Termination of Neurotransmitter Effects
 Removal of neurotransmitters occurs
when they:
 Are degraded by enzymes
 Are reabsorbed by astrocytes or the
presynaptic terminals
 Diffuse from the synaptic cleft
Comparison

Neurotransmitters Neuromodulator
 Syntetized in neurons  Synthetized in neurons
 Stored in vesicles  Modulate the effects of
 Bind to receptors neurotransmitters
 Evoke excitation or  Can not evoke
inhibition (not AP!) excitation or inhibition
Classifications
 Functional classification
 Excitatory
 Inhibitory

 Chemical classification
 Small molecule/fast acting
 Large molecule/slow acting

(neuropeptides)
Small molecule/fast acting
1. Acetyl-choline
2. Amines
- dopamine
- norepinephrine
- epinephrine
- histamine
- serotonine
3. Amino-acids
- glutamate
- aspartate
- glicine
- GABA
4. Novel neurotransmitters
Large molecule/slow acting
1. Hypothalamic hormones - inhibitory (somatostatine...)
- releasing
2. Hypophyseal hormones - ACTH
- beta endorphines
- prolaktin
- human growth hormone
- oksytocine
- vazopressin
3. Gut-brain peptides
- enkephalines
- supstance P
- gastrin
- cholecystokinin
- VIP
- insulin
- glukagon
4. Peptides from other tissues
- angiotenzine
- bradikinin
- sleep peptid
- calcitonin
Acetyl-choline (AcCh)
 Source
 CNS - pyramidal cells of the motor cortex
- basal ganglia (nc. subthalamicus)
- cerebellum
 PNS - alpha motoneuron

 ANS - preganglionic Sy fibers

- preganglionic PaSy fibers
- postganglionic PaSy fibers
Acetyl-choline (AcCh)

 Syntetized by acetyl-choline
tranferase
 Degraded by acetyl-choline
esterase
 Mainly EXCITATOR
 Binds to cholinergic receptors
 Nicotinic (on scelatal muscles)
 Muscarinic (on smooth muscles,

heart)
 Biogenic Amines
Catecholamines Indolamines
 Dopamine  Serotonin
 Norepinephrine  Histamine
(NE)
 Epinephrine
Catecholamines
 Enzymes present in
the cell determine
length of biosynthetic
pathway
 Norepinephrine and
dopamine are
synthesized in axonal
terminals
 Epinephrine is
released by the
adrenal medulla
Norepinephrine
 Source
 CNS – locus coeruleus (INHIBITOR)
 VNS – postganglionic Sy fibers

 Adrenal medulla

 Binds to adrenergic receptors

 alpha1, alpha2, beta1, beta2
Epinephrine

 Play roles in
emotional behaviors
 Biological clock
Dopamine
 Source
 CNS - substantia nigra (lack leads to
Parkinsonism)
- limbic system (excess leads to
Schisophrenia)

 Binds to dopaminergic receptors

 D1, D2, D3
Serotonin
 Triptofan→ serotonin
 Source
 CNS - nc. Raphe
 Ascending INHIBITORY effect, sleeping
 Descending ANALGETIC effect (inhibits
release of supstance P)
- limbic system
 Happyness (lack leads to depression)

 Binds to serotoninergic receptors

 5HT1, 5HT2, 5HT3
Aminoacids

 GABA – Gamma ()-aminobutyric acid

 Most frequent INHIBITOR in the CNS
 Glycine
 INHIBITOR
 Aspartate
 EXCITATOR
 Glutamate
 EXCITATOR
 Neurotransmitter for accute pain
Novel Messengers
 Nitric oxide (NO)
 Activates the intracellular receptor
guanylyl cyclase
 Is involved in learning and memory

 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a main

regulator of cGMP in the brain
 Neuropeptides
 Substance P
 mediator of pain signals
 Beta endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins
 Act as natural opiates; reduce pain perception
 Bind to the same receptors as opiates and
morphine
 Gut-brain peptides
 somatostatin, cholecystokinin
Functional Classification

 Excitatory neurotransmitters
 cause depolarizations (AcCh, glutamate)
 Inhibitory neurotransmitters
 cause hyperpolarizations (GABA, glycine)
Receptor Mechanisms
 Direct: neurotransmitters that open ion
channels
 Promote rapid responses
 Examples: ACh and amino acids

 Indirect: neurotransmitters that act

through second messengers
 Promote long-lasting effects
 Examples: biogenic amines, peptides,
and dissolved gases
Second messengers
 G protein-linked receptors activate
intracellular second messengers
including Ca2+, cGMP, diacylglycerol,
as well as cAMP
 Second messengers:
 Open or close ion channels
 Activate kinase enzymes

 Phosphorylate channel proteins

 Activate genes and induce protein

synthesis