HEAT_TRANSFER.pdf ow a PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 4 Heat Transfer Heat may be transported from one point to another by any of three possible mechanisms : conduction, convection, and radiation. We study the rate of energy transfer between bodies due to temperature difference between them. Convection Convection is the process in which heatis carried from place to place by the bulk movement of a fluid. In liquid and gases, the atoms or molecules can move from point to point. The transfer of heat that ‘accompanies mass transport is called convection In forced convection, a fan or pump sets up fluid currents, For examples, % fr a fan blowsair, ora pump circulates water in a hot-water heating system inahouse. 4 Ince convection itoccurshecase he density of fd varies with ts U tere oes Anexampleofeonveoton currents ina pan of water being themoccment a id heatedonagasburner. Thecurrents distribute the heat from the ‘buming gasto all parts of the water. The direction of conve ion current is opposite to acceleration due to gravity as shown in figure. Conduction Arrod whose ends are in thermal contact with a hot re: ervoirat temperature T,, and a coldreservoir at temperature T,.. The sides of the rodare covered with insulation meterial, so the transport of heat is along the rod, not through the sides. The molecules atthe hot reservoirhave greater vibrational energy. This energy is trransferred by collisions to the atoms at the end face of the rod. These atoms in ‘turn transfer enery to their neighbors futher along the rod. Such transfer of heat through a substance is called conduction as shown in figure. j= Th Heat is conducted through an insulated bar whose ends are in thermal contact with, two reservoirsPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 2 Steady and Transient State : ‘Considera metal rod AB, with one end A inserted into a chamber containing a heater with other end B left free and exposed to the surrounding as shown in figure. The rod is thermally insulated sideways with some bad conductor of heat say cotton. Three thermometers are installed in the rod at three distinet sections numbered (1), (2) and (3). Initially, the enitre system is at the room temperature and the three thermometers show the same room temperature, The heateris then switchedon, The end first gets heated up and simultaneously heat is conducted to the adjacent sections towards end B. Due to heat absorption at each sections. The corresponding temperatures start rising with T, >T,>T,, Sucha state encountered initially is known asa transient state, In this state, the heat coming through end A. is continu- s time elapses, Afier some time when the temperature of end B becomes equal to that of surrounding and thus becomes constant, Similarly, the t ample 1,2,3) becomes constant orsteady. But ously absorbed at each sections with a temperature ris mperature of each of the sections of the rod (for e these steady values at different sections are different. \—___V Sarer=a Consider portion of the rod of cross sectional area A as shown in figure, Let the temperatures ofthe two sections separated by alength L be T, and T, respectively (with T, >), Temperature gradient (fall in temperature per unit length) along the length of the rod will be Experiments show that the conduction rate (energy transferred perunit time) isgiven by: Fourier’s Law of HeatConduction =KA st) (Where K : Thermal conductivity of material a dx H: Thermal current aT “gq Temperature gradient A: cross-sectional area of heat path) ‘The reciprocal of thermal conductivity (K) is called thermal resistivity or thermal specific resistance. Substances having high values of K are good conductors of heat.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 8 ‘Temperature distribution along a conductor : Inorder to study conduction in more detail consider figure (i), which shows a metal bar AB whose ends into the walls of two metal tanks H and C. Tanks H contains boiling water and C contains ice-water, Heat flows along the bar from A to Band when conditions are steady the tempera~ ture 0 of the baris measured at points along its length. ‘The curve in the upper part of the figure shows how the temperature falls along the bar, less and less have been solderet steeply from the hot endo the cold. So the temperature gradient decreases from the hot end to the cold. The figure (ii) shows how the temperature varies along the bar, if the bar is well lagged with a bad conductor, sucha estos or wool. Itnow falls uniformly from the hot tothe coldend, so the tempera- ture gradient along the bar is constant. 100°C 1004 Hl af hal “ Pb bo 4 B c hea? 7 ( unlageed Gi) lngved Figure : Temperature fall along lagged andunlagged bars TOON ONIO The difference between the temperature distributions is due to the fact that, when the bar is unlagged, heat escapes from its sides, by convection in the surrounding air, figure (i). The arrows in the figure represent the heat escaping persecond from the surface of the bar, and the heat flowing per second along its length, The heat flowing persecond along the length decreases from the hot end to the cold. But when the bar is lagged, the heat escaping from its sides is negligible, and the flow per second i constant along the length of the bar, figure ( now Steady State Heat Conduction : Temperature variation along length of rod Atsteady state, energy transferred through one cross-section of the rod duringa certain time interval is ‘equal to the energy transferred by at the other cross-section of the rod during the same time interval. AQPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 4 ‘Temperature distribution across the rod : Letat distance x we take element of length dx having a cross-sectional area A and temperature T (AS shown in figure). In steady state, rate of heat flow H remains constant ne—Ka A Jor jra | }KA re. BX oo KA x =T,->(-T) T=T,- 76 The variation has been plotted above. ‘Thermal Resistance : ‘The heat transfer by conduction due to temperature difference has an analogy with flow of el current through a wire whena potential difference is applied. In that case, electrical resistance is defined as R larly, thermal resistances defined as, Rp --t) H Fora rod having length L,, area of cross-section A and thermal conductivity K, (T=T,) H (7) ~ KA(T, -T)/L Le ~ KA Having calculated the thermal resistance, we can now apply the results of series combinationand parellel R combination of resistors. It has been explained below ‘Composite Rods Series Connection : If same heat current are flowing both the rods in steady state, they are said to be opty (es RU=R,+R,=3R)PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 5 Where A - cross-section area of rods T- Temperature at the juction or Interface temperature K, & K, - Themal conductivities of rodshaving lenghts L, and L, respectively. In steady state, heat currentis constant throughout the rods. AQ_T=1 at R, T,-T-iR, 0} T—T,=iR, lil) From (i) & (ii) T,-T, Rak! and AT i=. vinseriesR,=R,+R, Equivalent conductivity of composite Rods (K,,) : If this rod is replaced by a single rod, then (1. TYR, Li+L KT, KK, Parallel Connection :If the tow rods have the same temperature difference across it, they are said to be in parallel. AQ (T>T) atPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars os If the two rods are repleaced bya single rod, then K, will be TT K,= <———~ and i= SRG (A,+A,) Ry ‘Thus, the heat current in thermal resistances in terms of total thermal current is given by: R.); ( RR), Mlustration : age Tivo identical rods are joined at their middle points. The ends are ‘maintained at consiant temperatures as indicated. The temperature of the junction is ? Sol Let junction temperature he T are + a Accourding to kirchouffs junction law, sre Net input thermal current is equal to net output thermal current on a junction. ive zi}, -2(% At Tin \ At Jou (100-1) (75-1) (T-50)_ (T=25) (R/2) * (R/2) ~ (R/2) * (R/2) 173+ 75 = 4T T= 625°C Mllustration : Three rods of material x and three of material y are connected as shown in figure. All the rods are identical in length and cross-sectional area. Ifthe end A is maintained at 60°C and the junction E at 10°C, calculate the temperature of the junction B. The thermal conductivity of x is 800 Win — °C and that of y is 400W/m ~*C.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars z Sol. Itis clear from the symmetry of the figure that the points Cand D are equivalent inall respect and hence, they are at the same temperature, say T. No heat will flow through the rod CD. We can, therefore neglect this rod in further analysis. (Treated as balance wheat stone bridge) Let Land A be the length and the area of cross-section of each rod. The thermal resisinces of AB, BC and BD are equal. Each has a value 4) @ E are equal, each having a value Ww As the rod CD has no effec equivalent thermal resistance i we can say that the rods BC and CE are joined in series. Their Ry = Root Rep = Ry * Ry Also, the rods BD ad DE together have an equivalent thermal resitance Ry > Rap * Rog Ry + Ry RARER, RARER, The resistances R,and R, are joined in parallel and hence their equivalent thermal resistance is given by R,_RtR or R= " 2 2 R, (RARE This resistance R, is connected in series with AB. Thus, the total arrangement is equivalent to a thermal resistance. IR, +R RRip a) The heat current through A is 1 UT, —T.) i= R 3R, +R, @ This current passes through the rod AB. We have T.-Th i= Ry (i) by using (i) and (ii) we getPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars ° 2K,(T, —T,) x T,-T, 5 — 2400 _a90¢ 4u18 K, +3K, 800 +3400 T,- °C = 40°C Mlustration : Two identical rectangular rods of metal are welded as shown in figure (1) and 20 J of heat flows through the rods i I min, How long would it take for 20 J heat to flow through the rods ifthey are welded as shown in figure (2), Loo, (Figure -1) (Figure -2) Sol Let R be the thermal resistance of each rod. rity R In first case R RR or Ri = 2 So the rate of flow of heat in this situation will be 00-0 _ 20 R/2 60 R=600°CW Now for case (2) R, = R+ R= 600 + 600 = 1200 °C/W AQ_ AT At R, 20 _ 100 t 1200 1 = 240 secPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 9 Mlustration : Sol. () © Two parallel plates A and B are joined together to form a compound plate (in figure). The thick- nesses of the plates are 4.0cm and 2.5 cm respectively and the area of cross-section is 100m: for 100 Wine” for the plate A and K, = 400 Wine'C t flow through any cross-section, (b) the each plate. The thermal conductivities are K, for the plaie B. The outer surface of the plate A is mai the plate Bis maintained at 0°C. Find (a) the rate of temperature at the interface and (c) the equivalent thermal conductivity of the compound plate. lore ‘alploc (@ Let the temperature of the interface be T. The area of cross-section of each pate is A= 100 em? = 001m. The thicknesses are 04m and x, = 0.025 m The thermal resistance of the plate A is Re KAA and that of the plate Bis Xe Rs Kya The equivalent thermal resistance is Kk @ (Ky + Xp/Ky (0.01 m*) (100°C) (0.01m*) (100°C) = 3810 W. © (0.04m)/(200 W/m ="C) + (0.025m)/ (400 W/m—C) . A(T-T,) Wehave = 1K, (0.01m*) (T-0°C) ~ (0.025) / (400 W/m—°C) on T= 25°C IK is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the compound plate, its thermal resistance is or 3810 WSol PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 40 Comparing with (i), Xa*Xe XA Xp Kay Ky "Ky Xa thy on K, Ke txy/Ky 7248 Wim-8C Mlustration = The ends of copper rod of length I m and area of eross section I cm? are maintained at 0°C and 100°C. At the centre of the rod there is a source of heat of power 25 W. Thermal conductivity of copper is 400 Wim-K. In steady state, the temperature at the section on rod at which source is supplying heat, will be ? wel ore 4Q) Net thermal current supplied by source | J then AQ _ AQ, AQ, At At At 25= ka (T-100)+ 5 25x05 2T- 100 400x 1x10 2 1250) 100 T= 206.25°C Mlustration = What is the temperature of the steel-copper junction in the steady state of the system shown in the figure. Length of the steel rod = em, length of the copper rod = 50 em, temperature of the furnace = 300 °C, temperature of the other end = 0°C. The area of cross section of the steel rod s twice that of the copper rod. (Thermal conductivity of steel = 50 Js! m' K-! and of copper = 400 Fs! me! K) Fura Tee box Ce 5 Tnsulating material COPS Copied to clipboard.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars “4 Sol, Let temperature be T. in steady state series connection heat transje at (22) an gh each rod Sol, Let temperature be Tin steady state series connection heat transfered {”s¢ | through each rod is same. AQ _ k,A\(1,-T) _ k,A,(T-T,) At L, L, sw-1=| 300-7 =27 T= 100°C Practice Exercise Qu Three identical metal rods A, B and C are placed end to end and a temperature difference is maintained between the free ends of A and C. Ifthe thermal conductivity of B (K,) is twice that of (K,) and half that of A(K,), (K, = 49 wimK calculate the effective thermal conductivity of thesystem ? Q.2 Two identical rectangular rods of metal are welded end to end in series between temperatures of 0° C and 100°C and 10J of heat is conducted (ina steady state process) through the rods in 2.0min, How Jong wouldit take for 10 to be conducted through the rods if they are welded together in parallel across thesame temperatures? Q3. A composite cylinder is made of two materials having thermal conductivities K, and K, tio K,/K, the heat Temperature ofthe two flat faces of eylinderare main curentthrough the two materials will be same. Assume steady state and therodis thecurved surface), ed at T, and, For what (insulated from QI 21wimk Q2 30sees. Q3PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 42 Radiation Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic waves. Allbodies continuously radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. It does not require a material medium. Electromagnetic waves from the sun, for example, travel through the void of space during their joumey to earth, Even an ice cube radiates energy, although so little of its inthe form of Visible lightthatan ice cube cannot be seen in the dark. The surface of an object plays a significant role in determining how much radiant energy the object will absorb or emit, lampblack rs er sock coated with cf the The two blocks in sunlight in figure, for example, are identical, except that one has a rough surface coated with lamblack (a fine black soot), while the other has a highly polished silver surface. As the thermometers indicate, the temperature of the black block rises at a much faster rate than that of the silver block. This is because lampblack absorbs about 97% of the incident radiant energy, while the silvery surface absorbs only about 10%. The remaining part of the incident energy is reflectedin each case, We observe the lampblack as black in color because it reflects so litle ofthe light falling on it, while the silvery surface looks likea mirrorbecauseit reflects sollte of the light falling on it, while the silvery surface looks like a mirror because it reflects so much light. Since the color black is associated with nearly complete absorption of visible light, the term perfect blackbody or, simply, blackbody is used when referring to an object that absorbs all the electromag ctic waves falling on it, Black body: ‘The experiments described before lead us to the idea of aperfectly black body, one which absorbs all the radiation that falls upon it, and reflects and transmits none. The experiments also lead us to suppose that such a body would be the best possible radiator. Copied to clipboard.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars Radiation Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic waves. Allbodies continuously radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. It does not require a material medium. Electromagnetic waves from the sun, for example, travel through the void of space during their joumey to earth, Even an ice cube radiates energy, although so little of its inthe form of Visible lightthatan ice cube cannot be seen in the dark. The surface of an object plays a significant role in determining how much radiant energy the object will absorb or emit, lampblack rs er sock coated with cf the The two blocks in sunlight in figure, for example, are identical, except that one has a rough surface coated with lamblack (a fine black soot), while the other has a highly polished silver surface. As the thermometers indicate, the temperature of the black block rises at a much faster rate than that of the silver block. This is because lampblack absorbs about 97% of the incident radiant energy, while the silvery surface absorbs only about 10%. The remaining part of the incident energy is reflectedin each case, We observe the lampblack as black in color because it reflects so litle ofthe light falling on it, while the silvery surface looks likea mirrorbecauseit reflects sollte of the light falling on it, while the silvery surface looks like a mirror because it reflects so much light. Since the color black is associated with nearly complete absorption of visible light, the term perfect blackbody or, simply, blackbody is used when referring to an object that absorbs all the electromag ctic waves falling on it, Black body: ‘The experiments described before lead us to the idea of aperfectly black body, one which absorbs all the radiation that falls upon it, and reflects and transmits none. The experiments also lead us to suppose that such a body would be the best possible radiator.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 43 Prevost’s theory of exchange: Any body having temperature greater then zero kelvin, must emitor aborb radiation, Ais placedin an evacuated enclosure B, at lower temperature than A, then A cools until itreachesthe temperature of B. Ifa body C, cooler than B, is putin B, then C warms up to the temperature of B. We conclude that radiation from B falls on C, and therefore also on A, even through A isatahigher tempera- ture, Thus A and C each come to equilibrium at the temperature of B when each is absorbing and emitting radiation at equal rates. If Qs the total incident energy on a body, Q, isthe part absorbed, Q, is the part reflected and par transmitted then Q=Q,+Q+Q, Absorption coefficient or absorptive power Reflection coefficient t ‘Transmission coefficient t 10 QQ =Q Thus at+rt+t=1 If, for abody, r~t~0 and a~ 1, it absorbs all the energy falling on it, such bodies are known as black bodies. Emissive Power: Emissive power of a surface is the quantity of heat energy emitted per second, perunit area of surface through unit solid angle. It depends on the nature and the temperature of the surface, Emissivity: Emissivity ofa surface isthe ratio of the emissive power ofthat surface to the emissive power ofa black body at the same temperature. Kirchhoff’s Law: Ata given temperature, the ratio of emissive power to absorptive power of any body is equal tothe emissive power of a black body at that temperature. Thus, EE, ay ~ Phe ly From Kirehhoft’s law, itcan be deduced that good absorbers arealso good emittersPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 44 Stefan's radiation law Anidealized body that absorbs all the radiation incident upon itis called a blackbod! Ablackbody absorbs not only all visible light, butinfrared, ultraviolet, and all other wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, Ittums out that a good absorber is also. good emitter of radiation, A blackbody emits more radiant ower per unit surface area than any real object atthe same temperature, The rate at which a blackbody emits rdiation per unit surface area is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute tem- perature. 4Q P= =oAT! (for ablack body) In equation, A is the surface area and T is the surface temperature of the blackbody in kelvins. Since Stefan’s law involves the absolute temperature and not a temperature difference, °C cannot be substi- tuted. The universal constant o (Greek letter sigma) is called Stefan’s constant 6 =5.670 x 10 Wim? K*) The fourth-power temperature dependence implies that the power emitted is extremely sensitive to temperature changes. Ifthe absolute temperature of a body doubles, the energy emitted increases by a factor of 2*= 16. Since real bodies are not perfect absorbers and therefore emit ess than blackbody, we define the emi vity (e) as theratio of the emitted power ofthe body to that of a blackbody at the same tempera- ture, Then Stefan’s law becomes. P=eoAT! (for anon-black body) ‘The emissivity ranges from 0 to = 1 fora perfect radiator and absorber (a blackbody). €=0 fora perfect reflector. Hot object placed in isothermal enclosure: Consider body at a temperature of T, and T, is the temperature ofthe room or enclosure containing the body. If is the surface area of the body and emissivity (e) nce the body is in temperature equilibrium, the energy per second it radiates must equal the energy per second it absorbs. then, from Stefan’s law, cenergy per second emitted (P_,,) coAT,! energy per second absorbed (Py) “COAT! ‘coi Paros = TT, Now suppose the body X is heated electrically by a heater of power W watts and finally reaches a constant temperature T. In this case, from Prevost’s theory, energy per second from heater, W =net energy per second radiated by X The net energy per second radiated by X = ecAT*— ea AT". So W =eoAT*—eoAT,'=e0A(T'—T,')PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 45 Mlustration: A copper sphere is suspended in an evacuated chamber maintained at 300 K. The sphere is mantained at a constant temperature of 500 K by heating it electrically. A total of 300 W of electric power is needed 10 do it. When half of the surface of the copper sphere is completely blackened, 600W is needed to maintain the same temperature ofthe sphere, Calculate the emissivity of copper Sol Applying Stefan's Law Initially T = 300K and T,= 500K 300 = oe A [500° — 3004] a afterwards \ half of the surface of sphere is completely blackened = 8A says so0t) + © rs00" - 5004 600 = ~~ 300" 3004] + ~~ [5004 - 30047 2) dividing (2) by (1) Itustration: The solar constant for a planet is §. The surface temperature of the sun is TK. The sun subtends an angle @.at the planet. Find 8. Sol. Solar constant (S) is defined the rate at which radiations are received from sun per unit surface area. a2) Rs . tun (02) = R, > radius of earth ™. Rs tan (0/2) = 0/2 = —- ‘ R A Rs _ 9/2] Y tt R J (eat ") Powerreceived Cs a Solar constent (S) ~ “Surface Area R-> distance between centre olan) cof earth and surface of sun // = CGR L 4nRPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 46 Mlustration: A highly conducting solid sphere of radius R, density pand specific heat sis kept in an evacuated chamber. A parallel beam of electromagnetic radiation having uniform intensity Lis incident on its surface, Assuming surface of the sphere to be perfectly black and its temperature at t = 0 to be 4 ) equal 10 T,, Caleulate marimum attainable temperature of the sphere. (Stefan’s constant = 0) Sol At maximum temperature, heat received by solid sphere from electromagnetic radiation = heat radiated by solid sphere TAR? = (ABR?) Tad Power received per second (P.,,) = Intensity (I) * Projection area of sphere) ryt ) Tae = } mar (4p J Milustration: The distance of the Earth from the Sun is 4 times that of the planet Mercury from the Sun.The temperature of the Earth in radiative equilibrium with the Sun is 290 K. Find the radiative equilibrium temperature of the Mercury. Assume all three bodies io be black body 2{ Pan | = | 13{ Fon | P. o(e)4aR5Ts Sol In Thermal Equilibrium ‘eesived = Pies 2 1 = (ye Torin __|eroury Trmercury V Tearth rg yli2 Tooean, = 290K) | +} ec tr 80K Mustration = The tungsten filament of an electric lamp has a length of 0.5m and a diameter 6 x 10% m. The power rating of the lamp is 60W. Assuming the radiation from the filament is equivalent to 80% that of a perfect black body radiator at the same temperature, estimate the steady temperature of the filament. (Stefan constant = 5.7 * 10° Wm? K+) Copied to clipboard.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 47 Sol. When the temperature is steady, power radiated from filament = power received = 60V 0.8 5.7 * 10 % 20 *3 XP 0.5 XT = 60 since surface area of cylindrical wire is 2arh with the 60 ] = 1933 K sual notation, (04 x5.7x 10% x 2n x3 x 10> Newton's law of cooling Forsmall temperature differences, the rate of cooling, due to conduction, convection, and radiation combined, is proportional to the difference in temperature, Itis a valid approximation in the transfer of heat from aradiatorto aroom, the loss of heat through the wall of'a room, or the cooling of a cup oftea on the table. o © Figure : Verification of Newton's Law of cooling Suppose, a body of surface area A atan absolute temperature'T iskep in a surounding havinga lower temperature T,. The netrate of loss of thermal energy from the body due to radiation is Au,=e0ACT"~T,') Ifthe temperature difference is small, we ean write T=1,+AT or, T= (1, +AT- TE as{14 447 4 higher powers of AT = AT AT=4T,3 (TT) eoAT, (T—T,) =b, A(-T,) The body may also lose thermal energy due to convection in the surrounding air. For small temperature ‘Thus, difference, the rate of loss of heat due to convection is also proportional to the temperature difference and thearea of the surface. Thisrate may, therefore, be written as Au,=b,A (P=) ‘The net rate of loss of thermal energy due to convection and radiation isPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 48 Au=Au, +Au,=(b, +b.) A(T-T,). Ifsbe the specific heat capacity of the body and m its mass, the rate of fall of temperatures at _Au_ bbs gg dt ms ms ST) =bA(T-T,) Thus, for small temperature difference between a body and its surrounding, the rate of cooling ofthe body is directly proportional o the temperature difference and the surface area exposed. We can write Tk pacer, a 7 PAT -T)) Cooling curve: ‘The law holds good only for small difference of temperature. Also, the loss of heat by radiation depends. upon the nature of the surface of the body and the area of the exposed surface. We can write av ~q TROT) where kis a positive constant depending upon the area and nature of the surface of the body. Suppose a body of mass m and specific heat capacity sis at temperature T. Let T, and T, be the temperature of the surroundings and body respectively. ithe temperature falls by a small amount dT intime dt, thenthe amountof heat lost dQ=msdT Rate of loss of heat is given by dQ sT TS a from equation dQ dQ aT KET) and Ge = ms aT wehave — —ms ar T-T, (where K=k’ms) Onintegrating, temperature of body (1-1, ) In )=—kt To T=T,+(T,-T)e" “es enables youto calculate the time of colling ofa body through a particular range of temperature | Copied to clipboard.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 49 Mlustration = The temperature ofa body falls from 52°C to 36°C in 10 minutes when placed in a surrounding of constant temperature 20°C, What will be the temperature of the body after another 10 min, (Use Newton's law of cooling ) aT. Pn) at me 52-36 Let the tempature of the body after another 10 min be T 36-1 136+ a] 10min me{ 2 solving we get T = 28°C Mlustration : A metal block is placed in a room which is at 19°C. It is heated by an electric heater of power 500 W till its temperature becomes 50°C. lis initial rate of rise of temperature is 2.5°Cisec. The heater is switched off and now a heater of 100W is required fo maintain the temperature of the block at 50°C. (Assume Newtons Law of cooling to be valid) () What is the heat capacity of the block? (i) — What is the rate of cooling of block at 50°C if the 100W heater is also switched off? (ii) What is the heat radiated per second when the block was 30°C? SOLD Preater = Peivento book * Poss suroundings Iniial P,,,.~ 0 500 = a +O mse 500 = C25 C= 200I°C (i) At50°, power loss to surroundings = 1001 O= av 100 = mst ar __100 de 7209 7 AS shee (ii) Given at 50°C: Newton’ Law of cooling Power Loss = 100= (50-1) => 5 At 30°C Py, =K(30— 10) = 5 x 20=50WPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 20 Practice Exercise Q A metal sphere with a black surface and radius 30 mm, is cooled to ~ 73 C (200 K) and placed inside an enclosure ata temperature of 27°C (300K). Calculate the initial rate of temperature rise of the sphere, assuming the sphere is a black body. (Assume density of metal = 8000 kg m* specific heat 4 capacity of metal =400 J kg"! K", and Stefan constant = 5.7 x 10° Wm? K*)., Q.2__ A pan filled with hot food cools from 94 °C to 86 °C in2 minutes when the room temperature is at 20°C. How long will ittake to cool from 71 °C to 69 °C? A body cools from 50° C to 40°C in $ minutes. The surrounding temperature is 20°C. What will be its temperature S minutes after reading 40°C? Use approximate method Answers: 100, QI 0.012 Ks (approx). Q2 42sec Q3 Wien's Displacement Law The wavelength corresponding to highest intensity mis inversely proportional to the absolute tempera- ture. Thus aot nT where b (=2.89 10° meter Kelvin) is known as the Wien's constant. When the temperature of a black body is increased, the contribution of low wavelength radiation in- creases. This explains why abody on heating first appears ed, then orange, then white and finally blue, This aw also helps us in determining the temperatures of the stars. Energy Distribution in Black Body Radiation: ‘The radiation emitted by a black body at any temperature is a mixture ofall wavelengths, The graph shows qualitative variation in intensity wavelength, at different temperatures. To, Fash z Copied to clipboard.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 24 Spectral emmissive power: To speck of the intensity of a single wavelength is meaningless. The slit of the spectrometer always gathersa band of wavelengths the narrower the slit the narrower the band -and wealways speak of the intensity ofa given band. We express it as follows cI ) energy radiated m?s"',in band 2 t+ AK=E, AX The quantity E, is called emissive power of ablack body for the wavelength 2 and atthe given tempera- ture; its definition follows from equation 2.t0 A+ AV radiated m in band ito. band width, Ai in band A toa +AA Ah __ power radiated m E, In the figure, E, is expressed in watts per m? pernanometre (10-°m), ‘The quantity E, A. in equation 2.t07.+AA=E, AA. isthe area beneath the radiation curve between the wavelength 4 and Ad (figure). Thus the energy radiated per meter’ per second between those wave- lengthsin proportional o that area Similarly, the total radiation emitted permetre? per second over all wavelengths is proportional tothe / area under the whole curve, YZ NN 1, Rate Figure : Definition of F-A,, and B,, Laws of black body radiation: ‘The curves of figure can be explained only Planck's quantum theory of radiation, which is outside our scope. Both theory and experiment lead to three generalisations, which together describe well the prop- erties of black body radiation. (i) If A, is the wavelength of the peak ofthe curve for T (in K), then 2, The value of the constant is 2.9 x 10 m K. In figure the dotted line is the locus of the peaks of the constant (2) curves for different temperatures.PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 22 ‘The relationship in (2) issometimes called Wien’s displacement law. Gi) IFE,, isthe height ofthe peak of the curve for the temperature T, then ET @) (< =ss0c dy 18 | \ | \ \ousoc 8 . 2 San I | FA i000 } violet- fy visible Figure : Distibution of intensity in black body radiation Gi) If Bis the total energy radiated per metre? per second at a temperature T, which is represented by the total area underthe particular E, ~2.curve, then E=oT! So in figure, which shows four E, —A graphs at different temperatures T, the total area below the graphs should be proportional to the comesponding value of T Illustration: Estimate the surface temperature of sun. Given for solar radiations, 4, (b= 2.89 x 10° meter Kelvin) Sol. From Wien's displacement law A,T=b T = 6097 K. 534 Mlustration : The energy radiated by a black body at 2300 K is found to have the maximum at a wavelength 1260 nn, its emissive power being 8000 Wm. When the body is cooled to a temperature TK, the emissive power is found to decrease to 500 War ?, Find: @ the temperature T (i) the wave length at which intensity of emission in maximum at the temperature T. Sol (i) ~— Am, = 1260 nm Am, = 1260 * 10 'm, T, = 2300 K, E,e,V"" T Tix | 71,2300 {22° )" 93094 = ns04 os sooo} 2 T= 1150 k Ans (i) by using Wein’s law ( Tiny ) Tha, =Tkm + ms = [H| 300 x 1260 x * Jag, = 23001260 10" 590 109 M 1150 ny = 2520 nm PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 23PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 24 Solved Example rent materials with equal thickness, placed side by side, Heat flows are given. Rank the materials ac- 4) Q.1 Thediagram shows fourslabs of dif from left to right and the steady-state temperatures of the interfac cordingto their thermal conductivities, smallest to largest. de de dee 35° C20 HE -15°C Sol Insteady state heat transfered through each slab is same, n AQ k,AAT,_ k,AAT, _ k,AAT, _ k,AAT, mat d é d d ka — thus 3,4,2, 1 Q2 (Growth oficeon Pond) Ona cold winter day, cylindrical drum of height h made ofa bad conductoris completely filled with water at 0°C and is kept outside without any lid. Calculate the time taken for the whole mass of water to freeze. Thermal eonduc- tivity of iceis K and its latent heat of fusion is L. Neglect expansion of water on freezing. atmospheric temperature is 0 (on Celsius scale) which is below 0°C. A ) | = °C Suppose, the ice starts forming at time t=0 and a thickness x is formed at time t. The amount of heat Sol flown from the water to the surrounding in the time interval t to t= dtis KAO AQ= dt The mass of the ice formed duc to the loss of this amountof heat is, dm= AQ _ KAO Q _ 4 it. L xQ3 Sol Q4 PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 25 ‘The thickness dx of ice formed in time dt is dm Ko ax Ay > px ar or, Keg Xo ‘Thus, the time T taken for the whole mass of water to freeze is given by x Lt far= 2 fax a KO; pLh? 2K0 ‘Two thin metallic spherical shells of radiir, andr, (r, <1,) are placed with their centres coinciding. A material of thermal conductivity K is filled in the space between theshells. The inner shell is maintained at temperature 0, and the outer shell at temperature 0, (0, <0,). Calculate the rate at which heat flows radially through the material, Letus draw two spherical shells of radii x and x +dx concentric with the givensy tem, Let the tempera- tures at these shells be 0 and 0+ d0 respectively, The amount of heat flowing radially inward through the material between x and x-+ dx is yh Low Thus, AM K4n(0,—6,)= 2 Three rods AB, BCand BD having thermal conductivities inthe ratio 1 :2: 3 and lengths inthe ratio 2:1: Lare joined asshown is figure. Theends A, C and Dare at temperatures T,, 7, and T, respectively. Find the temperature of the junction B, Assume steady statePRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 26 Sol, Letthe thermal conductivities of the rods AB, BC and BD be K, 2K and 3K respectively. Also, let their lengths be 2L, L and L. If T be the required temperature of the junction B and assuming T, >T>T,>T, , wehave AQ AQ AQ At Ixy At duc” At Jao KA(T,-T) _ 2KA(T-T,) | 3KA(T-T;) 2L L L T-T or 5 <2 (T-T)+3(T-T) or | T= 7 (1, +4T, +6T) i Q.5— Thecontainer A is constantly maintained at 100°C and insulated container B of the figure initially contains, ice at 0°C. Different rods are used to connect them. For a rod made of copper, it takes 30 minutes for the ice to melt and for arodof steel of same cross-section taken in different experiment it takes 60 minutes for ice to melt. When these rods are simultaneously connectedin parallel. Find the time interval in which icemelts ? Ar Sol Q=it where i=heat flowrate= > = "ye For copperrod > 100) - +60 = lo} 20 min t= read ( Q) \100)" 30 “(100)” 60PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 27 Q6 (Temperature ofSun) Estimate the temperature T, of the radius of sun, =7 « 10m, temperature of solar surfaet * 10" m) Sol. Power radiated from sun =o * surface area x T’ =o 4m? x TS arth, assuming itis in radiative equilibrium with the sun. (Assume 1000 K, distance of earth fromsun,R=1.5 Power received by earth = power radiated by sun 4nR’ ince 1, isthe effective area of the earth on which the sun’s radiation is incident normally. figure and 4R? is the total area on which the sun’s radiation falls ata distance R from the sun where the earth is situated Now power radiated by earth =o 4nr2+T! Assuming radiative equilibrium power radiated by earth= power received by earth o-4nr?-TA=o-4nr2- TA x eT, TS Gar Cancelling? and simplifying, then 7x10") nok 15x10" = 209K Note that the calculation is approximate, forexample, the earth and the sun are not perfect black body radiators and the earth receives heat from its interior. Q.7 A wood-burning stove stands unused in a room where the temperature is 18°C (291 K).A fire is started. inside the stove. Eventually, the temperature of the stove surface reaches a constant 198°C (471 K),and theroom warms to a constant 29°C (302K). The stove has an emissivity of 0.900 anda surface area of 3.50 m’, Determine the net radiant power generated by the stove when the stove (a) is unheated and has a temperature equal to room temperature and (b) has a temperature of 198°CPRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 28 Sol Reasoning: The stove emits more radiant power heated than when unheated. In both cases, however, the Stefan-Bolfzmann law can be used to determine the amount of power emitted. Power is energy per Unit time or Q/t. Butin this problem we need to find the net power produced by the stove, The net power is the power the stove emits minus the power the stove absorbs. Then power the stove absorbs comes from the wall, ceiling, and floor of the room, all of which emit radiation. (@) Remembering that temperature mustbe expressed in kelvins when using the Stefan-Boltzmann law,we find that Poweremitted by unheated= “ =coT'A, = (0.900) [5.67 ¥ 10-8 Js + m?- K4] (291 K)! 3.50 m?) 280 W ‘The fact that the unheated stove emits 1280 W of power and yet maintains a constant temperature means that the stove also absorbs 1280 W of radiant power from its surroundings. Thus, the net power ‘generated by the unheated stoveis zero. Netpower generated by stove at 18°C 1280W - 1280W =0W Power ented Paver anit by ‘bystoveat fom st RC and " shred by stave (b) The hotstove (198 °C) or 471 K) emits more radiant power than it absorbs from the cooler room. The radiant power the stove emits is eoTtA Power emitted by stoveat 198°C =" K)] (471 K)! (3.50 m’) = 8790 W = (0.900) [8.67% 108 (sn ‘The radiant power the stove absorbs from the room is identical to the power that the stove would emit at the constant room temperature of 29°C (302 K). The reasoning here is exactly like that in part (a). Power emitted by Q roomat29°Cand =F =eoT'A absorbed by stove = (0.900) [5.67 < 10° Ji(s- m? -K*)] (302 K) 3.50 m’) = 1490 W. ‘The netradiant power the stove produces from the fuel it burn is Netpower generated by - 8790W — 1490W = 7300W stove at 198°C "by stove toom a 29°C and f sheared by stovePRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars 29 Qs Sol. Sol The room heater can provide only 16°C in the room when the temperature outside notwarm and comfortable, that is why the electric stove with power of | kW is also pluggedin. Together these two devices maintain the room temperature of 22°C. Determine the themal power of the heater. Rate of heat loss with only room heater cI ) AQ P.= SS = C16 +20 where C = constant] = Bac ) f sant] while both heater and stove it is “9) =CQ2+20) Lat 38 apo, 0r a OP, + OP, =6kW A hot body paleed in airis cooled down according to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of decrease of temperature being k times the temperature difference from the surrounding, Starting from t=O, find the time in which the body will loose half themaximum heat it can lose. Wehave, do =-k@-0,) dt Where 0, is the temperature of the surrounding and @ is the = 0, att=0 Then emperature of the body at time t, Suppose 0 or The body continuesto lose heat til its temperature becomes equal to that of the surrounding. The loss of heat in this entire periodis AQ, = ms (8, —8)). This is the maximum heat the body can looses. Ifthe body loses half this heat, the decreases in its temperature will be, AQ, _ 8) = 80 2ms If the body loses this heat in time t,, the temperature at t, will be 0,-0, 6 +0, Copied to clipboard.30 PRIVATE LIMITED Ideal for Scholars Putting these values of time and temperature in (i), 29-0, -0)64 or, or, ‘Three identical metal rods A, B and C are placed end to end and a temperature difference is maintained between the free ends of A and C. If the thermal conductivity of B (K,) is twice that of C (Kc) and half thatofA(K,), K, }9 wimK ealculate the effective thermal conductivity ofthe system ?