Petri Nets: Properties, Analysis and Applications TADAO MURATA, FetLow, IEEE Invited Paper This isan ted tutoalreview paper on Pet neta graphical 4c material medeing too. Pe nes sre 4 promising fal {or deseng and staying tormationprocsting yes fat ir eharactrzad a being Concurentspachronous ested, onl nondeterminitis snr sachaste The paper starts wth 2b reve ofthe istry andthe apple cation ateas considered in the terre I then proceeds ith Inuoductory modeting examples Behavior and srt! pro ‘res thee method fans, sbelases of Pe ets and ther Shays: In parol, one section ls devoted to marked raphe the concurent system model mot snerable oan In 00 tion, te paper presents nodeto discussions om bhai ety wth he sppheation to perfomance modeling, anda hghevel het wth ther appeaton to loge programing Ace ila {re ecent sutton reachability enters Suggestions se provided Toc forhr reading on any subject rae of et nets Petrnetsareagraphicaland mathematical modeling tool applicable to many systems. They area promising tool for describing and studying information processing systems that are characterized as being concurrent, asynchronous, istlbuted, parallel, nondeterministi, andlor stochastic ‘Asa graphical too, Petri nets can be used 25a visualcom: ‘munication aid similar to flow chats, block diagrams, and networks, addition, tokens are used in these nets t sim: ulate the dynamic and concurrent activites of systems. Ae 4 mathematical tool, tis possible to set upstate equations, algebcaic equations, and other mathematical models gow: terning the behavior of systems, Petri nets can be used by both practitioners and theoreticians, Thus, they provide 2 powerful medium of communication between them: prac- ttioners can learn from theoreticians how to make thelr ‘models more methodical, and theoreticians can lean om Practitioners how to make their models more cealistic Historically speaking the concept ofthe Petri net hazits covigin in Car Adam Pete's desertaton{1), submited in 1962 Manuscipt received May 2, 1988 evsed November 4,188, "hiworkwassupportedbytheNatonl Science Foundation onder Craet OMCs, ‘he auth withthe Department of Fecal Engineering snd Computer sciene, Unveray ona, Cheag, eau, Us, tothe facuty of Mathematics and Physics at the Technical University of Darmstadt, West Germany. The dissertation was prepared while C. A, Petr worked as a scientist atthe Universtyofonn, Pet's work{ 1} 2}came tothe attention Of. W. Holt, who later led the Information System Theory Projectof Applied Data Research, Inc, in the United States, The early developments and applications of Pet nets (oF thei predecessor are found inthe reports (3-1 associated With this project, and inthe Record 3} ofthe 1970 Project. MAC Conference on Concurrent Systems and Parallel Computation. From 1970 to 1975, the Computation Struc: ture Group at MIT was most active in conducting Petri-net related research, and produced many reports and theres ‘on Pete nets. In july 1975, there was a conference on Pett [Nets and Related Methods at MIT, but no conference pro- ceedings were published. Most of the Pett-net related papers written in English before 1980 relisted inthe anno: tated bibliography ofthe frst book 10] on Petri nets, More recent papers up until 1984 and those warks dane in Ger ‘many and other European countries are annotated in the appendix of another book [11]. Theee tutorial articles (12) [14] provide a complemental,easy:toread introduction to Pete nets, Sincethelate-1970s, the Europeanshave been very active in organizing workshops and publishing conference pro- ‘ceedingson Petrinets. In October 1979, about Ta5research- ‘ers mostly from European counties assembled In Ham- burg. West Germany fora twosweet advanced course on General Net Theory of Processes and Systems, The 17 lec tures given inthis course were published ints proceedings 115], whieh is currently out of print. The second advanced ‘course was held in Bad Honnet, West Germany, in Sep- tember 1985, The proceedings (16), [17] f this course con- tain 34 atcies, including two recent articles by C.A, Pete, ‘one{i8}isconcerned with hisaxiomsot concurrency theory andthe other{19} with his suggestions for urther research The frst European Workshop on Applications and Theory ‘of Petri Nets was held in 1960 at Strasbourg, France. Since then, ths series of workshops has been held every year at diferent locations in Europe: 1981, Bad Honnet, West Ger ‘many; 1982, Varenna, aly: 1983, Toulouse, France; 1984, ‘Aarhus, Denmark; 1965,Espoo, Finland; 1886, Oxford, GreatBritain; 1987, Zaragoza, Spain; 1988, Venice aly; and 198, Bad Honnet, West Germany (planned). The distribution of theproceedings of hese workshops slimitedto mostly the workshop participants, However, selected papers from these workshops and other articles have been published by Springer-Verlag as Advances in Pet! Nets (20)-25). The 1967 volume (24) contains the most comprehensive bibl ‘ography of Petri nets[26 isting 2074 entries published from ‘1962to early 1987. The "ecent publications section! Peta [Net Newsletter 27 lst short abstracte of recent publica: tions threetimesa year, and isa good source information about the most recent Petri net literature. In July 1985, another series of international workshops ‘was inllated. This series places emphasison timed and sto- ‘chasic nets and thelr applications to performance eval: tion. The first internation! workshop on timed Petri nets ‘was held in Torino aly, in uly 1985; the second was held In Madison, Wisconsin, in August 1987; the third i to be held in Kyoto, Japan, ia December 1989; and the fourth is planned in Australia in 1991. The proceedings of te frst fo workshops [2], [291 are availble from the IEEE Com. puter Society Press. ‘The above is a brit history of Pete nets. Now, we look st some application areas considered inthe literature. Pete ‘ets have been proposed fora very wide variety of appli Cations. This is due tothe generality and permissiveness inherent in Pete nets, They can be applied informallytoany area oF system that can be describes graphically lke low ‘hats and that needs some means of representing parallel for concurrent activities, However, careful atention must bepaidtoatradeot between modeling generaliy and anal: ysiscapabily That s, the move general the model, theless amenable ts to analysis. In fact,a major weakness of Petr hetsisthecomplexty problem, ie, Petr-net-based models tendto become too large for analysis even foramodest size system, In applying Petri nets is often necessary 0 add Special modifications or resections suited tthe particular pplication. Two successful application areas are perfor. ‘mance evaluation [28-50] and communication protocols [51]{6), Promising areas of applications include modeling and analysis of distibuted-soltware systems (68) (71), dis Trbuted-database systems [72)-(75}, concurrent and par. allel programs (76) 192, flexible manufacturingiindustial Control systems (93}-(10),discrete-event systems [101 [103], multiprocessor memorysystems [30 (104), [105), data. flow computing systems (10)-108),falttolerant systems (1031-114), programmable logicand Visi arrays (1151-1120, synchronous cireuits and structures (121-29), compiler fnd operating systems (130, [131], officeinformation aye tems{T32)-(135,formallanguages{136-(14] andlogiepro- grams (14/150), Other interesting applications consié- fred in the literature ae localarea networks (151) [153 legal systems (154, human factors [155 (156) neural net. works (157 (158), digital filters (159}-(761, and decision models (162) ‘The use of computeraided tols isa necessity fr prac: tical applications of Petri nets- Most Petzenet research ‘roupshave their own software packages and oolstoassist. the deawing, analysis, andior simulation of various appl ‘ations. recent article [163] provides a good overview of typical Petrinet tools existing aso! 1986 Some of these fools and their applications are discuseed in detals in eferences i164) through (170, The rest ofthis paper consists of the following topes Section I eiscusses informally the transition enabling and firing rule with and without Capacity constrains. Several introductory modeling examples ae given in Section Il to ilystrate modeling capabilities and concepts such as con- fit (choiceor decision) concurrency synchronization et Seetion IV describes behavioral oF marking-dependent Properties that can be studied using Petri nets. Section V Presents theee methods of analysis: the coverabiity tee, Iatrin equations, and reduction techniques. Section VI it Concerned with subclasses of Petr nets and ther analysis Indepth analysis and synthesis methods ae given in Sec- tion VII or one ofthe subclasees known as marked graphs. Structural or markingindependent properties are dis- cussed in Section VII Section IX presents an introduction totimed nets, stochastic nets, and high-level nets, together with thei applications. Concluding remarks are given in Section X. 11, TRANSITION ENABLING AKO FRG Inthis section we ive the only ule one hastolearn about Petrinet theory the rule for transition enabling and firing ‘Although this rule appears very simple, its implication in Petiinet theory i very deep and complex "APetr net isa particular Kind of directed graph, together witha inal state called the inital marking, My The under lying graph Nof a Pete netisa directed, weighted, bipartite raph consisting of wo kinds of nodes, called places and transons, where aresare either froma placeto transition ‘or from a ransition place In graphical representation, places are drawnascltcles, transitions asbarsar boxes. Arcs {are labeled with their welghts (positive integers), where a keveighted arc can be interpreted asthe set ofk parallel arcs Labels forunity weight are usually omitted. A marking {state}assigns to each placeanonnegativeinteger. famark Ing assigns to place p a nonnegative integer k, we say that pis marked with k tokens. Pictoraly, we place kblack dots {tokens} in placep. Amarkingis denoted by, an m-vector, ‘where m s the total number of places. The pth component ‘of M, denoted by Mip), isthe numberof tokens in pace Inmodeling, using the concept of conditionsand events, places represent conditions, and transitions represent tvents.A transition an event hasacertain numberof input and outputplaces representingthepreconcitionsand post- Conditions of the event, respectively, The presence of a token ina place is interpreted as holding the teuth of the condion associated with the place. In another interpre tation, k tokens are put in a place to indicate that k data items oF resources are available. Some typical interpreta tions of transitions and theirinputplaces and output places. ate shown in Table 1. A formal definition of a Pete nets ven in Table 2 Table 1 Some Typical interpretations of Transitions and om Input data Computation step Output data Input signals ‘Signalprocesor"—Qutput signals ecources needed) Task oF 0 Resources released Condoms Goaseimogc Conclusions) Somer Batoral Definition ofa Pete Net IX Peviinet isa tuple, PN = T, FW My whee P= pe pul a ite et paces, Free teat ovat, Fete U dis mis ascot ses low laion, wr aa la eee tan Ms Siena marking PAT= Sand PUT + @ * Apetinet souctre N=, ‘nang Senoted by N -APetenet with the given inital marking Is denoted by Me EW) without any speci ina The behavior of many systems can be described in terms ‘ofaystem states and their changes. In order to simulate the ‘dynamic behavior ofa system, a state or marking ina Petr netsis changed according tothe following transition (rng) rule 1). Atransiton tis sid tobe enabled if each input place poftismarkedwithatleastw(p, tokens, where w(p, fis the weight ofthe arc from p tot 2). Anenabled transition may or may notte depending fon whether or not the event actually takes place) 3) A fring of an enabled transition t femoves wip, 0 fokens from each input place poft, and adds wp) tokens to each output place pol where wit piste ‘weight of the are from tt . ‘A transition without any input place is called a source transition, and one without any output place iscalled a sink transition. Note that a source transition is unconditionally tenabled, and that the fring ofa sink wansiion consumes tokens, but does not produce any, ‘A pir ofa place p and transition tis called a selHoop itpis both an input and output place ofA Petr nets said 10 be pure i I has o selftoops. A Petri net is sad 10 be ‘ordinary fall of is are weights are V's fxample 1: The above transition rule ustrated in Fig, 1 using the wellknown chemical reaction: 24, + O3 —> 2110. fwo tokens inexch input pace in Fig al show that ‘30 units of Hp and O are available, and the transition tis. ‘enabled. After fring tthe marking will change tothe one Shown ia Fig. 1), where the transition ¢ is no longer ‘enabled. 0 Fa: bampleAnilustatonot ateanston tring le Cikemadilgtuiretingtnecmbiestarsion’ bythe ating ae ng wheres dae. For the above rule of transition enabling, it is assumed that each place can accommodate an unlimited number of tokens. Such a Petr nets refered 0 as an infnitecapacity net For modeling many physical systems, its natural t0 Consider an uppe limit o the numberof tokens that each place can hold, Such a Pett net is referred to asa finite Eapacity net. Fora finite capacity net WN, Ma) each place p hhasan associated capacity Kip, the maximum number of tokens that pcan hold at anytime. For finite capacity nets, fora transition {tobe enabled, there isan adctional con: dition that the numberof tokens in each output place p of t eannot exceed ite capacity kip) alter fing © “This cule with the capacity constraint is called the strict transition rle, whereas the rule without the capacity con- straint is called the (weak) transition rule. Given a finite Capacity net (N, Mg, itis possible to apply elther the strict mn rule to the given net, Mor, equivalently, ‘weak transition rue to transformed net (NM the net ‘obtained rom(N, M)by the following complementary-place transformation, where It is assumed that Nis pure. Step 1: Add a complementary place p' for each place p, {where the initia marking of pis given BY i>) = Kip) ~ Mi ‘Step2: fetween each transition ¢ and some comple- mentary places py deaw new acs (tp') or (p where wit, p') = wip.) and wip’ = wip, Sothat the sum of tkensin place p and its com plementary place equal ts capacity K(p) for tach place p, before and after fring the tran Example 2: Let us apply the strict transition rue to the finitecapacity net (NM) shown in Fig. 2a). At the inital marking Ms = (10) he only enabled transition ist Alter Firing fy, we have Aly = (2 0), where only fy and are enabled, My changes 10 My = (0-0) after firing ty 010 My {0 Ipater firing t, Continuing this process i easy to 0, where Ute] ~ Torx > Oand Utd = Gotherwise) Thetwotansitions and ymodelthemem: ‘ory choice: fring f corresponds to choosing the memory that i being accessed by the processor in py The choice ‘of any other memory coreesponds 10 the ting off [Acually, the net model shown in Fig. 14 can represent 4 no-bus multiprocessor system with any number of pro Cestors and memories, Ageneralizedstochasticnet version ff this and more detailed models has been used for per formance study of multiprocessor architetures 30), (31 1, Benawonal Proves After modeling systems with Peri nets, an obvious ques- tionis"Whatcanwe do withthemodels?” Amajor strength (of Petrinetsistheie support for analysis of many properties land problems associated with concurrent systems. TW types of properties ean be studied with a Peti-net model those whichdepend on theinitial marking and those which fare independent ofthe initial marking. The former type of properties fs felerced to as marking-dependent or behav foral properties, whereas the latter type of properties is Called structural properties, In this section, we discuss only basic behavioral properties and their analysis problems. Structural properties and the analysis will be considered in Section Vil, A. Reachability Reachability is a fundamental basis for studying the {dynamic properties of any system. The ring ofan enabled ‘wansiion will change the token distribution (marking) in net according to the transition rule described in Section TILA sequence of firings will result ina sequence of mark ings. A marking M, i sald fo be reachable trom a marking Ail there exists a sequence of feings that transforms Ma 1o'M,.A fing or occurrence sequence is denoted by 0 = My OM, ty My =" ty My oF simply ae = ty tr Im this ease, M, is reachable fromm M, by @and we ‘write Mle > My, The sto al possible markings reachable rom Ms in a net (NA is denoted by RIN, 8) oF simply Rib. The cet of ll pasibe firing sequences from My it a net (N, My) is dented by LIN, M4) oF simply LM) ‘Now, the reachability problem for Petri nets isthe prob lem of finding i My © Rib) for a given marking M, ine net (Ny In some applications, one may be interested inthe smarkings ofa subset of places and not care about the rest ‘of places in a net, This leads to 4 submarking reachability problemvhich ste problem of ining M,« Ri), where fi is any marking whose eestrction to a given subset of places agrees with that of a given marking M,. Tt has been Shown thatthe reachability problems decidable(174),[175) although it akes at least exponential space (and time) 10 ‘erfyin the general case [275]. However, the equality prob Jem (131, (17) (17's undecidable, Le. there is no algo rithmfor determining UN, My) = LV Mp forany twoPete pets N and 2. Boundedness [A Petri net (N, No) is said to be K-bounded or simply bounded i the number of tokens in each place does not exceed 2 finite number k for any marking reachable fom‘Ma, Le. Mip) = k for every place p and every marking M ERIMg_A Petri net Nit said to besafeit Ris -bounded. For example, the nets shown in Figs, 2), 4 6, and 9 areal ‘boundedin particular, thenetin Fig. 20bis2:bounded, and the rest ofthe nets are safe Places ina Pett net are olten sed to represent butters and registers for storing inter: ‘mediate dat. By verifying thatthe net is Bounded or safe, guaranteed hatthere will beno verfiowsinthebutfers lor registers, no mater what firing sequence is taken tiveness “The concept of liveness isclosely related tothe complete absence af deadlocks in operating systems. A Petri net N, [Mg is said to be lve (or equivalently Mi said to be alive ‘marking for N)it,no matte what markinghas been reached from hits possible to ultimately fire any transition ofthe net by progressing through some further fring sequence. This means that alive Petri net guarantees deadiocketree ‘operation, no matter what firing sequence is chosen, Exam- les o live Pet nets are shown in Figs. 4,6, and 9. On the. ‘ther hand, the Petri nets shown in Fig. 15 and 16 are not Fg. 15. A sale, none Pet net, But istry E66 live, These nets are not live since no transitions can fire it {hires frst in both eases, Liveness isan ideal property for many systems. However, ‘tisimpractcal and too costly to vent this tong property for some systems such asthe operating system ofa large computer. Thus, werelaxtheliveness condition and define diferent levels of tiveness as follows [8 [178]. A transition {in a Petri net iN, Mais sad 0 bes 0) dead (lOve) if t can never be feed in any fring Sequence in LMy. 1. Live potentially frable)if tan be firedatleastonce in some tiring sequence in LM) 2) LBiive it, given any positive integer kt ean be fred at least times in Some fring sequence in LM. 3) Lilive if t appears infinitely, often in some fring sequence in LM 4) LbtieorliveitisLt4veforevery marking Min My. ‘A Pete net (N, Mis sid 10 be Lklve if every transition Inthe nets Leve,k = 0, 1,2,3,4.Leliveness isthe strong estandcorresponds tothe liveness definedearle.Itiseasy tosee the following implications: liveness = Leliveness = iveness = Liliveness, where = means "implies." We Say that a wansition Is strictly LActve iis Lesive but not Lk + Dove, k= 1,2, 3, Fig 16. Transitions fuand saredead (ive),LtNe, hive and ve respectively example 3: The Pete net shown in Fig 15 steely LTsve since each transition can be fred exactly once n the order Off te tty and fy The Wansitions ty fy fy and fn 16 are [Olive (dead), Live, L2lve, and Live, respec- tively all tetly a . Reversibility and Home State Petri net N, Mis saidto be reversible foreach mark- ing Min Rg, Mis teachable from M. Thus, in a reversible ret one can always get back to the initial marking or state. In many applications its not necessary to get back tothe Ini stateasongasone can getbackto some (home) stat, ‘Therefore, we relax the reversibility condition and define home state. A marking M's sad tobe a home sat, foF teach marking M in RM, Mis reachable fom M. fxample 4:Note thatthe above three properties (bound edness liveness, and reversibility) areindependent of each ther. For example, a reversible net can belive or not live and bounded or not bounded. Fig, 171173] shows examples of eight Petr nets forall possiblecombination ofthese three properties, where B, L, and R denote the negations of boundedness (liveness 1), and reversibility) Coverbility ‘A-marking M ina Peri net (Ma is said to be coverable if there exists2 marking Min RIM) such that Mp) = Mp) for each pin the net. Coverability i closely related to L7- liveness (potential frailty). Let Mf be the minimum mark Ing needed o enable a transition t. Then fis dead (not live) i and only it isnot coverable. That seis L-lve it and only if Mis coverable. Persistence A Pete net, Missa to be persistent if for any two enabled transitions, he firing of one transition wil not dis: able the other. transition ina persistent net, once its fenabled, wil say enabled untl ities. The notion of pet sistence Is useful in the context of parallel program sche- rata (82) and speed.independent asynchronous circuits {122}, (126, Persstencyiscloseyrelatedtoconfictreenets [180], and a safe persistent net can be transformed into 3 ‘marked graph by duplicating some transitions and places [45]. Note that all marked graphs ae persistent, but otal Persistent nets are marked graphs. For example, the net Shown in Fig. 7ilis persistent butitisnotamarked graph,o mm © © ” ig. 17. Cxamples of Fetsi net having all posible combinations of B bounded, 8 (Ghooundedt tive) inamve reverie and R (nonreverable) properties. (6B Teresa unvounded, @) BUR tr dead, py unbounded. BL (p, unbounded (8) BER Ay fo tt be 6. Synchronie Distance ‘The notion of synchronic dstancesisa fundamental con cept introduced by C. A, Pete (181 Is a metec closely Felated to a degree of mutual dependence between two events in a conditionievent system, We define the syn ‘chronic distance between two transitions and tin a Pete wantSlive teBLR pr unbounaed, WB TRU, deaah BUR M inet, Ma by on (aut) ~ B10) 0 were «isa fring sequence stating at any marking M in iti and a) the number of times that transition = “1:Bires ine. For example, in the net shown n Fig, 7 de= .dhe = 1, dh) = =, etc In the net shown in Fig. 6 tra sitions ty and represent two parallel events, and dy, = 2 because after firing t, there is a fring sequence « = ft % tinwhich 3() = 2and 5) ‘The synchronic distance given by (1) represents a wel defined metric for condtionievent net [188] and marked fraphs. However, there are some difficulties when i is applied to more general class of Per nets [182 For further information onsynehronic distances, the reader is refered to 005), (1811-1186 H. Faimess Many diferent notions of fairness have been proposed in the literature on Pet nets. We present here twa basic faieess concepts: bounded:faimess and unconditional (global fairness. Two transitions ¢ and ¢ re said to be in 2 bounded:air (or Bai relation ithe maximum member foftimes that ether one cn fire while the other sno iting. is bounded. A Petr net (N, Mis said to be a Barnet every pair of transitions in the net ate ina Bir relation, ‘firing sequence o's said to be unconditionally (global) fair itis fit or every transition in the net appears inf nitely often in a. Pei net (N, A i said to be am uncon. ivonall far nerit every fing sequence o from M in RM) fs unconditionally far. ‘There are some relationships between these two types of falmess. For example, every Baie net is an uncondi tionalyfarnet andevery bounded unconditionally fair net isa Bae net{187-The et shown in Fig. 70) sa Bair net aswell asan unconditionally far net, The net shown in Fig. 170) i nether a Bair net nor an unconditionally fir net since f,and will not appear in an infinite firing sequence = tt ty 6 "7. The unbounded net shown in Fig ‘eh isan unconditionally airnet but not afar net since there sno bound on the numberof times that fy ean fre without firing the others when the number of tokens inp is unbounded. For further information on fairness, the reader i referred to [187}(197, (211, V. Auaysis Memos Methods of analysis for Peri nets may be classified into the following three groups: 1 the coverability veachabity) "ue method, 2}the matricequation approach, and 3) ede tion oF decomposition techniques. The first_ method Involves essentially the enumeration ofall reachable mark: ings or their coverable markings. t shouldbe abe o apply toall classes of nets, but i limited to “small” nets due to the complexity ofthe state-space explosion. On the other hhand, matrix equations and reduction techniques are pow. erful but in many cases they are applicable only t special Subclasses of Peri nets or special situations A. The Coverbilty Tee Given a Petr net (N,N from the inital marking My, we can obtain 3s many *new markings asthe number ofthe enabled wansitons. From each new marking, we can again each more markings. This process results in tee fep- resentation of the markings. Nodes represent markings fenerated from My the rot) and its successors, and each BC represents transition fring, which transforms one ‘marking 10 another ‘The above tee representation, however, wil row ritely large ifthe nets unbounded. To keep the tree fine, we introduce a special symbol, which can be thought of 235 “infinity.” it has the properties tha for each integer, > nate nwande se ‘The coverailty ee fra Pete net (N, Mais constructed by the following algorithm, ‘Step 1 Label the initial marking M, asthe oot and tag ‘Step 2) While “new” markings exist, do te following: Step 21) Select a new marking M. Step22) If Mis identical oamarking onthe path rom the root 10 M, then tag M “old” and go to Another new marking. Step2.3 Winotransitionsare enabled at, tag At“dead- end.” ‘Step24) While there exist enabled transitions at M. do the following for each enabled transition tat M Step 2.4.9 Obtain the marking M’ that results rom fing tat Step 242) On the path from the root to Mif there ealsts a marking M such that MTip) = Mvp) tor each place p and M"= Mi. I> iscoverabla, then replace Mp) by for each p such that Mp) > M(p. Step 24.3) Introduce M’ as anode, draw an arc with label trom M10 Mand tag ne, Example: Consider the net shown in Fig 16. For the nial marking M, = (100, the two transitions ¢, and fare enabled. Firing, tanstorms Myto My = (0 00, which is "dead-end node, since no transitions are enabled at M Now firing at My resus in Mj = (1 1” 0), which covers M,=(0_ 0-0. Therefore,thenewmarkingisMf,=(1 0), Where two transitions f, and fare again enabled. Fling t transforms toMy =(0 a1, rom whic t,can be ied, resulting in an “old” node M, = My Firing tat M, results ian “old” node My = M, Thus, we have the coverablity tree shown in Fig. 1), Oo ‘Some ofthe properties that can be studied by using the coverability tree Flora Petri Net, Mg) are the following: 1) Anet , Mis Bounded and thus RM is fnite ft and only if} does aot appear in any node labels in 2) Armet (Ws Mg)is safe only 's and 1s appeat in node labels in 7 3) Atranstion ¢ dead if t does not appese as an arc label in. 4 IPM is reachable fom Ma, then there exists a node labeled M' such that M = MF Fora bounded Petri net, the coverabilty ee iscalled the reachabiliy tree since i contains all possible reachable ‘markings. In this case, all the analysis problems discussed in Section IVcan be solved by the reachability tee. Theis ‘advantage is that this isan exhaustive method. However, in general, because of the information lost by the use the symbol (which may represent only even or edd numbers, Increasing or decreasing numbers, etc), the reachability ndliveness problems cannot be saved by the coverabilty- ‘tree method alone. Forexample, the wo dierent Petinets showin in Fig. 19a and (b) [10] have the same coverabilityFig. 18. a) Thecoverabiliy ee ofthe net shown in Fg 16 {Gh the coverabity graph Othe net shown in Fie tree show in Fig. 2). Ye, the net shown in Fig. 194 is alive Petri net wile the net shown i Fg. 19) snot ive, Since no transitions are enabled after fzng tf and "The coverabilty graph ofa Petri net (N, My is 2 labeled directed graph G = (VB) Its node set Vi the set of all dis. oy fig. 19. Two Pets nets having the sae converability te. (aVAve Pte ne (0A nonlive Pet et. My 2(190) as Fig,20. a The coverabiity te for bat Pt nts shown Inga) and 100, The covery graph ore eo ‘ets tnwn nF lo 190, tinct labeled nodes inthe coverability tree, and the ac set Eis the set of arcs labeled with single transition t repre ‘senting all posible single transition feings such that MI >'M, where M, and M, are in V.For example, the cover: ably graph forthe nets shown in Fig 191s shown in Fig 20(p) Fora bounded Petr net, the coverabilty graph Is refecred toas the reachability graph, because the vertex set becomes the same asthe reachability set RM) An appli cation of reachability graphs will be discussed in Section xe, B. Incidence Matrix and State Equation ‘The dynamic behavior of many systems studied in engi- neering can be described by diferential equations or alge braic equations. Itwould be nice if we could describe and analyze completely the dynamic behavior of Petri nets by Some equations. Inthis spn, we present matrix equations that govern the dynamic behavior of concurrent systems ‘modeled by Petri nets. However, the solvability of these {equations is somewhat limited, pally because ofthe noo- deterministic nature inherent in Petr-net models and because of the constraint that solutions must be found as non-negative integers, Whenever matrix equations are di: cussed inthis paper, its assumed that a Petr nets pure ‘ris made pure by adding a dummy pairofateanstion and 4 place asi discussed in Section I Fig. 3. Incidence Matix: Fora Petri net N with transitions and im paces, the incidence matri A = (2's an 0 m matrix Oot integers and ts typical entry is given by a =aj ay 2 where a} = wi, 5 the weight ofthe arc from transition Ft9ts output piace j and ay = wi) the weight ofthearc to transition rom its input place j. We use A as the Incidence matrix instead of its wanpose AT because A reduces tothe wellknown incidence mattis of a directed ‘raph for marked graphs, subclass of Pete nets itis easyto see from the transition rule described in Sec- tion il thata;, ay anda, respectively, represent the num ber of tokens removed, added, and changed inlace/ when transition / ies once. Transition is enabled at a mar win ay SM, f=2 em o State Equation: In writing matrix equations, we write 3 marking Mas an m1 column vector. The th entry of M, denotes the number of tokens in place immediately ater the kth firingin some firing sequence. The kth fring ax con. trol vector uy isan n x 1 column vector of n ~ 10's and ‘one nonzero entry, 21 in the ith positon indicating that transition | fires atthe kth fring, Since the ith row of the incidence matrix A denotes the change of the marking as the result of firing tansition J, we can write the following state equation for a Pet net [98 M, kan, @ Necessary Reachabilty Condition: Suppose tha a dest ‘pation marking My is reachable from My through firing Sequence {uy Up, “** ua). Writing the state equation (4) fer 1 dand summing them, we obtain ty + Aly My= My + AT 3 ue 6 Which can be rewritten as Ale = aM o Where AM = My — Myand x = Df. ;uy. Here xis an n 34 column vector of nonnegative integers and is called the fi: ‘ng count vector. The ith entry of x denotes the number of times that transition must fie to transform Mto Mats ‘well known [199] thata set of linear algebratc equations (6) has a solution xi 4M is orthogonal t every solution y of its homogeneous system, Ay=0. o Letrbe the rank ofA, and partition A nthe flowing form: ® Where Ay i a nonsingular square mates of order «A set of (m ~ #linearly independent solutions y for (7) can be givenasthe in ~ nrowsof thefollowing im ~ 1 x m matrix Be B= 12 ~ANALY » where isthe identity matrix of order = m = r.Note that [AB] = 0. Thats, the vector space spanned by the row vec- {ors of Ais orthogonal othe vector space spanned by the row vectors of By. The matrix 8, corresponds Yo the fun- damental circuit matrix [13] nthe case ofa marked graph ‘Now, the cnltion that AM s onhogonal to every solution for Ay = 0's equivalent 10 the following con aM ~ 0. 0) Thus, f My reachable from My then the corresponding firing count vector x must exist and (10) must hold. There: fore, we have the following necessary condition for reach ability in an unrestricted Petr net [198 Theorem 2:1F My reachable from My in a Pett net (N, [Mj then B,aM = 0, where AM = MyM and is given by ©. 0 “The contrapositive of Theorem 2 provides the following sutficient condition for nonreachabity. Corollary 1: In a Petri net (N, Mf, a’ marking My is not reachable from M( M,)ifthele diferenceis linear com bination ofthe row vectors of, that i, AM = 8/2 a where 2 isa nonzero» x 1 columa vector Proof If(1) holds, then 8,M = BB! # 0, sincez + 8 and 8,8 san x w nonsingular mate because the rank of Bis ~ m= Therefore, by Theorem? M, isnot reach- able from My o ‘Example 5: For the Pett net shown in Fig. 21 the state equation isillustrated below, where the transition fires Fg.21, bxample 5: Petit {0 result in the marking My = (3 0 0.2) from My 201 oF 3) Pp) f2.4 of fo an) ofa] ao Hr 2] lof Lo-2 2|7 The incidence matrix is of rank 2 and can be partitioned In the form of), where 24 +0) av=[ JJand an=[) 8) As on ‘Thus the mate: can be found by ho 2 we a =| } ott ow His east very ha AM = Oho for AM = At ~ wane o ‘An integer solution x ofthe homogeneous equation (aM = 0in 6) Axa a Iscalled a Tnvariat, and an integer solution yof the tans- posed homogeneous equation Ay = 0 is called an Sin.‘variant, These invariants which we will discuss in Section Vill provide powerful tools for studying structural prop- centies of Petr nets . Simple Reduction Rules for Analysis To facilitate the analysisof large system, we often reduce the system model to a simpler one, while preserving the system properties tobe analyzed. Conversely, techniques totransformanabstracted madelinto amore refined model ina hierarchical manner can be used for synthesis. There txist any transformation techniques for Pete nets. ta this Section, we present only the simplest transformations, which can be used for analyzing liveness, safeness, and boundedness, Several transformation rules for marked ‘graphs will be discussed in Section VILE IRis not dificult to see thatthe following sx operations (179, 205] preserve the properties liveness, safeness, and boundedness. Tati, let (N, Mg and (W, Mf be the Petr nets before and ater one of the following transformations. ‘Then NMG isliv, safe, or bounded if WN, Mis ve, sate, ‘or bounded, respectively. 1) Fusion of eves Places (SP) as depicted in Fig. 210, 2 Fusion of Series Tansivons (FST) as depicted in Fig, 220, 1) Fusion of Paral Places (FPP) as depicted in Fig. 20 4 Fusion of Parallel Transitions (FPT) as depicted in Fig, 2, 5} Elimination of Self loop Places (ESP as depicted in Fig 22. 6) Elimination of Selt-loop Transitions (EST) as depicted in Fig. 220, 8 = oe ed Fig. 22. Six wansormations preseraingIvenes, saleness, [hd boundedness Example 6 The net shown in Fig 71 can be reduced to theone shown in ig. 23) ater fring toremovethetoken Inpyand then fusing t and into ty and t,and tito to The net in Fig. 234) can then be reduced to the one shown inFig-236)aftereliminatng seltoop transition and place Its easy to see that both nets shown in Fig. 17) and Fig. 230) are bounded and non-lve (and nonreversible a @ » ig. 2%,Gxample station of eduction rales. The net ‘shown n fig Pl reduced othe wo nes soa, where etree ets are bounded, nonive, and nonteversibe ‘As pointed out inthe introduction, a major weakness of Petrinets is the complexity problem. Thus, itis very impor tant to develop methods of transformations which allow hierarchical or stepwise reductions and preserve the sys tem properties to be analyzed, Such an approach is dis: cussed in (208), where subnets are reduced 10 single transitions or places while keeping liveness andlor bound: edness properties. However, much work remains to be ‘done in thisares of esearch, For example, givena property fr 2 set of properties, itis desired to develop a complete Set of transformations which allows. teansformation ‘between any two nets having the given properties For fur- ther information on this subject, the reader is referred to (200}-(205), 245, (246), and (256, Vi. ChusractenzaTions OF Lientss, SAINI, AND Riaciasuity In this section, we fist discuss some subclasses nd then liveness, safeness, and eeachabilitycrteriawithineach sub- class of Petri nets A. Subelass of Pet Nets Recall that a Petr neti called ordinary when all ofits arc eights are V's AllPetri nets considered in this section are Drdinary, Note that both ordinary and nonordinary Pete ets have the same modeling power. The only difference 'S modeling eficiency or convenience. Weuse the following symbols fora pre-set and a post-set (where Fis the set ofall ares defined in Table 2: = (plip. 9 F) = the set of input places of ¢ (= (pM pe Fh = the set of output places of ¢ sp = lilt, ple F) = the set of input transitions of p P= [clip EF} = the st of output transitions ofp. Te above symbols are ilusttated in Fig. 24. This notation ‘ean be extended toa subset. For example, ley 5 P, then 15) the unlon ofall sp such that p ey, With the above rotation, we can now define subclasses of Petri nets by imposing some restrictions on thelr underlying structures {81 206), [2071 Unless otherwise stated, it 6 assumed ‘throughout this paper that a net N has no isolated places and transitions, Le, no por tsuch that sp = ps = © or #t Tee,® Fig 24. The symbols or the sets of input and output lcs oft andthe se pe nou anstons 1) Astate machine (SM) is an ordinary Pete net such that each transition ¢has exactly one input placeand exactly one ‘output place, be. for alt ter. 2) Amarked graph (MG)isan ordinary Peteinetsuchthat ‘each place p has exactly one input transition and exactly ‘one output transition, i, Isel = ioe 2 Afiee-choice net(FC)is an ordinary Petri net such that every are from a place is ether a unique outgoing ac ora Unique incoming arc toa transition, he, for all p€P,|pe| s tor spe) = (p); equivalently, for all py. Pre Pp 0 pie # 2 => |p| = |p| 4) An extend free-choice net EFC) is an ordinary Pets ret such that 1 forall per. Die pee => pe = pe forall py pre. 5) Anasymmetrc choice net (AQ (also knownas asimple ‘eis an ordinary Pei net such that © pit or ps 2 poe pe nips #2 => pe for all py ps € P The Petr net structures shown nig. 25arethekey struc: tures that characterize these subclasses. I is eaty Yo rec: fognize the key structures of SM and MGs shown in Fig 23{) and (b, respectively. FCs are a generalization of the Structures common to both SMs and MGs. They allow the contlct structure of SM shown In Fig 21a) and the syn- hronization structure of MG shown in Fig. 250), But exclude the structure shown in Fig. 210), where p+ = p+ {ut} Extended fre choice nets (FC) allow the ste ture shown in Fig. 25(e) but not the one shown in Fig. 25), where ps ~ {4} put = (Fy) Both FCsand EFCs have the behaviral property tha if, and ¢ share a common Input place, then there are no markings for which one is Fig.25. Key structures characterizing subclasses of Petr hes and thee Ver dagram, where HG, SM ete, denote Fond, nos et ‘enabled and the other is disabled. Thus, we have “free: choice” about which transition o fire. Inthis sense, the EFC. structureshown in Fig.25(canbetransiormedto tsequiv: lent FC structure a i ilustrated in Fig. 26 (207, Asya: metric choice nets (AC) allow the structure shown in Fig. 25(é)butnotthestructureofacontusion shown inFig. 256, ‘where pie = (tf) andpe = (t ).Unikete behavioral property of FCs and EFCs, ACS can havea marking at which {his-enabled but is disabled In summary, SMs admit no synchronization, MGs admit. ‘no conflicts, Cs admit no contusion, and ACs allow asym ‘metric confusion (Fig. 716) but disallow symmetric cont sion fig. 7a) Their Venn diagram relation is shown in Fi 2300. Example 7: We apply the above classification of sub- classes to classify the nets shown in Fig, 17, The net shown MS Fig.26. Transformation of EFC sructute to FC structureIn Fig. Wa) is not an AC because pst = {ty to} at = ft (QPit O pee # ©; but one isnot a subset ofthe other. ‘Thenetin ig. 1710 6 FC since each place has a unique out _going arc. The nets in Fig, 1716) andi) are ACS since pyr (O} C pat = {to a i Fig. 118) pie» (ig) C pst = Ut, fu) and poe (te) © poe Ket) im Fig, 17g) The net Fig. 17h isnot an AC because p:# = {ty 4) and py* = {fy 14} The net in Fig. 70h) both an MG and an SM. The net in Fig. eis an MG, £8, Liveness and Safeness Criteria 1) Existence of Live Safe Markings: Live and safe Petri nets (LSPNs) are fundamental to both the applications and the- retical developments of Pet nets. In this section, we pre ‘entlivenessandsafeness conditions or subclasses Pete First, we discuss necessary conditions for existence ofan 15 marking My fora Pets net structure PN. place p ran sition 9 is said to bea source place source transition) sp = Get = 2). Aplacep transition hssaidtobeasink place (sink wansinon) ii pe = git = 2). is at ditieult to see the following theorem [208] from Table 3 Table 3 Explanation a to Why 2 Live ad Safe Petr Net Gonea Hate Source a Sink Blces ae Translons "akan poe a 238 ming ORE Pee Eee ST) tint live fr sate p. Theorem 3 Ifa Poti net (N, Ma is live and safe, then there are na source or sink places and source or snk tran sitions, ie, forall xe PU Tex #2 x o This theorem can be generalized and we can state that i¥a connected Peri net (N, Ma is live and safe, then Nis strongly connected, be, there exists a directed path from tevery node to every other node in P U T. However, not all Strongly connected nets have alive and safe marking For example, the nets shown in Fig 271) and (b) are strongly Connected, but the netin Fig 27a) has no live markings and the net in Fig 270) has no nonzero safe markings [208], In ‘the case of marked graphs and state machines, strongly- connectedness becomes @ necessary and sufficient con ‘ition for exstence of live and safemarking see Theorem ‘0, We now provide conditions for liveness andor safeness for subclasses of Petrinets. Since adead net(anetinwhich ‘every transition is dead) is trvaly safe, we are normally Interested in safeness for lve nets. 12 Liveness and Safeness in SM and MG: Since a transi tion firing ina state machine moves only ane token irom place to another place, is easy to verity the fellowing, theorem. ™ » Fe 27. stongly connected net hat has no ve mark Ings) Stongly connected et tat has no monzere sae Theorem 4:A state machine IN, My sive TN is strongly connected and M, has at least one token, o Theorem 5A state machine (N, Mi se if My has at most one token. A lve state machine (N, Ma) is sae if My has exactly one token a For marked graphs, each place has exactly one incoming. arc and exactly one outgoing arc with unit weight. Thus, a ‘marked graph (N, Ma can be drawn a6 marked directed raph (C, Mi), where ares correspond to places, nodes to Iransiions and tokens are placed on arcs. For example, the Petr net of a communication protocal shown in Fig. 9 can be redrawn as the marked directed graph shown in Fig. 28. Fig.28, The marted graph representation of commun {ion protec shown ia Fig 9 and used for Example 1 “The fring of anode (transition) ina marked graph consists of removing onetoken fromeachincoming arc input place) and adding one token to each outgoing ae (output place). Iamode s on a dicected circuit (oF loop, then exactly one ofits incoming ace and one fie outgoing arcs Belong to the directed circuit. Ifa node does not ie on the directed circuit in question, none ofthe ares incident to that node: will belong to the directed circuit. Thus, we have the fl. Towing token lnvarlance property (7 Theorem 6: For a marked graph, the token count in a directed circuits invariant under any fring, ie, MIC) = MAC) for each directed circuit Cand for any M in RIM, ‘where MIC) denotes the total number of tokens on C. CI By Theorem6, i there are no tokens on adirectedcircut atthe inital marking, then this directed circuit remains token ree. Thus, the nodes on this directed circuit will never be enabled. On the other hand, if a node is never ‘enabled by any firing sequence, then by back-racking token free ares, one can find a token-{ree directed circuit ‘Therefore, we have the following theorem Theorem 7A marked graph (G, Mis live iff My places at least one token on each directed circuit in . o‘The following theorem isa special case of more general theorems which wl be provedin Section Vl (weighted sum of tokens) and Section Vill (Ssnvaiant) Theorem 8: The maximum numberof tokens that an arc canhaveina marked graph(G, Mé sequal tothe minimum ‘numberof tokens placed by My on a directed circuit con- taining this are o ‘The following consideration is helpful in understanding theabove mini-maxtheorem. Considerall directed circus Gi, Gy, *°> » Cy passing through the ar e. Bring as many tokens as possible on the incoming acs ofthe initial node ote = (yy), and irethe node x as many times 38 posible without firing the node y-I'can be seen that Min {MC}, MgC)" Ma} is the maximum possible tokens that can be beought on the atc ein particular. t Min (M/C), MdC.), °°, Miu) = 1 ther Me) = 1 fr all Min RIM! Thus, we have the following theorem, Theorem 9: Alive marked graph (G, My is sale iff every arc (place) belongs toa directed circuit C with Mj) = © Theorem 10: There exists alive and safe marking in & Aiected graph Gif Gis stongly connected. Proof: The necessity is due to Theorem 3. The suf ciency canbe proved as follows. Suppose Gis strongly con. nected. Choose a marking My which places at least one token in each directed circuit in G. Then this marked directed graph, (C, Mislive, 1G, Mp isnot safe, then there isan arc.e and a marking M in RM) such that Mle) = 2 Reduce the number of tokens on ¢ 10 one by removing tokensiromecallthenew marking M',Le,,Mie} = 1 Repeat theabove token removal which wil nat destroy theliveness Property, unl (G, Me) is safe for anew marking Mi. © INSUDSE of arcs F ina directed graph = (VE) is said to bea feedback are ser FAS) 1G" = V, E~ Eis acyclic, ite has no directed circuits. A FAS ie sad to be minimal no proper subset of the FAS is 2 FAS, and minimum if no other FAS contains a smilie number of ares, Is easy to See that the subset of marked arcs in alive marked graph isaFAS, Conversely, each arcin aFAS of advected graph 's marked, we have alive marked graph. Furthermore, the following theorem (209) holds Theorem 11: strongly-connected live marked graph G is sae if for every marking M in RIM, the set of marked arcs 4 minimal FAS "A minimum FAS is mote important than a minimal FAS in applications tis obvious that a subset Fin a directed {raph Gisa minimum FAS ifthe marking Mf such that Ml) = Tiorall ein isa lve marking for Gwith the minimum ‘numberof tokens. However, amminimum FAS does not nec ‘essay yield a safe marking. Far example, the marking My Shown nFig.29isalive markingwith the minimum number lof tokens and corresponds toa minimum FAS (C becomes acyclic if the two marked ars a and b are removed), How: lever, thismarkingisnotsafesincearcsdand do not belong Fig 29. The setof marked arcs. and bis minimum ied [ota et and hs marking minimalyine but nt sae toa directed circuitwith token count one. Infact, the ting, Sequence » = (1.34.1) brings two tokens on ated. ‘3 iveness and Safeness in FCand AC Nets Siphon and tap: A nonempty subset ot places Sin an ordinary net is called a siphon (also known as deadlock) If45'c Se, i.e, every transition having an output place in Shasaninputplacein (We usea siphon instead ofa dead lock since the ater is used fra circular waiting condition ‘or behavior in computer science). A nonempty subset of places Qin an ordinary net N is called a tap Qe © +0, Le. every transition having an input place in Qhas an out put place in Q. A siphon is ilustrated in Fig. 30), where seit el Slog! 144) « » fig, 20,tastratin oa) siphon andi) a tp, the token count in the siphon remains the same by firing {but decreases by firing Thus, a siphon has behavioral propery that if tis foken tree under some marking, then ‘tvemains token-free under each successor marking. trap ‘silustratedin Fig. 3005, where the token count inthe trap ‘remains the same by firing but increases by fring, Thus 4 trap has a behavioral property tha if iis marked i, it hhasatleastone token} under some marking then tremains marked under each successor marking, Its easy to very thatthe union of two siphons (raps) isagain siphon (rap) ‘siphon trap) sealed a basic siphon tbasc tap if ican not be represented asa union of other siphons (raps). All siphons raps) ina Petri net can be generated by the union ‘of some bass siphons (traps) (210). siphon (ap is said tobe minimal fit does not contain any ather siphon (rp). ‘Aminiml siphons (raps ate basis siphons (raps, But not all basis siphons raps) are minimal ‘sampled nthe Petr net shown in Fig, 31 et) = [Py apa}, S2= {Pr Py Pal: Ss= (Pi Po Pu Pah Se= {Po Bs} 80d, = {ps.py pa} Then, wehavees, = {tft} = St ley ty) Thus, Syisasiphon, Since Se = {tf © = {ttt Suisa trap. Similarly, is easy to verity that Szisasiphon,isbotha siphon and a trap, and Sy isa trap, Infact both and S; are minimal and bass siphons. 8,5 and S; are bass traps, 5, and 5; are not minimal taps. Siphons and raps can be found from ast of logic equa tions oF linear inequalities describing their behavioral properties 175}. For example, in the Pet net shown in FigFig 31. The net used in Eramples 8 and 31, we see that (i pss in siphon 5, then pis in $) Gps in 5, then ps oF peisin S) ps => pips ifpris in S, then py and paren) pee> py if pyisin S, then pyis in 5). ‘The above set of "i-then” rules is equivalent tothe fol lowing set of clauses: {701 Pas “Pa V PY Pus 9B Pw spaV Po >PaY Bi ‘Thus, siphons can be found a5 (0}-solutions of the fol lowing set of inequalities, where p, = 1ifp,€S, and p, oir pes: pit p20 mpi tpi p.20 -pit peo -pit peo Hp.t peo For example, ps = ps = py = 1, = Osatisty the above in ‘equalities. Therefore, (pp Pal i a siphon a ‘The flowing theorems ae well known inthe literature (207), 211) However, since their proofs are beyond the Scope of this paper, they are omitted. Examples are given {oilustrate the theorems. Theorem 12: A treechoice net (N, Mas live if every siphon in N contains a marked trap. a "theorem 1A lve ree-choice net (N, MIs safe iff Nis covered by strongly-connected $M components each of which has exactly one token at My 5 ‘Theorem 1: Let, Mi) bealive and safe free-choice net ‘Then, Nis covered by stvongly-connected MG compo nents: Moreover, theresa marking Me RM) such that each Component (NM, is live and sae MG, where Mh is M restricted to Ny 0 Theorem 15: An asymmetric choice net (N, Mis ve if (but not only i) every siphon in N contains a marked trap. 0 In Theorem 13 (Theorem 14), an SM-companent (MG ‘component N; ofa net Nis defined a a subnet generated by places (transitions) a N; having the following two prop tte: beach transition place) in Ny has at mastone incom ingarc and at most one outgoing arc: and i) subnet gen- trated by places ransitions is the net consisting of these. places transitions aoftheieinput and output transitions (places) and their connecting arcs, Theorem 13 (Theorem 1 leads tothe observation (211 that alive and safe fee Choice net can be viewed as an interconnection of live and Sate state machines (matked graphs). This observation is Useful or many applications including decompositions and abstraction of Pet nets (205) ‘Example % The FC net shown in Fig. 31s not live since the siphon {pps ps} contains no taps thus no marked. traps) The AC net shown i Fig. 32s ive since the minimal Fea, Ave AC net. siphon (ps ps Ps} contains a marked tap {py Py.Pa) and the siphon (py Ps Ps a) contains marked traps {Py Pe) and (Py Pa) The ive FC net show in Fig. 318s not {ale and the safe FC net shown in Fig. 33) i ot live since ® Cr ® Fie 38. Alive, nansafe FC nt) Sate,noniveFC ne these nts are not covered by strongly connected MG com ponents (nor by strongly connected SM components). The fet shown in Fig. 34s lve and safe buts not covered by ‘Strongly connected MG components since is not FC. The [AC net shown in Fig. 34s lve since every siphon contains {marked trap. However, the AC net shown I Fig. 35 ive ‘even though the siphon (py Pa Ps Px) contains no marked traps (see Theorem 15). The live and safe FC net shown in Fig. 3) is covered by the two stronglyconnected MC. Components shown in Fig 310). Its also covered by the {mo strongly connected SM components shown in Fig. 344 5Fig 35. Ave AC net Its known that an asymmetric choice net (N, My) i ive ifftisplaceive, i, foreach M, in RIM) and foreach place ‘pin N, there exists a marking M in RUMG) such that Mip) > 0.The Petr net shown in Fig 17s placelive, Butts not live since tis dead, Another useful property of asymmetric choice nets is thatthe conflict relation is transitive. For ‘example, inthe asymmetric choice net shown in Fig 37), {any pair of tansitions among f, and tare ina conflict Felation. However, inthe net shown in Fig. 3710), whichis not an asymmetric choice net, the pal (ty 4) i in confit and the pair (fis in conflict but (ys aot in conflict. References{11),(206]-208), 211, and [214] are suggested {or further readingon freechoice netsandother topiesdis- cussed inthis section, Reachability Criteria In Section VB, it has been shown thatthe existence of 4 nonnegative integer solution x satisfying (6) or Mg = My + Al «3 isa necessary condition for M,to be reachable from My A Petr net having no directed circultsisalledan acyclic Petr ‘et. For this subclass it can be shown [212] that this con- dltionisnecessaryand suficient.Civen anonnegative inte- {ger solution xsatistving (13), let Ni denate the ring counD Subnet of consisting of transitions «such that x(t) > 0, together with theie input and output places and their con necting ars. Mg, denotes the subvector of Mor places in Ne "Theorem 16: In an acyclic Petri net, Mis reachable from _Mgifthereexstsanonnegatveinteger solution xsatistying a3, Proot: Only suiiciency remains to be shown. Suppose thereexsts sucha solutions. Consider the subnet (NM), Fig 36, a) Alive and safe FC net.) Its wo songly-con- ‘necied MC: components generated by the two set an ‘tons tsb aR Unb te)tespectvel fe so rongy-connected SM-) his obvious. i) I (N, Mo, has atoker free siphon 5, then itis not possible to fireany transition te S. ‘This contradicts the fact that every tansiion in Nites in a firing sequence transforming M into Ma (=) Since there are no token tee siphans in (Ny, May theres at least one transition ¢ rable at My Fie and let MP = Mg + Aly x7 =~ ue Then My = Mi Ala x0 = 10. We claim that (N,, M,) has no token-free siphons Fist, we know that, i) hasnotoken-free source places(this would contradict My 2 0. Next,consideranarbtrary siphon 'S in Ny. There are two cases To consider 1) 5 was not a Siphon in Na) Swas siphon nN, ln Case 1), becomes {siphon in Ny after fing t This is possible only if ee #5 in Ny and ts removed in Ny. In this case, Sis not token- fteein Ny, Ms) since a fring of brings some token(s into S-Nest, consider Case 2} when S was. siphon ia N SUP. pose 5 becomes token ice in (Ny, Mf). This means that a Fring of thas removed all tokens from S and has brought ro tokens into S: That, be Se, ¢ #8. Also, fp eS and p san input place of then p cannot belong to any directed ‘dicuit consisting of places in, since every directed circuit InN, isa trap wich wil not become token tre, when it has a token, Now, $i tokers{ree in (Ny, Mz) and no tra sitions in Se ate frable. By back-tracngtoker-‘ree input places of nonfrable transitions in Se, we can find a token lige siphon $C Ssuch that foreach pewt1S,p 45°. This means that 5" was a token-tre siphon in (Ny, My) as well Butthis contradicts the condition i) Thus, Scannot become token tree alter firing tn Case 2). Therefore Ny, MG) Ras no tokenfree siphons. Furthermore, Ny isaTC net. Repeat the above process of firings until x” becomes a £er0 vector 0 The reversed net N~' ofa Pete net Wi the net obtained by reversing the direction ofeach acin N-Nte that 2 sub- Set of places is trap (siphon) in Nit sa siphon trap) InN, and that the incidence matrix of N's the negative of the incidence matrix of Applying Theorem 17 to reversed nets yields the following corollary (101), (212. ‘Corollary 2: Ina siphon-iccut et, M, is feachable from -Myif there exists anonnegative integer solution x such that ‘eq, (13)holdsandi NM has no token ree traps where Maeis the subvector of My restricted to places in Ny. Example 10: Consider the (non-asymmetric choice) net shown in Fig, 38a, There are two directed circuits py ts P fig 28, tlusvation of Theorem 1.8) puen TC net, 1M ante subnet (Ny Mg {ss and pst pp The st of places in each of these dltected cuits i tap {py py) Thus, this isa TC net. Suppose My = (10.0) Then easy 0 very tat (13) harasolution = (1 0” 0.1) Fig 3B) shows te subnet UN, here all theee siphons (93) {Pa Ps} and {Pv pu ps) have token. Thus, the condition of Theorem 17 hols tis eayto see that isreachable rom Moby ing feand then e ‘N Petr nt in which the set of places in every directed cireutcontain aap siphon sealed a TECnet SCC ned Fortis generalized TC net generalized SC net asuiclent condition for eeachabity i known (10] and is stated 3s follows Theotem WsInaTCC net Ms reachable from Myifthere exists «nonnegative integer solution x such that eg ) hold an i every siphon in (My Ma) haba make ap. Corolla 3:inan SCCnet ys reachable em Myifthere evista nonnegative integer solution x such that eg (13) Holds andi) Ws Mod Ras no tokentee traps. "sonar backward confitree et FCF (OCT) wets asubelassof Petr netssuch that each lac hasatmostone outgoing Gncoming) arc. A nondecreasing (non Incresing) ccuttnet(NDC (SIC) net sa subclass of Pett nets auch thatthe token content in any directed circuits never decreased {iereased) by any transition tiring. Should be noted that TC nets (SC nets) contain these nets ‘5 ther subclasses Thus, Theorem 17 (Corollary 2)5 app ‘ible to these subclasses Furthermore, fr these subclasses only 3 minimal non negative Integer solution x of 1) needs tbe ested [12 UNSolttonetation like Kirchhoft’s voltage law KVL) ncircuit theory. has been shown [215] that this generalized token invari ance expressed by (17s not only necessary But also suk ficient for alive marking Ml to reach another marking My In other words, we have the following theorem. Theorem 19: alive marked graph (G, My), My ie reach able trom Myf (17) holds a Note that Gis strongly connected, then condition (17) ‘sequivalentto saying thatthetoken countoneach directed ‘ircuit under My isthe same as that under Myce. MC) = IMg(C) for each directed circuit Cin ‘The above theorem can be extended to nonlive marked raphe if one imposes the additional condition that the ‘nodes transitions that areto fre should not ie on atoke- free directed circuit. nother words, we have the following, theorem (215), Theorem 20 In a marked graph (G, My, Myis reachable foom Myif(7)holds and forthe minimal nonnegative solu. ion x for A = a4, no nodes f such that x 0 are on any foken-tree directed circuit in (©, Mo) a The above theorem has been further generalized to sub- ‘marking reachablity (216), 217]-Since every marked graph {sa TC netas well as an SC net, both Theorem 17 and Cor- Ollary 2 reduce to Theorem 20. Example Tl: Consider the marked graph (, My shown in Fig. 41, where CIs not strongly connected and Ms nota co Fig 41, the marked graph for Example 11 to ustrate ‘eachablty conditions safe marking. The fundamental circuit matrix 8,.with respect toa spanning tee (6, ¢,} for Gis given by abedef roo: 14 oro; tat oor 0 10 For the two markings Mp = @ © 0.2 1. 1)f and My (© 0 1 0 0.0Y, iis easy toverty that (17) olds. Now, (15) for this marked graph can be written 38,1234 afro ot pj-1 0 0 1}\* cf o 1-1 of |* af 1-1 0 off*} [2 efor 1 of KY |. rLo o-1 4 Since the rank of the above coefficient matrix is three he ‘numberof nodes minus one), we only need to solve a set ‘of three independent equations, Thus, by setting x= and "solving the following setof thee equations corresponding, tothe spanning ree (de, oft 1 olpay por elo -1 a} fal =| tlo o - wehavex,=0.4)=2,ands; |e the minimal nonnegative solution f thatx'= Oe ke +2 k-+ 1A) forany postive integer kis also a nonnegative solution, but its not minimal. Since odes 2and 3 corresponding to nonzero entries in xare not nthe token tre directed circuit (2b), all the conditions (ol Theorem 20are satisfied. Therefore, Myis reachable from [Mg (by firing nodes 2,3 and again 2, a ‘Consider a firing sequence ewhich stars and ends a My Inthis case, AM = Oand the fing count vector 3s solu tion x of the homogeneous equation Ae = 0, a8) For a connected marked graph with n nodes, the rank of ‘Als ~ Tand (1 has only one independent solution x= G&_k = BThiscorrespondstoatiring sequence which fires every node k times. The following theorem is easily shown [215 "Theorem 21: Fora connected marked graph (G, Mla ft- Ing sequence leads back to the initial marking Mf ees every node an equal number of times. o ‘Now, suppose theunderlying graph Gyotamarked graph sate Anymarkingon Gislivesinceatreehasnodirected Circuits For any two markings My and M, for Gr, (7 holds Since Grhas no circuits. Therefore, we have the following, therorem (2151, ‘Theorem 2: Any two markings ona lvected graph Gare mutually reachable if the underlying graph of Gis a tre. a (he two vectors x and AM in (15) an be interpreted 35 the node voltage vector and branch voltage vector, respec: tively, in an electrical network. Then, Theorem 21 can be Seen irom the fact that all he branch voltages are zero iff lllthe node voltagesare the same, Theorem 22isequivalent to saying thatthe branch voltage vector 8M can bechosen arbitrary if the network isa tee.) From (14) and (16), is easy t0 see that (16) holds AM isarow ofthe incidence mattixA. Aso, rom the wellknown lationship B/C] = 0, where Gis the fundamental cutset ‘mates can be seen that (16) holds if SM is a row of the utsetmatriC; Infact, thefollowing theorem canbeshown 5, Theorem 23: Two matkings My and Mina live marked ‘raph (G, Mate mutually teachable if thei diference AM ‘My ~ Mo {sa linear combination ofa st of fundamental ceutsets of G. 5 In ystem design, we are often given a set of states that are mutually reachable. ta state Is coded with an muple ‘of o's and 1's, then the given set of states can be regarded 235 Set of possibly safe) markings ina marked graph with ‘mares. synthesis problem iso find a matked graph fom igiven sets of mutually reachable markings. Theorem 2335 been used as a basis for converting tis synthesis problem to that of realizing cutset matrices of directed graphs (215 ‘This synthesis method produces live (but not necessarily safe) marked graphs. 2, Synthesis of Live Safe MG 1) Live Safe Equivalence Classes: Deline a relation ~ on the sot of live markings ofa digraph Gto be My~ Mit My isreachable rom My, Then its e359 to see that ~ is refx Ive symmetric, transitive, andthusan equivalence relation. ‘Therelation ~ parttionsthe setofivemarkings into equiv: alence clases: Let o(G) be the number of equivalence Classes of livesafe (5) markings for a strongly connected {raph G. Finding eG) fr a general caseisa major unsolved problem on marked graphs. However, for some specific types of digraphs, simple formulas for (G) are avalable. For example, itis known [218] that AND ai) where Nis the necklace of k nodes shown in Fig, 42, and K,is the complete digraph of n nodes. -1 « n= 2, Fig 42. Ny the necklace of K noses, Example 12:N;, Ny and Neate shown in Fig. 43a, (b), and (0, respectively, where a representative marking for teach equivalence clas in ea0h of Ny, K = 2,3, 4 are also shown. o The following two theorems [203], [218] provide neces- sary and sufficient conditions for aG) = 1. Theorem 24: Fora strongly connected graph Gof) = 1 if there do not exist the distinct nodes x,y,z which Appear in two distinct directed circuits the orders of ye2)and (x, z 9. a ‘Theorem 25: Fora strongly connected graph G, (G) = 1 iffherets a marking of Gwhich places exactly one token lon every directed circuit in G. aFig 4. (a) An example of (ran exampe of afc) = 3,0 ~ Ne Example 15:19 the marked graphs shown in Fig. 3), IN) 2-1 since there are three distinct nades 1,2, such that the sequence (1 2. 3)isin the outer directed circu (2, b, ed}, and the sequence (1.3.2) isin the inner directed circuit (ef, h} Theorem 24. Als, itcan be seen that there is no marking M such that MIC) = 1 for every rected cium No, nthe marked graph (G, My shown in Fig. 44, can be verified that p(G) = 1 since My places Fig 44. A marked graph (6, Ma with al) = ‘exactlyonetokenon each ofthe following possible directed ‘ireuits im G: {3 Be, dye, 1}, Uf gue). (28H La, Beduid, (Behl {6,0}, and {P, 8.1) Theorem 2, o 118) An example of eG) = 2, = Mi ~ ky 2) Expansion Rules for SMG Synthesis: thas been shovn (22), [203] that p(G) Is invariant under the following operations on a digraph C. 4) Series Expansion (SE)~adsition of an arceand node Zin series with an existing arc e” Gee Fig. 45. »)Panllel Expansion PO addition of an arcein parallel ‘with an existing are (Se Fi 4500. ©. Unique-Circuit Expansion (UE)~addition of an ace = (vy ¥) 10 a unique directed path Po from v0 4 (see Fig. 45), 4) VY Expansion (V¥E)~addition of anode x and an are las t0a pair of existing arcs ey = (y, 2)and e; = (y.10 also applicable if (a, 8) replaced by (3, everywhere} (ee Fig. 45) © Separable Graph Expansion SGE)—joining two ‘raphs G, and Gat exactly one node x to produce separable graph Cee Fig 45) In this expansion, Wehave pC) = piG) G3. Thus, (6) = is invariant if AG) © 1G) 1 Theabove stepwiseexpansion operaionscan beusedtor synthesizing MGs (C, Mi. Inthis synthesis, the following properties of decision tree concurrent systems can be pre- Scrbed: liveness absence of deadlocks), safeness absence ofoveriows}9(G) = 1 (ll markings orstates are mutually Feachable), minimum cycle time, and resource require ‘ments [219], Note that, inordertomaintain the liveness and Safeness properties, the newly added arc e must be token- ‘ee in the Series and V-Y expansions, Mle) = Mle) in the©®© - OO Fig 4S. tlastration ofthe fe expansion rule (series expansion () pura expansion, © unique cet expr idm ih WY expansion, snd) seperate graph expansion parallel expansion, and Mie) = 1 after making the unique path Py token-ee by appropriate firings. ‘ample 14: The LSMG model (Gy, Ma) of a communica: tion protocol shown in Fig. 28 can be synthesized from Ny by applying the above expansion rules six times. This is iMlustrated in Fig. 46, where PEC), SE), and UE(>) denote Fig 46. stration of theuse of expansion rules for LSC parallel, series, and unique circuit expansions, respec: tively, and the fabes inside the parentheses indicate the arch added by the expansions. Thus, we have 1G) = oN) By appiyng the SGE uleton necklaces of 2nodes iN), eo Fig.47. ALS marked graph mode of an mstage pipeline operation we know that (Gj) = 1 forthe marked graph (GMa) of an Instage pipeline operation shown in Fig. 47. The reverse ‘operations ofthe above expansions are the reduction rules thatean beused tofind pC) foragiven digraph C.Forexam- ple, tis easy to verify that the marked graph (Cy, Ma) shown In fig, 44 can be reduced to Nz after applying 2V-Y reduc tion fist, and then series, parallel, and unique-circut reductions. Thus, (G) = pth) = 1. 0 © Weighted Sum of Tokens Given a marked graph (C, My vector (invariant satistying tbe an m x 1.column Ae en where isthe n x m incidence matrix ofG-For anymarking -M reachable from Ma, we have from (15) and 1) cam way = xan) a Mth = MEL eo Equation (23) states that the weighted sum of tokens Ef Mle) Ke) is invariant forall markings Meachablefror ‘Mg In electrical network terminology, corresponds tothe branch current vector, (21) to Kirchhof’s current law, and. (22) to Tellegen’s theorem [921 Let Whe an m x Tcolumn vector whoseith entry is We), _a nonnegative integer weight of are, We) may represent the sorage space or cost to accommodate a token on arc fr Then, MW denotes the weighted sum of tokens for a ‘marking M.Given abounded live marked graph (CMa) we ‘often interested in finding the maximum or minimum ‘alueot MW forall markings reachable rom Mp. Thisvalue ‘canbe found from Mand a certain Sinvarant by the fl- owing theorem (92) Theorem 26: For a strongly connected live marked graph (GM), we have sax (M7WIM e ROMG)) = ein (MEINE = W, Al ° eo rin (M7WIM © RM} = max (MEIII = W, AI = 0}. 2) Proot Since Ma i ive, Me ROM) if M = Wy + A's, where xis ann x 1 vector of nonnegative integers. Thus, the lefthand side of (2) canbe writen asthe following lin- fear programming problem maxU = C'z subject to D2 = Myand 2 = 0 25)where e-[t]--[ffo-nen and li the identity matrix of order m. The dual problem (0f 26) can be stated a5 min V = My subjectto D'y2 a Were y ~ is uncestrited. D'y = Cis equivalent to = Wand Als 0. However, AI = Ois equivalent oA = since thesumofthenrowsin isalwayszero,ie,{0 1 --~ TiAl =01 = 0. Thus, 24 sequivalent tothe problemon the right hand side of 27. ts well known in linear programming that the optimal solution of 26) oF 27 isan extreme point of the corresponding constraint set. Note that all the teatreme points ofthe constraint set have only integra coor dinates since is totally unimodular, se, every quate sub mmatrixat Dinas determinant 0, 1,0" ~1, Therefore, the opt ‘malvaluesof(26)and 27) are attained at integral values, and (2a follows frm the theory f duality. Equation 25) ean be proved similarly. 0 Example 15:Consider the marked graph show in Fig SB whereMy= (10-1 0 Gand Wat 212 1. » Fig 48. husvaton of tinding the maximum ane minimum ‘weighted sums of okenein sample 1 ‘The “loop-urrent” distribution shown bythe dotted lines Ing. la yields an Sinvarant y= [2.2.2.2 4]! such that = W. Thus, by 24), max MW = Mh = 4, which atainedatthemarkingM=(0 10.1 OV reachableteom My. The “loop-current” distribution shown by the dotted lines in Fig 81D} gives an Sinwarant y= (01101) Suh that J, = W. By (25), we have mia MW = Miss Which satainedatM =(0 0 0.0 1)'reachable om My . Token Distance and Maximum Concumency 1) Token Distance Matrix for MG: The token distance t, between two nodes /and jin a marked graph (G, MM) I ‘efined asthe minimum token content among all possible irected paths P, from node ita node jin G. ie. (min mary -f co Le, it no deected path P, esas Given a marked graph with » nodes, the token distance matrix defined by T= [gj] 8 an m x» matrix having the Iollowing properties 1) =O for) = 142,000, 2 Gt tty lorall ts), ks 0. 3) (isa nonnegative integer oe 4 has been shown (220, (221) that the token distance mati T= [t,] has the following useful applications Tirability: A node jis feable (enabled) at & marking M iff all the off diagonal entries ofthe jth column in Tare pos ive. [Necessity of Fring: A node i must fre in order to enable another node j if {, = 0, ie, there exists a toker-ree directed path from tj ‘Syehronic Distance The synchronic dstance dy defined by 1), between two nodes and jina marked grap is given by dy = Maximum Firing Deviation: Letty + ty = k in a marked {raph (G, My. Then In any marking reachable rom My ks the maximum numberof times that one node or can fee Without fing the other node, Liveness: A marked graph is live iff ty + 6) = dy # O for anne} ‘Shortest Firing Sequence: The following algorithm yields shortest fring sequence toenablea node inalive marked raph (G, Mi) The length ofa firing sequence is defined 83s the numberof transitions (nodes fred in the sequence.) Step Mhiy > Ofor = 1,2,-=+ ,m i # Athen node js enabled. I not, go to Step 2 Step 2) Find a node such that =O # f)and ty > Oferk = 1,2,-*»,n{k + 1,42, node/isenabled ‘Step 3) Fire the node i found n Step 2 and update the token distance matrix T= () (by subtracting 1 from each entry ofthe th column, and adding 1 to each entry ofthe ith row in 7). Go to Step 1 ‘The fring sequence obtained inthe above algorithm is shortest since every node firing in Step 3 is necessary in btder to enabie node ‘Example Té: Fr the marked graph (C, My) shown in Fig, 49a), the token distance matrix is given by v 1000 roord 10 1004 10 12 ooFig49, MG in Example The nodes 1 and 2 are enabled since all the entries inthe {stand second columns in Tare positive, except fr the diagonal entries. There are token-ree directee paths Irom rode 1 10 nodes 3,4, and 5, since fy = t= ty = 0. The “ynchronic distance between nodes 1and is given by dy fy + ty= 1+ T= 2. Fre node 2 once. Then node T can be fired twice without firing nade 2. The shortest fring sequence to enable node is found from the zero entries inthe fith column in F. Since = 0isthe only of-dlagonal Zero entry, tis necessary to fire only nade ta enable node 5: Node 1's irable and when tis fired, the updated token distance matrix Tis oDlained feom T by subtracting 1 rom teach entry ofthe fist column and adding 110 each entry ff the fest cow, That v2tid coor r-|r1012 r100r 11000 which isthe token distance matrix af the MG shown in Fig 2300, 2) Maximum Concurency in MG: A set of nodes which areenabled at the initial marking Min alive marked graph {G, Mp can be found trom the token distance matelx T= [gj They are nodes corresponding o columns whose of. tdagonal entries ae all postive. For example, the first and Second columns in Tin Example Yeare sueh columns, and thus nodes Tand 2 are concurrently enabled a M A more important problem ito find a maximum set of nodes that ‘ean be fired at a marking M reachable fom Mp, The fol lowing theorem proved in (21), (222) can be used 0 find sch 3 set of concurrently file nodes. Theorem 27, kenode set Vy ina live marked graph (G, Aigisaknode concurrent set fi) every k ~ Ipnode subset ‘of Vis ak ~ thnode concurrent set, andi) V, Is not con- tained in any directed circuit with token count less than k a ‘The necessity of conditions i) and is obvious because Difallknodes are concurrently enabled, then nodesineach proper subset arealso concurrently enabled, andi) at most Knodes ima directed circuit with k tokens can be concur: ‘ently enabled. Theorem 27s used in [221] to staeanalgo- rithm fr finding amaximum set ofnodes which an betited concurrently at some marking In RIM) Alternatively, the problem of finding a maximum set of concurrently enabled odes in live marked graph (G, Mean be transformed {nto the following (0, 1-nteger programming problem: max 3 x subject to: Ale-=M-— Girabily) BiM = B,My Reachability) where (1 node is enabled wf] 0 otherwise EMG Synthesis of Synchronic Distance Matix ‘The synchronic distance matrix of a marked graph isan a xesymmetric matrix D = (d,) where d, isthe synchronic distance between nodes / andj. tis easy to very the To: lowing necessary conditions for D. ‘Property Let D = [d,]be the synchronic distance mate: fof a marked graph (G, Ma). Then dy = Ofor alli ns dy + dy fr alli jk tid is a nonnegative integer oF iW) dy = dy for ali 7 ‘A matrix satistying i) andi is called a distance matrix. It is well known that a matrix Disa distance matrix ff Deo 2 where « denotes the matrix multiplication in Carr's alge bra, that Is, adltion x + y is replaced by min fx, y} and ‘multiplication xy is replaced by addition x + y. Disa Synchronie distance matrix, then (29) holds. ‘Given matrix, we ate interested inthe problem of find inga marked graph whose synchronic distance matrix is D. ‘The following procedure (220) gives a method for finding amarked graph when Dis realizable asthe distance matt ff a tree (undirected-graph) with positive integer are weights, Procedure for Finding @ Marked Graph from a Given Matis D: Step 1. Test the necessary condition 29, Step 2. Find tree a weighted undirected graph) by the following procedure: Step 21. Find a maximum entry das nO. List All rows fy Which Gyr is located (Then node pi a pendant node of a eve.) ‘Step 22. For each row fy find unique min mum offiagonal entry dyn List the Column j, im which dng ts located Draw an arc between node’ i andj, with ae Weight da MF dye 8 nt Unique, Dis not realizable as an inode wee.) Step 23. Delete all the rows and columns in Which dy. located. step 24, Repeat Steps 21 through 2.3 until (oN) arcs ofa tee are drawn,Step 3. Replace each arce = (vy ¥)in the tree by pair fof oppositely dicted ates, e, = (vv) and ey = (r¥) Assign initial tokens on e, and such thatthe sum of tokens on e, and e, equals the weight ofthe arc e a Example 17: Find a marked graph whose synchronic distance matrix is given by 1234567 iforse6se afror2ssas afa203325 6530656 slosaeo12 slsa25101 7[ss36270 Themaximum entry dna = Gisfound forthe following rows = 1,4,5,7. Thus, nodes 1, 45,7 are pendant nodes, a6 Shown in Fig, 52. For each row ly = 1,4, 5,7, the unique ‘minimum entry ds located at column, = 2,3,6,6, with Sue = 1 3,1 1 Fespectvely. Thus, we know that arcs 2114, 3,15, 8, 7,6) have weights 1,3, 1, 1. respectvely, 26 is Shown in Fig. 50). Now, deleting the four rows and Four Columns frig = jo = 14,5, 7, we have 236 24 d,-3)202 olazo For Dy, doug ~ 4 found in rows ip = 2 and 6, doug = 218 found at (2,3) and (6, 3), respectively. Thus, can be real- izedasthe tree shown in Fig, 5c). Therefore, rom Fig. 5b) and), we have the tree realization ofthe matrix D shown in Fig. 50, from which we find the marked graph shown in Fig. 50) IIs easy 10 verify thatthe given matrix Dis indeed the synchronic distance matrix ofthe MG shown in Fig. 50 a ‘Note that given a matrix D sailying Property 1, we can always find an undirected graph G whose distance matric is. For example, we can draw a complete graph Gwhere thearc between nodes and has weight), However, appl- cation of Step 3t0 Gdoes not always resultinamarked graph ‘whose synchronicdistanceis Dif Gisnotatree. necessary Andsuticient condition fo tobe the synchronic distance mmatrixofamarked graph (ora Pettined isan open problem References (7, (218), (223) are suggested for further read ingon the subjectof marked graphs and their applications. VII, Srevcruest Proves Structural properties are those that depend on the topo logical structures of Petr nets. They are independent ofthe initial marking My inthe sense that these properties hold {or any intial marking or are concerned withthe existence fofcertain fring sequences from someiniia marking Thus these properties can often be characterized in terms ofthe incidence matrixA and its associated homogeneous equa: Fie 50. fcample 17: Synthesis of a synchronic distance tions or inequalities. Is assumed that all nets considered Inthissectionare pre, Theithentry ofavector xis denoted bby). Fortwo vectors xand y, x > y means that x) > x) foreach, x = y means that x) = Yi) foreach |, and ¥ 2 ymeans that x = y and xb) # y) for some ‘Structural Liveness: A Pati net Visa to be structurally lie if there exists alive initial marking for N. It is easy to see from Theorem 7 that every marked graph is structurally live. Also trom Theorem 12we can see thatafree-choice net 's structurally le iff evry siphon has a trap. A complete characterization of structualliveness for ageneral Pett net {s unknown. Controllability: Petri net Nis said tobe completelycom- twollable it any marking i reachable from any other mark * heorem 28: aPetrnet Nwith m placesiscompletely ‘contrallable, then we have Rank A =m co Proot ia Pete nets completely controllable, then (6) ‘must have a Solution x for any AM. Thus, from solvability ‘of linear equations [199] we must have for any &M Rank A = Rank (A7sM) ‘which implies thatthe rank of an m x matrix AT must be ‘of ts fll rank equal to m. o Note that (30) anly a necessary condition for complete controllability of Pete nets, However, the same condition ‘GOjissuficientaswellas necessary for markedgraphs. That is, a connected marked graph Gis completely controllable if 0) holds or Gs tee (198). Because for a connectedmarked graph G with 9 nodes, itis known that 1 en From (0) and (31), we have m = p ~ 1. That is, Ghas only ln Dares to connect nodes. This means that Gis cir Cullessconnected graph, Le, atree. The controllability fol lows from Theorem 22 ‘Structural Boundedness:A Peri net Nis sald to be struc- turallyboundedit itis hounded for any fst initial marking, Me “Theorem 29:APetrinet Nisstructurallybounded itfthere ‘exists an mvector y of positive integers such that Ay = 0. Proof: (<=) Suppose ay>oayso. oy Let M © RM, Then from (3), we have Rank A Ma M+ Ate = 0 oo ‘Consider the inner product of M and y My = May + x'Ay on Since Ay < Oand x = 0, we have Miy = Mly. os Thus, Mip), the number of tokens in each place, is ‘bounded by Map) = (Miyiyip) 38 where pip 5 the pth entry of y. (2) Suppose (32) does not hold. Then by Atinkowski- Farkas! lemma [27] of Case 4 in Table 4, there exists an Tables One of To Akernatives: Ether System a 0 System Aas w Salton exclusive) Case Tad Case lonkowi Farkas min) ae Wall known he ‘Fpeoy of Lines Inequaties (47 [49 Case 3 Stemke ‘Theorem and Case fare special Cases tor b 3D andy > hot Cee and ae Sane Sen 7 AS Bx unesticied — Ay=Gyz0yd>o ba 2 Arnone Ay 20.y20yb>o a Ans Ocunresticed — Ay =0,y>0 (tiem) (hot conservative (Conservative 4 A302 0 Ay s0.y>0 iraas) thot smucturally bounded) (actly Bounded) vector x = Ouch thatA'x 20, Then there exist two mark: ings Mand My uchthatM ~ My=A'x 00" Mz My. Choose stand thus M large enough so thata fring sequence o, such that 3 = x, can be repeated indefinitely. The net will be unbounded. 0 “Aplace pin aPetinetie said tobe sructurallyunbounded it there exists a marking My anda firing sequence o from 1M, such that pis unbounded. Its e259 to see thatthe fo lowing corollary holds. Corollary: A place p in 2 Petri net Nis structurally ‘unbounded iff there exists an nvector x of nonnegative Integers suc that A= AMO, where the pth entry of AM > O(ie, AMip) > 0), Conservatveness: A Petri net N is said to be (partially) conservative there exists a positive integer ip) fr every (ome) place p such thatthe weighted sum of tokens, M'y ‘= My = a constant, for every Me RIM, and fr any fixed Initial marking Mo Its easy to see from (3 that ‘Theorem HA Petri net Nis (partly) conservative iff there exits an m-vectoryof positive nonnegative) integers such that Ay = 0, #0. ‘Repettiveness:APeiri net Nis said tobe (partial reper Ive i there exists a marking My and a fring sequence © from My such that every (some) transition occurs infinitely clten ino Theorem 31:A Pete net Nis (partially) repetitiveiffihere exists an mvector of positive nonnegative) integers such that A'x 2, 2 0. Proof Suppose that there exists x > Osuch that Ax = (0, Then there exst two markings My and M Such that M = My = Als = Dor M = My. Choose Me (and thus Mf large fenough that a fring sequence , such that 3 = x, can be ‘repeated indefinitely. Then every transition will cur inf ritely often in this fring sequence. The converse is also true, a ‘Consistency: A Petri net Nis said to be (partially) cor sistent if there exists a marking Mand a firing sequence ‘rom Mback to Mysuch hatevery (some) transition occurs Bt east once ino Theorem 32:A Pete net Nis(partlly) consistent ff there exists an vector xof positive nonnegative) integers such thatale = Ox # 0, Proof Suppose a Pets net is consistent. Then from (5) there exists ant > 0 such that My = My + ATxor Ale = 0 ‘Conversely, suppasex > 0,4 =0, Choose Myand M large ‘enough that M ~My = A'x = 0, so that a fring sequence f such that 3 = x, can be repeated. 0 Ieis obvious that conservativeness is a special case of structural boundedness and that consistency Isa special Case of repeiiveness, Partial conservativeness, consis: tency, and repetitiveness are the relavation of positive vec: torsxory to nonnegative vectors xory- The complete char acterizations (necessary and suficient conditions) ol these “Sructural properties are summarized in Table 5. Table 6 Tale 5 Necessary and Suticent Conditions for Some $Sracturl Properties Symbols Properties ‘Conditions 58 Sructwaly Bounded 3y>0,Ay 20, torte hoo PCN Partially aya, a =o gr RePentve’ aes oaneo Pee Paral RePatine = de pO AO CS Consent ae lerdyay eo PCS__Panisly Consistent ax EAN =O presents a ist of coralares that can be derived from the properties in Tables 4 and 5 using equations (3) and (4). {eis helpful to understand the inequality conditions in Tables 4and 5 if we Interpret the expression A'xas the dit- ference of markings in each place, and the expression AySounded ucla ie 3 aysaayeo iy Ws both conservative ad conser 2 no lve Me for NN not consistent. (7) mot bounded for alive My 4442 0,A7r50 Solve Mor stucualy bounded N, {a5 the change in a weighted sum of tokens foreach tran Sion fring. ‘Example 1: From the definitions of structural properties, stiseasytoanalyzestuctural properties or eachnet shown inFig. St. The results are shown in Table7, whereeach entry C4 Fo to > Fg 51 tlystation of structural properties in ample 18 Fig 51, Where + and © nfach Row naieste Holding or Et tolting te Strato! Property in he om or Each Fepetve 7 iealyapaie favalyeoumemt = =e Compete controle Seacaalyive = + or ~ in the table indicates whether or not the property inthe coresponding row holds forthe netindcated nthe corresponding column, respectively The matixinequallty Conditfonsin Table canbe used tverifythe results shown in Table 7 (excep for structural Biainess, which is dis ssed ater inthis section 5 "Example: For the Pete et shown i Fig 15, here exists yet 0 01 1)" 0suchthatay=0 0-1 0-0 50. Therefore, by Case 2 Table 6, this neti nt lve for Any inital marking o ‘sand Finvariants:An mectory(n-vector of integers Is called an Sinvariant Tanvarana i Ay = O1A's = 0. The following two theorems are obvious trom the preceding discussion Theorem 33: An mvector y is an Simvaiant iff M'y = My for any fixed inital marking Mand any M in RNG. 5 Theorem 34: An nvector x = 01s a Tinvarant if there evista marking M, anda feng sequence o rom Mo back {0-Mo with its fring count vector 3 equal tox o “The set of places (ransiions) corresponding to nonzero entries in an Sinvaianty = 0 (Tarwariant x = 0) 5 called the suppor of an invariant and i denoted by Iyl Usb A support is said be minimal ao proper nonempty subset ofthe suppor is also a suppor. An invariant vector y Said tobe minimalif theres nother invariant ysuch that 9p) = 10) for al p. Given a minimal suppor of an ine ‘arian, heres unique minimal invariant corresponding totheminimal suppor. Wecallsuchaninvariantaminimal: Support invariant. The set ofall possible minima-support invariants can serveasa generator of lvalants That any invariantcan be written salinear combination of minimal suppor invariants (228 ‘Example 18: For the Petri net shown in Fig. 52, x1 (0 Wand = 1-1) areal posite mini. Fi 52. iystation of minimatsupport Tinvariants (0 andiO 1 ain ample port invariants, where a = {hf} and Hal = tt. fb Arecortesponding minimal supports Allother Tlavaeants Suchas= (11 2)'andxy=(2 1 3)?can beexpressed 2s linear combinations of xy and x. That sx) = x) + and y= 2x; + 4, Note that there are many (non-unique) Tn Variants such a8, et, corresponding toa nonminimal SuppOR {ty tf) (One easy way to ind Tlnwariants in an fxample ike this tosimulateall “fring sequences” which ‘wouldreproduceamarking usingtheconceptof "negative oF borrowed! tokens, i necessary.) Example 20: For the Petri net shown in Fig, 953ta),35 TT y= 2OT Nandy = 021 1 aeoO oo ow Fig 52,_ Example: the net showin isthe reverse dua llth net showin and vceversa One eabtained rom theluiher by ansporing the ncence mar, three minimal Fiavariants, However, only and sare min imabsupport Tivarlants, The support oly {fyb a) |S tnat minimal since its proper subset (tt) is the sup- port of another Tinvariant In other words, the support (fa minimal Taariant fe not necessarily a minimal sup- fort although there is a unique minimal Finvariant cor fesponding to each minimal suppor (224) x, can be ‘expressed asa linear combination of x, and x, namely tn, + 99/2, ThePetrinetshownin Fig Sb) isthe reverse- dual” ofthe net shown i Fig. 53a), Le, the net obtained by transposing the incidence matrix. Therefore, all the hove statements ean apply tothe net shown in Fig. 5b) it invariants are replaced by Sinvariants and by Py i= 1234 Equation (36) gives an upper bound on the number of tokens that place pcan ever have, This upper bound can be improved if we apply (36 forall minimalsupport Sn variants, That is Map) = Stn LM) on ‘where the minimum is taken overall nonnegative minima Support Sinvarianty such thaty.'p) # .ttisshown (179), that this upper bound can not be improved by using any other invariants) For a marked graph, the set of arcs in a directed circuits a minimal suppor S-invariant, and (37) reduces to Theorem & ‘Example 27: Consider the Pet net model ofa readers- swrters system shown in Fig. 1. Its incidence matrix A is wiven by PoP Ps Pe It is easy 10 veriy the following. 1) Ay) = Oand Ay = Ofor yy = 1 0 and ys = (01 1A. y, and yy ate minimalsupport Sin variants, Consider (37) Yor place p, and My eo k oF Mipg = Min [MEyv/yspa, MByalyPa = Min (AI, Wk] = 1 ‘Thus, at most, one process can bein the state of writ Ing ae requited inthe eaders-writers system 2) The net is not completely controllable since Rank A 53) The et is 8, CN, PCN, RP, PRP, CS and PCS. Structural -Fimess:The concept ofBaieness discussed in Section IV.H can be extended tthe following structural properties, Two transitions are said to be ina stuctural Bar elation i they are in a Bair relation for any initial marking. A Petri neti said to be structurally Bai itis [aire for any inital marking. ts Known (193) that: 1) A structucl Bar relation (as wells a Bair relation) fon the set of transitions Tis an equivalence relation, land thus partitions T lato equivalence classes 2} Structural Bfaliness implies B-aimess but the con- verse is not tue. For example, the net (NMG) shown In Fig 540) isa Bair net But Nis not structurally Bairsince there isan inital marking Mf, such that N, IM) is nota Bai net as is shown in Fig. 5b), where » Fist Anexample of alive asymmeti choice et which ‘Shot stactraly Basi, Me ara 8a), [Ws ive But not Bay, hey Nena stacy Ba the firing sequence ft can be repeated inf- italy often without fring ta O 3) A structurally bounded net is structurally Baie iff tether ) tis consistent and thete is only one eepro- ‘duction vector (minimal nonnegative Tiavariant x 0), or b) it is not consistent and there fs no repro- duction vector. 4) Every strongly-connected marked graph is steuctur- ally Bair References (185, (198), (224-226), [250)-(252] are sug ested for further reading on structural properties.IX. Moowito Pritt Nes AND Tht APPLICATIONS Inthis section, we discuss some modifications andexten- sions made on Petri nets that are Useful for applications. A Timed Nets and Minimum Cycle Time ‘The concept of time snot explicitly given inthe original ‘defintionof Petrnets.(SeeC. A Pets views regarding, the concepts of time and probability for Petri nets) How: fever, for perlormance evaluation and scheduling problems lof dynamic systems, it iat present) necessary and useful tointroduce time delays associated with transitions andlor placesin theirnet models. Such Pettinet models known fs (deterministic) timed neti the delays are determin. tically given, or asa stochastic net ifthe delays are prob- sbilstically specified. The former is discussed inthis sub- Section and the later in the next subsection. ‘We are interested in finding how fast each transition can initiate ring In a periodically operated timed Petri net, \wherea pened ris defined asthe time to complete a fring Sequence leading back othe sarting marking after tring ‘each transition at least once. ris called a cycle ime. Thus, itis assumed that the net is consistent, Le, ax> Oa =0, a) Suppose there i a delay of at last d, sec associated with transitions, = 1.2m. Thismeansthatwhensenabled, 2; tokens willbe reserved in place p for atleast sec before thee removal by ting, where a; isthe weight ofthe are from po, We define the resource-time product (RTP) as the product of the number of tokens (resources) and the Tength of time that these tokens reside na place. Thus, the IPs given by aydx, which can be writen in matrix form wayne 0) where A” = fjIpamand Dis the diagonal matix of d= Ji2 sn. Ai'Du represents the vector of m RTPs for m places, and each RTP considers only reserved tokens, Now, Euppose there are onthe average Mp) tokens in place p, during one cycler. Then, the RIP in the vector is given by Mr, Since the RTP obtained by this way of measuring Includes both reserved and nonreserved tokens, we have the following inequality Mr = A'On 0) Taking the inner product of (0) with a nonnegative Sin variant y and using the invariance, [Mf = y{Mf, we have viMor = LAD and 7 = yl-Du/y1Mp “ ‘Thetefore, a lower bound ofthe eycle + or the minimum cycle time is given by an = max {YA"YDx/yE Mah 2) werethe maximum istaken overaltindependent minimal: Support invariants, y, = 0. Itwve model timed Petri net by assigning delay oto cach placep, instead! the transitions then itcan be shown that Tr given by an = max (YEOMAN) «8 where Dis the diagonal matrix of dj = 1,2, «+ ,m and 1A = [af eamwthaa; Being the weight ofthe arc from 10 Py For timed marked graphs, each directed cult G yields ‘a minimal-support Sainvariant yy. Thus, both (42) and (3), reduce 0 imax the total delay in GMC) where (Ci) denotes the numberof tokensin at My Ret ‘erences( 38,4), [45] 46) 148 49]are suggested for further reading on deterministic timed nets. ‘sample 2: Consider the Pets net shown ie Fig. 11, and letthedelayof transition be d= 1,2, 3,4 From Example 21, we know that y; = (11 0. Wandy, = 0.1 1 A fare two. minimal support Sdavariants and that x (11 > 048 a minimal postive invariant. App cation of (2) yields an = aX [iy + dy + dy + dd ds + de Sta + yay mds 4 de + + ih DB 6, Stochastic Nets and Performance Modeling Suppose the delay, associated with transition & is anon ‘negative continuous random variable X ith the exponen {ial distribution function Fy) = PrN sa] = =e a {orthe probability deny function, f= Ne“) Then the average delays ven by a= [—rona= [emar= 2 as where the fring rate of ranstion "stochastic Pet et SPN) i et net wher each ea sivon associated wih an exponentially dstibuted an dlonariable hat expresesthe clay om the enabling the ing ofthe arson, na case whore several tans onsaresimutancousy enabled thetansionhathasthe shores ly wl fire fst Due tothe memoryless pro “ryot the exponential dstibuton offing dts hs Seen shown fa) tat the reachabiy graph of abounded SPN is somorphic toa fine Markov Cha. The Markov Chain heh ofa sPwcan be obaines rom the reachability fraphotthe eta net Wl nderiingthe SP aolows he state space fe the reachabity se Rand he Xransiton rate fom state Mt state Xf gven OY y= 1th possibly markingdependent fing tate of ans thontteanioring ino Mig hy tees there Sretwoor more tansions yt tansorming Mo iia, tno trastons anstorming Mio! tos determined so ast sais E gy =. The sare matic Q = Igo orders = ti khown asthe tan Shion ate ma 30 Le SPN (NM be reverse My eR) for every, « ft). Then the SPN generates an ergoie continuous “iment anditispossblerocompute hesteady state prob Shi cistron by sing the tinea system n9=0 5-4 6where mis the probability of beingin state Mand Il = xy, tr. 4).Fromthesteady-statedistibution I, tispossible {orind various performance estimates ofa system medeled by the SPN. For example, 1) The probability ofa particular condition: Let B be the subset of RM, satisfying a particular condition. Then, the fequired probability ts given by Pa) = 3. an 2) The expected value ofthe numberof tokens: Let Bl, ibe the subset of RM) for which the number of tokens in a kebounded place pis n. Then, the expected value of the numberof tokens in place p, i given by E,lortes, on. im, “) 43) The mean numberof firings in unt time: Let 8, be the subsetof RM inwhicha given transition Lisenabled. The, the mean number of firings of fn unit time is given by “) winere is the fing rate af and —qy the sum of fring ates of transitions enabled at M, Le, the transition rate leaving state M ‘ample 23: Consider the SPN shown in Fig. 55. Tran- sition fires at a marking-dependent rate given by mss, Fig 55. The stochasi at net used in Example 23. where m, s the number of tokens in ps Transitions ty, {uhave (marking independent) ring rates hy yy respec: tively. The reachablty graph and the MC ofthe SPN are shown in Fig. 56a) and (b),eespectively. The transition rate matrix Qs iven by hw ° Mi} hs hs um} 0 mh mf od ° ° mo 0 ° mL oo » ° where Ros = ts Tet hr = As = 1/2and dy = Ay = c= 1. Then, wecan solve (46) numerically for Hand find n= 191, y= my = 5 = ony = 2/11. Thus, for example, we can find the average rhumber of tokens in place p38 follows: since p; has one » F562) The reachabity graph and) Markov hain of {he SPA Shows in i 55 token at M, and My and 2 tokens at My, we have Fim) = ry + ny + 2m; = 6IM1 [Aso the mean number of firings offs given by Feeley (SLL So On pt ey Thee N hetNeN steasin=Z futinein=Z since fs enabled at My My, My, and no other states. 'SPNS have been extended toa class of generalized sto chastic Petr nets (GSPN) [Sli order to copewith thestate Space explosion problem. A GSPN has two types of tra ‘ition (timed and immediate). A timed transition has an ‘exponentially distributed fing rate, and an immediate {transition has no fring delay and is used to represent alog- ical control or an acthity whose delay is negligible com pared with those assaciated with timed transitions. Reduc ton ofthe state space is achieved by discarding vanishing, ‘markings that correspond to some intermeciate states in ‘shich the system spends 2er0 or negligible amount oftime. When twoor more immediatetranstonsareinconilctand ‘enabled atthe same time the conflict must be resolved by Specifying marking-dependent or independent branching » oO ° os ° oo Shy hdd Os x m8 » o = babies, Useful results concerning stochastic Petinets ‘with generally distributed anstion delayshave been given Inland their modelis called an extended stochastic Petr tet (ESPN), They partition transitions Into three classes ‘exclusive, competitive, and concurrent. ESPN can bemapped onto semiMarkov processes, under the cond tions thatthe fring delay ofall concurrent transitions is exponentially distributed, and that competitive tansiions resample a new firing delay whenever they are enable. Usinga similar approach, an embedded Markov chain tech nique has been presented forthe analysis of DSPN (deter: ministc and stochastic Petri nets) containing both deter. Iminstc and stochastic transition fring delays (321, Papers In two Proceedings [28], [29] and ther references ae sug. [gested fr further reading on these and other types of sto- Cchastic nets and their applications C Hightevel Nets and Logie Progaams Highevel nets in abroad sense, include predicatetran sition nets (271 colored Petri nets 225), and nes with ind. Viual tokens [248], & detailed discussion of these nets is Deyondthescopeot this paper. Here, weinformallydiscuss only elementary aspects of high-level nets and thee appl. tations to modeling and analysis of logic programs. ‘We ilustrate the transition fring rule of highevel nets ‘using the simple predicateltransin net shown in Fig. 57. Fig.$7,thastration of transition fing rule na hovel fei beore ting) ater fring nth subst (, Diyscelrandieatering with substitution fly Bi. The net consists of one transition ¢ and four places (two. input placesp,andp, and two output places and po. Note thatthe four acs are labeled with 2, (xy) = €¥, 2). 6 2) and. The arc label dictates how many and which kinds (0f "colored" tokens willbe removed Im or added to the places. For example, when the transition tin Fig. 57 fies, {he following wil occur loses two tokens of the same color, x; eloses two tokens of different colors, (x,y? and ¢y, 2: Py gets one token ofthe color, (x2); and gets one token of the color, e (a constant. ‘The initial marking of the net consists ofthe following: pi has four colored tokens, two a’ and two os prhas theee colored tokens ordered pais), (2,

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