Teaching and Researching, Autonomy in Language Learning

Teaching and Researching Autonomy
AP P LI ED LI NGU I STIC S I N AC TION
General Editors:
Christopher N. Candlin and David R. Hall
Books published and forthcoming in this series include:
Teaching and Researching Computer-assisted Language Learning Ken Beatty

Teaching and Researching Autonomy Philip Benson
Teaching and Researching Motivation Zoltán Dörnyei and
Ema Ushioda
Teaching and Researching Reading William Grabe and
Fredricka Stoller
Teaching and Researching Lexicography R. K. K. Hartmann
Teaching and Researching Translation Basil Hatim
Teaching and Researching Speaking Rebecca Hughes
Teaching and Researching Writing Ken Hyland
Teaching and Researching Language and Culture Joan Kelly Hall
Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies Rebecca Oxford
Teaching and Researching Listening Michael Rost
Teaching and Researching
Autonomy
Second edition
Phil Benson
First published 2001 by Pearson Education Limited
Second edition published in Great Britain in 2011
Published 2013 by Routledge

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Copyright © 2001, 2011, Taylor & Francis.
The rights of Philip Benson to be identified as author of this

work has been asserted by him in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
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in writing from the publishers.
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN 13: 978-1-4082-0501-3 (pbk)
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Benson, Phil, 1955–
Teaching and researching autonomy / Phil Benson. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4082-0501-3 (pbk.)
1. Learning, Psychology of. 2. Autonomy (Psychology) 3. Language and
languages–Study and teaching. I. Title.
LB1060.B45 2011
418.001′9–dc22
2010044155
Typeset in 10.5/12pt Janson by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong

Contents
General editors’ preface ix

Author’s acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1
Introduction to the second edition 3
Section I: What is autonomy? 7
1 The history of autonomy in language learning 9

1.1 Origins of the concept 9
1.2 Autonomy and self-access 10
1.3 Autonomy and learner training 11
1.4 Autonomy and individualisation 12
1.5 Autonomy and interdependence 14
1.6 Why autonomy? Why now? 17
1.7 The two faces of autonomy 23
2 Autonomy beyond the field of language education 26
2.1 Educational reform 27

2.2 Adult education 36
2.3 The psychology of learning 38
2.4 The philosophy of personal autonomy 49
2.5 Autonomy in language learning and its sources 56
v
vi TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
3 Defining and describing autonomy 58

3.1 Dimensions of autonomy 59
3.2 Versions of autonomy 62
3.3 Measuring autonomy 65
3.4 Autonomy and culture 69
4 Control as a natural attribute of learning 73

4.1 Self-management in learning 74
4.2 Learner agendas in the classroom 79
4.3 Control of psychological factors influencing learning 81
4.4 The seeds of autonomy 91
5 Dimensions of control 92
5.1 Control over learning management 92
5.2 Control over cognitive processing 100
5.3 Control over learning content 112
5.4 Describing the autonomous learner 117
6 Conclusion 119
Section II: Autonomy in practice 121
7 Fostering autonomy 123

8 Resource-based approaches 127
8.1 Self-access 127
8.2 Tandem learning 131
8.3 Distance learning 133
8.4 Self-instruction 136
8.5 Out-of-class learning 138
8.6 The effectiveness of resource-based learning 141
9 Technology-based approaches 145

9.1 Computer-assisted language learning 146
9.2 The Internet 148
9.3 The effectiveness of technology-based approaches 152
CONTENTS vii
10 Learner-based approaches 154

10.1 Learner development and language learning 156
10.2 Learner development and autonomy 157
10.3 The effectiveness of learner-based approaches 161
11 Classroom-based approaches 163

11.1 Planning classroom learning 164
11.2 Evaluating classroom learning 168
11.3 The nature of control in the classroom 172
11.4 The effectiveness of classroom-based approaches 173
12 Curriculum-based approaches 176

12.1 The process syllabus 176
12.2 Examples of curriculum-based approaches 178
12.3 The effectiveness of curriculum-based approaches 183
13 Teacher-based approaches 185

13.1 Teacher roles 185
13.2 Teacher autonomy 187
13.3 Language advising 191
13.4 Teacher education 193
13.5 The effectiveness of teacher-based approaches 196
14 Conclusion 197
Section III: Researching autonomy 199
15 Research methods and key areas of research 201

15.1 Teachers’ research 201
15.2 Key areas of research 203
16 Case studies 213

16.1 Case study 1. Out-of-class learning 213
16.2 Case study 2. A self-organised language learning
community 218
viii TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
16.3 Case study 3. The discourse of language advising 222

16.4 Case study 4. Self-directed learning in the classroom 226
16.5 Case study 5. Language acquisition in autonomous
classrooms 230
16.6 Case study 6. What do good independent learners do? 235
17 Conclusion 240
Section IV: Resources 241
18 Resources for research and practice 243

18.1 Books, journals and newsletters 243
18.2 Conferences and workshops 244
18.3 Professional organisations 244
18.4 E-mail lists 246
18.5 Web sites 247
18.6 Bibliographies 247
18.7 Self-access centres 248
References 249
Index 278
General editors’ preface
Applied Linguistics in Action, as its name suggests, is a series which

focuses on the issues and challenges to teachers and researchers in a range
of fields in Applied Linguistics and provides readers and users with the
tools they need to carry out their own practice-related research.
The books in the series provide the reader with clear, up-to-date,
accessible and authoritative accounts of their chosen field within Applied
Linguistics. Starting from a map of the landscape of the field, each book
provides information on its main ideas and concepts, competing issues and
unsolved questions. From there, readers can explore a range of practical
applications of research into those issues and questions, and then take up
the challenge of undertaking their own research, guided by the detailed
and explicit research guides provided. Finally, each book has a section
which provides a rich array of resources, information sources and further
reading, as well as a key to the principal concepts of the field.
Questions the books in this innovative series ask are those familiar to all
teachers and researchers, whether very experienced, or new to the fields of
Applied Linguistics.
• What does research tell us, what doesn’t it tell us and what should it tell
us about the field? How is the field mapped and landscaped? What is its
geography?
• How has research been applied and what interesting research possibili-
ties does practice raise? What are the issues we need to explore and
explain?
• What are the key researchable topics that practitioners can undertake?
How can the research be turned into practical action?
• Where are the important resources that teachers and researchers need?
Who has the information? How can it be accessed?
ix
x TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Each book in the series has been carefully designed to be as accessible as

possible, with built-in features to enable readers to find what they want
quickly and to home in on the key issues and themes that concern them.
The structure is to move from practice to theory and back to practice in a
cycle of development of understanding of the field in question.
Each of the authors of books in the series is an acknowledged authority,
able to bring broad knowledge and experience to engage teachers and
researchers in following up their own ideas, working with them to build
further on their own experience.
The first editions of books in this series have attracted widespread praise
for their authorship, their design, and their content, and have been widely
used to support practice and research. The success of the series, and the
realization that it needs to stay relevant in a world where new research is
being conducted and published at a rapid rate, have prompted the com-
missioning of this second edition. This new edition has been thoroughly
updated, with accounts of research that has appeared since the first edition
and with the addition of other relevant additional material. We trust that
students, teachers and researchers will continue to discover inspiration in
these pages to underpin their own investigations.
Chris Candlin & David Hall
General Editors
Author’s acknowledgements
This book is the product of a lifetime of autonomous, and at times not

so autonomous, learning that has always been informed by the thoughts
and words of others. Among those whose conversations I have most valued
while preparing the second edition of this book are my colleagues and
friends in Hong Kong, Japan and the United Kingdom, including Naoko
Aoki, Alice Chik, Lucy Cooker, David Gardner, Fiona Hyland, William
Littlewood, Bruce Morrison, David Nunan, Richard Pemberton, Richard
Smith, Sarah Toogood, Ema Ushioda, Peter Voller and Jean Young. I am
also appreciative of four Ph.D students at the University of Hong Kong,
from whom I have learned a great deal: Nalini Chavali, Joanne Chuk, Andy
Gao, and Peter Huang. I am especially thankful to Felicity Kjisik and Issa
Ying for their input to Chapter 12, to Alice Chik for her advice and
contributions to the preparation of the Second Edition, to Kathy Wong
for her painstaking work on the preparation of the manuscript, and to my
editors at Pearson Education for the hard work that followed its sub-
mission. Above all, I am grateful to the ALIA series editors, Chris Candlin
and David Hall, without whose vision and encouragement this book would
not have been written.
xi
Our pedantic mania for instruction is always leading us to teach children
the things they would learn better of their own accord.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
To Kaz,
who is still hoping that his father will follow Rousseau’s advice.
Introduction
As the theory and practice of language teaching enters a new century, the
importance of helping students become more autonomous in their learn-
ing has become one of its more prominent themes. The idea of autonomy
often provokes strong reactions. To its critics, autonomy is an idealistic
goal and its promotion a distraction from the real business of teaching and
learning languages. To its advocates, autonomy is a precondition for effec-
tive learning; when learners succeed in developing autonomy, they not
only become better language learners but they also develop into more
responsible and critical members of the communities in which they live.
Discussions on autonomy are, however, often characterised by miscon-
ceptions about the nature of the concept and its implementation. For
example, it is often assumed that autonomy implies learning in isolation,
learning without a teacher or learning outside the classroom, such that the
relevance of the concept to language teaching is unclear. Similarly, auton-
omy is often seen as necessarily implying particular skills and behaviours
and particular methods of organising the teaching and learning process.
These misconceptions are, at least in part, a result of terminological and
conceptual confusion within the field itself.
The aim of Teaching and Researching Autonomy is both to clarify and pro-
blematise the concept of autonomy in language learning and its relevance
to the practice of language education. There are certain fundamentals on
which researchers in the field agree: for example, autonomy refers to the
learner’s broad approach to the learning process, rather than to a particular
mode of teaching or learning. There are other issues on which they disagree,
and often agree to disagree, for autonomy is in essence multidimensional
and takes different forms in different contexts of learning. This book thus
aims to establish what research does and does not tell us about autonomy,
so that those who wish to foster it among their learners can engage in
research and practice on an informed basis.
1
2 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Autonomy can be broadly defined as the capacity to take control over one’s
own learning. In the course of this book, I will expand on this definition,
but for the moment it is sufficient to note that autonomy is not a method
of learning, but an attribute of the learner’s approach to the learning
process. As a teacher and researcher who has been involved with the pro-
motion of the idea of autonomy for a number of years, I take the position
that autonomy is a legitimate and desirable goal of language education.
Among the claims made for autonomy, three stand out as being equally
important to theory and practice:
• The concept of autonomy is grounded in a natural tendency for learners

to take control over their learning. As such, autonomy is available to all,
although it is displayed in different ways and to different degrees accord-
ing to the unique characteristics of each learner and each learning situation.
• Learners who lack autonomy are capable of developing it given appro-
priate conditions and preparation. One condition for the development
of autonomy is the availability of opportunities to exercise control over
learning. The ways in which we organise the practice of teaching and
learning therefore have an important influence on the development of
autonomy among our learners.
• Autonomous learning is more effective than non-autonomous learning.
In other words, the development of autonomy implies better language
learning.
In Teaching and Researching Autonomy, I argue that these are claims rather
than facts and that before we accept or reject autonomy as a legitimate goal
of language education, we should examine them carefully. Certain claims
can be substantiated by research evidence, others remain open to research
and some are non-researchable. I also argue that the best research on
autonomy is often not research concerned with ‘grand theory’, but action
research conducted by practising teachers on the specific conditions of
teaching and learning within which they work. In order to do this kind of
action research, we must make some attempt to foster autonomy among
the learners we work with. In doing so we will frequently find ourselves in
a position where we are able, through careful observation and analysis of
empirical data, to contribute to theory.
The book is divided into four sections. Section I focuses on the origins
and development of the concept of autonomy in language learning,
definitions of key terms and research evidence that enables us to describe
autonomy in terms of various dimensions of control over learning. Section
II focuses on evidence for the effectiveness of practices that have been
claimed to foster autonomy. Section III outlines key areas for future
research and presents six case studies of action research in the field of
autonomy. Section IV lists resources that will help researchers and practi-
tioners in the field.
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Teaching and Researching Autonomy

AP P LI ED LI NGU I STIC S I N AC TION

Christopher N. Candlin and David R. Hall

Books published and forthcoming in this series include:

Teaching and Researching Computer-assisted Language Learning Ken Beatty

Published 2013 by Routledge

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2001, 2011, Taylor & Francis.

The rights of Philip Benson to be identiﬁed as author of this

ISBN 13: 978-1-4082-0501-3 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Typeset in 10.5/12pt Janson by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong

General editors’ preface ix

Section I: What is autonomy? 7

1 The history of autonomy in language learning 9

2 Autonomy beyond the ﬁeld of language education 26

2.1 Educational reform 27

3 Deﬁning and describing autonomy 58

4 Control as a natural attribute of learning 73

Section II: Autonomy in practice 121

7 Fostering autonomy 123

9 Technology-based approaches 145

10 Learner-based approaches 154

11 Classroom-based approaches 163

12 Curriculum-based approaches 176

13 Teacher-based approaches 185

Section III: Researching autonomy 199

15 Research methods and key areas of research 201

16 Case studies 213

16.3 Case study 3. The discourse of language advising 222

Section IV: Resources 241

18 Resources for research and practice 243

Applied Linguistics in Action, as its name suggests, is a series which

Each book in the series has been carefully designed to be as accessible as

This book is the product of a lifetime of autonomous, and at times not

the things they would learn better of their own accord.

• The concept of autonomy is grounded in a natural tendency for learners

Benson, P. (1996) ‘Concepts of autonomy in language learning.’ In R. Pemberton et al.

Cotterall, S. (1995) ‘Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs’, System,

Gao, X. (2009) ‘English corner as an out-of-class learning activity’, English Language

Hurd, S., Beaven, T. and Ortega, A. (2001) ‘Developing autonomy in a distance

MacIntyre, P.D. (2007) ‘Willingness to communicate in the second language:

Language Education: Inquiry and Innovation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,

Sonaiya, R. (2002) ‘Autonomous language learning in Africa: A mismatch of cultural

Toogood, S. and Pemberton, R. (2007) ‘Support structures for self-access learning’. In

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds) Handbook of Teacher Education: Globalization,

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