Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163

Planning for the future; towards a sustainable design and

land use of an ancient flooded military defence line
Jelier A.J. Vervloet∗ , Jan-Hein Nijman, Arjan J. Somsen
Department of Landscape and Spatial Planning, Wageningen University, Alterra, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands

Abstract
In a time of increasing pressure and increasing demands on space a critical view is needed in order to preserve our
cultural heritage. Mere preservation or restoration is not an approach that assures the survival of heritage in the future. In
The Netherlands a new approach is being developed by which cultural heritage is integrated into physical planning and the
development of new functions. In addition to contemplating on the theoretical advantages and disadvantages of the approach,
this article shows an example of a successful participatory approach by which a landscape plan was designed for an area
around a historical military defence line. The defence line is one of the first of the kind and originates from the Dutch War for
Independence (1568–1648). The structure is threatened by present spatial developments. In co-operation with stakeholders
a vision was formulated that formed a framework for future developments. The project showed that preservation through
development is an approach that has great potential and should in many cases be preferred to the more common approach
of protection and restoration of relics. The new approach provides more support for the preservation of cultural heritage and
doesn’t block other social developments.
© 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Landscape-design; Applied historical geography; Military defence line; Participatory planning; Cultural heritage

1. Introduction When the new research theme was first to be in-

In physical planning it is important to create new
notions about spatial development of (new) functions
of our society in medium and long-term perspective.
Since our society is complex and dynamic, a great
variety of factors have to be taken into account. Re-
cently the issue of sustainability has made explicit
choices in planning necessary. During the past two or
three decades the significance of cultural landscapes
have also become a point of increasing interest. As
a result in many western European countries applied
historical geographical research has been established
(Bethemont, 1994; Vervloet, 1994; Denecke, 1982).
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jelle.vervloet@wur.nl (J.A.J. Vervloet).
tegrated into the practice of planning, the agencies
were mainly interested in catching up on the back-
log of knowledge. In the initial phase, mostly inven-
tories about the exact location of relics and ensembles
of relics in the landscape were carried out. Informa-
tion about the history of cultural landscapes became a
booming business.
Recently the involved researchers have become
more and more aware that for sufficient use and
protection of the cultural heritage more than ac-
cumulating knowledge and deliberating with peers
is required. To achieve lasting success, knowledge
and skills of the historical geographer are to be in-
tegrated in the planning process in an early phase.
An approach of preservation or restoration is not al-
ways desirable or possible. Furthermore, the support

0169-2046/$20.00 © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.10.011
154 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163
by local landowners and land users in projects is
essential.
This implies a new approach by which the histor-
ical aspects of cultural landscapes have to be con-
nected with other functions and interests by means of
integral planning associated with a large circle of in-
volved disciplines, institutions and citizens. This plan-
ning method is called ‘cultural planning’.
To conduct this process of co-operation between
policy, planning and cultural history in the Nether-
lands, the so-called ‘Belvedere Memorandum’, a
policy document examining the relationship between
cultural history and spatial planning was introduced in
1999. It was introduced by four ministries involved in
the future development of the rural landscape: the Min-
istry of Education, Culture and Science, the Ministry
of Housing Spatial Planning and the Environment,
the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and
Fisheries and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works
and Water Management (Nota Belvedere, 1999).
The memorandum is based on a vision regarding
“cultural history as being of vital importance to our
society and to each individual citizen”. Conserva-
tion and use of our cultural heritage are supposed to
add an extra cultural dimension to the spatial struc-
ture. The approach recommended in the ‘Belvedere
Memorandum’ centres around the continuous devel-
opment of our cultural heritage, rather than replace-
ment by new elements or severe restriction on the use
Fig. 1. The military defence line from Bergen op Zoom to Steenbergen on a map of Frans van Schooten (1628).
of objects. It is an approach that must be realised by
means of integral spatial policy. The strategy stresses
the traditionally a rather defensive approach to valu-
able landscapes and relics in physical planning will
be replaced with a more proactive attitude towards
cultural heritage with an open mind for the chances
of historical landscapes and elements by adaptation
and change. In the field of tension between restora-
tion and preservation on the one hand, and continuous
development on the other hand, it is advisable to
have profoundly provoking discussions with planners
and landscape architects about the future of historical
landscape structures.
We suggest this new approach to be tried in prac-
tical projects. Only in this way we can avoid getting
bogged down in endlessly repetitious theoretical argu-
ments. Of course, we do not deny the importance of
theoretical reflections. We suppose, however, that by
tackling practical problems in the field, a lot of mate-
rial can be gathered for future scientific evaluations.
In this article we illustrate the new approach with a
project that started in 2001. In the project landscape
visions were constructed around a 17th century mil-
itary defence line (Fig. 1). The project was commis-
sioned by local stakeholders and its main goal was to
get the defence line “back on the map”. We will show
that the strategy of creating an integrated vision for
cultural heritage and other functions proved to be a
fruitful one. Furthermore, the project was an example
 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163 155

of successful participation with and between stake- constituting the rich and powerful heartland of the
holders in the planning process. ‘Republic of the Seven United Provinces’ (van Ham,
1996a). This republic was the political predecessor of
the Kingdom of The Netherlands after an intervention
2. Some background information of France between 1795 and 1815.

2.1. Project organisation 2.2.2. The defence line of Bergen op Zoom

Two students of the Wageningen University (WU)
constructed the landscape visions for the defence line
near Bergen op Zoom as part of a thesis commis-
sioned by the Foundation of Friends of Fortress De
Roovere and the municipality of Bergen op Zoom. In
co-operation with stakeholders the area was studied.
Threats and possibilities were analysed and visions
were created for possible future development of the
area.
At the Wageningen University, heritage manage-
ment is one of the main points of the professional
training of landscape architects, planners and rural de-
velopers. Within this framework students are involved
in real landscape planning projects in which cultural
history and the search for new functions and struc-
tures in historical landscapes are the final goals. These
projects are exercises of design and planning in which
reality plays an important role. The students are, if
possible, acting under strict orders of real customers.
These clients are individuals or organisations who can-
not afford engaging a professional research institute
or advice centre.
In 1627 the construction of the first defence line
of this type was started on the eastern flank of the
Province of Zeeland. It was located in the western part
of the province of Brabant that was, at that moment,
partly occupied by Spanish armed forces, the enemy
of the ‘Republic’ (Fig. 2).
Between the cities of Bergen op Zoom and Steen-
bergen, old cities which were already fortified in the
Middle Ages, the fortresses of Moermont, Pinssen and
De Roovere were constructed, linked with each other
by a canal, the so-called ‘Ligne’. Moreover, some
dikes and embankments were constructed to restrict
floods in limited areas. This was necessary not only to
limit the damage to agricultural lands, but mostly be-
cause the limitation of the amount of available water
for flooding.
The new strongholds were strategically built upon
higher lying ridges of land that could not be flooded.

2.2. History

2.2.1. Dutch War for Independence

During the great Dutch War for Independence
(1568–1648), in which the new Republic abolished
its official ruler—the king of Spain—in various parts
of the Netherlands, a large number of strongholds
and fortresses were established on strategic sites. In
the final two decades of the war, some were deliber-
ately connected with each other by defence lines—a
coherent system of flood plains, canals, sluices and
dikes.
By means of these planned military infrastruc-
tures, parts of the surrounding lower agricultural
lands could be flooded in a case of emergency. This
way hostile forces were prevented from penetrating Fig. 2. The geographical position of the military defence line in
into the provinces of Holland and Zeeland, together The Netherlands.
156 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163
Fig. 3. Situation of the defence line near Bergen op Zoom in 1727.
Salty floodwater from the sea could be let in by a for-
tified sluice (Henricus), situated north of Steenbergen;
fresh floodwater was supplied by an extensive moor
and peat region south of Bergen op Zoom (Bosters,
2001; van Ham, 1996b, c). This system prevented the
Spanish troops from invading Zeeland from Brabant.
2.3. Recent situation
Through the years several adaptations of the defence
line were made (Fig. 3). In 1816 the military function
of the defence line was lifted (Sinke, 1993). After that
the defence line has gradually been reduced.
At present the ramparts of the cities of Steenber-
gen and Bergen op Zoom are almost entirely razed.
The fortress of Moermont has disappeared completely.
Henricus, situated on the mouth of the harbour of
Steenbergen has been strongly levelled off by con-
tinuous use as arable land. The recently constructed
northern suburbs of Bergen op Zoom mostly cover the
southern section (Fig. 4).
So, during a period of almost 200 years the ancient
military ensemble was split up into separate pieces.
Moreover, the functions of the remaining fortresses
were radically remodelled. One fortress (Pinssen) for
example, was converted into a country house garden,
others were converted into pinewood or arable land.
The embankments constructed to enable flooding,
were partially transformed into roads, or levelled.
The former central flood plain ceased to exist after
new ditches for draining purposes were dug and new
farmhouses built. Only the geographical layouts and
some relief were preserved. Ramparts and fortresses
are now partly covered with woodlands, obscuring
the structure of the line. Only a small part of the de-
fence line is protected by law (Historic Buildings and
Ancient Monuments Act). This protection has not,
however, prevented all the disruptions.
In the near future more extensive changes can be
expected. A new motorway between Rotterdam and
Antwerp called A4 will cut the remnants of the line.
The flood plain will be allotted to a nature reserve. In
the immediate surroundings substantial town planning
activities are being prepared.
2.4. Parties involved
With the analysis of the situation and the design-
ing of development visions the students were not only
coached by a landscape architect and a historical ge-
ographer of WU, but also a advisory board of various
stakeholders was invited to give their opinion on the
findings of the project.
Several meetings were organised in which repre-
sentatives of organisations were challenged to reflect
on the work of the students. Besides the ‘Foundation
 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163
Fig. 4. The military defence line from Bergen op Zoom to Steenbergen on a real topographical map.
of Friends of Fortress de Roovere’ and the National
Dutch Fortress Foundation ‘Menno van Coehoorn’,
both of which can be considered as non-governmental
organisations of citizens interested in the cultural his-
tory of military objects, also official and quasi-civil
institutions were participating.
The entry of the municipalities of Bergen op Zoom
and Steenbergen into the project was crucial. In Dutch
physical planning, municipalities are responsible for
drawing up and enforcing the Municipal Land Use
Plan. Changes in land use have always to be officially
approved by the city council.
The willingness of the Province of Noord–Brabant
to accede to the board was also very useful. It is im-
portant to realise that in the Netherlands, alterations of
the Municipal Land Use Plan always have to be tested
against the Provincial Regional Plan.
Because of the future construction of the motorway
A4 between Rotterdam and Antwerp, the Mission of
Public Works also sent a representative. Although the
law had already established the plotted road, change
of design details in this phase of plan preparation was
still an attractive possibility. Compensating measures
on behalf of the future appearance of the defence line
could be considered as a contribution of this institution
as well.
From the perspective of nature conservation the
joining of the so-called ‘Brabants Landschap’ and of
157
‘Natuurmonumenten’, respectively, the regional and
national nature preservation and cultural heritage or-
ganisations, was very promising. Both societies are
managing extensive nature and landscape reserves in
the region. It is obvious that the success of any land-
scape design depends on a close connection with the
existing and future management plans of these two
associations.
The readiness of the Waterboard ‘Het Scheldek-
wartier’ to contribute to the activities in the advisory
board was of no less significance. In the Netherlands,
a waterboard is a highly esteemed institution responsi-
ble for dike maintenance, water management and wa-
ter quality.
All these parties have certain responsibilities and
interest in the area. By involving them, the project
was assured of crucial information engagement of the
stakeholders to the development of the defence line.
3. Results
The main option of the project (Nijman and
Somsen, 2001) was to design a detailed vision on the
future spatial structure of the cultural landscape in the
surroundings of the former defence line. An exten-
sive analysis of the study area was the starting point,
involving the physical geographical, hydrological
158 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163
and ecological situation; an inventory of the anthro-
pogenic effects on the landscape in the past; a survey
of cultural historical relics; a survey of the actual land
use and landed properties and, last but not least, a
survey of operative and future interventions by spatial
planning activities.
3.1. Analysis
This analysis revealed that the area of the former
defence line was situated in a distinct physical ge-
ographical gradient zone—the southern part was ex-
tending over a high sandy region with scattered pools,
the middle part was a kind of elongated low lying basin
and the northern part consisted of marine sediments
(Fig. 5). Historical research made clear that the pools
and the basin originally had been filled up by peat
bogs. In the Middle Ages, at least since the fourteenth
century, these bogs were the centres of extensive peat
digging activities by the inhabitants of Steenbergen
and Bergen op Zoom. In 1627, at the beginning of the
construction of the defence line, the former thick peat
layers had for most part disappeared. Swampy depres-
sions covered with reed, heather and bog myrtle, in-
terrupted by shallow puddles, were setting the scene.
An important object related to the period of peat
cutting was a canal, once used to transport the turf
to the consumers. After the peat-cutting period this
Fig. 5. The defence line is situated in a physical geographical gradient zone.
waterway probably enabled some limited drainage of
the basin. Certainly some of the seepage water, locally
derived from deeper geological layers, could be carried
away by the remnants of this ancient mediaeval canal.
The constructors of the defence line, however, did
not use the canal only for the usual way of water man-
agement. It was adapted to a new task—letting flood-
water in from the sea. Furthermore, the canal was used
as a watercourse to supply, in the case of emergency,
the fortresses by boat with soldiers and provisions.
The narrow canal was the one and only place where
the flooded area could be navigated. Elsewhere in the
basin a rather shallow flooding was required. The sol-
diers of enemy had to be forced to cross the sheet of
water by wading. Because the base of the flooded area
was rather rough, interrupted by ditches and pits, they
would easily run into problems.
3.2. Designs
In order to work out the most desirable and func-
tional landscape design, five radical futuristic spatial
concepts were prepared, foremost to stimulate discus-
sion. By using extremes in these visions, consultations
with the stakeholder groups led to a more realistic,
feasible landscape plan.
In the first vision the unity of the defence line was of
major importance (Fig. 6). According to this futuristic
 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163 159

Fig. 6. Spatial concept: ‘unity’.

view, the former military function of the defended area
would be reconstructed and visualised as a whole as
much as possible. The difficulty of this radical option
is that, through the years, the military structures have
undergone substantial changes. Apart from the feasi-
bility in planning practice, this approach would lead
to the usual problem of restorers—namely, which his-
toric situation should be taken as the point of departure
for restoration? Unfortunately, no final answer could
be given.
The second vision emphasized the subdivision in
landscapes (Fig. 7). In this idea of the future, the char-
acteristic cultural and physical features of the land-
scapes in which the defence line is embedded would
be strengthened. Differences between landscapes were
accented. According to this approach, however, the

Fig. 7. Spatial concept: ‘subdivision’.

160 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163

Fig. 8. Spatial concept: ‘the role of water’.

coherence of the different objects of the defence line
could become threatened.
The third vision concentrated around the role of
water as the main function in the military landscape
(Fig. 8). Here the main theme was the restoration of the
flooding of the former peat area—in other words, the
basin shaping the central part of the defence line—by
letting in salty and brackish water from the north and
by letting in fresh water from the south.
This approach would certainly be ecologically
very attractive because of the great promises for the
future of the natural diversification in that area. How-
ever, turning these low-lying farmlands into brackish
environments would definitely be unacceptable for
the neighbouring farmers and for the drinking-water
supply.
The fourth vision emphasized the function of the
area as a public park for the surrounding cities and

Fig. 9. Spatial concept: ‘public park’.

 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163
villages (Fig. 9). The zone between Steenbergen and
Bergen op Zoom indeed is lacking a well-developed
recreational infrastructure. The opening up of the orig-
inally rather closed military landscape would be a
blessing for the fast growing population of the region.
However, applying this measure for the whole area
would probably result in a threat to the diversity of
functions and the diversity of landscapes. It would
be expected that a lot of the wild shoots of trees,
which have grown since the cancellation of the mil-
itary function of the defence line in 1816, would
have to be preserved in a public park, while from a
cultural–historical point of view it would be more
advisable to cut down the majority of the trees.
The fifth vision concentrated on a visual split in the
linear direction of the defence line (Fig. 10). Along
the former enemy line, the original bare field of fire
would be reconstructed.
The forest managers arguing that over a time span
of 200 years the wild shoots present there had devel-
oped into a very valuable ecological variety of wood
vegetation rejected this proposal.
3.3. Landscape plan
Discussion in the advisory board revealed that
none of the presented five visions deserved integral
implementation into a landscape plan. Some of the
Fig. 10. Spatial concept: ‘visual split’.
161
objections to these visions already are put forward in
the following section. After careful consideration, the
members chose a multifunctional approach. In this
framework a new vision was developed, expressed in
a flowery language as the string of pearls (Fig. 11).
In this design the individual fortresses and other mil-
itary landscape elements were representing the pearls.
For a number of exceptional sites in and near the
fortresses, different drafts were elaborated. The ambi-
tion was to act out the story of the local military sites
by seizing the opportunities offered by the land use
and management plans of the involved institutions. In
this vision the different parties concerned would be
looking together for shared opportunities rather than
frictions. The main option was to find useful combina-
tions of new and old forms of land use. For instance,
the realisation of a new development plan for Bergen
op Zoom, precisely in the hinterland of Fortress De
Roovere, should not be disputed but, on the contrary,
seized as a useful opportunity.
At present the originally wet moats of De Roovere
have run dry. From a cultural–historical viewpoint it
would be advisable to restore the original situation
by digging them out. In order to maintain water in
the moats, dredging would be necessary nearly ev-
ery year, a continuous burden on a presumably small
maintenance grant. According to the proposed solu-
tion, the digging out and maintenance of the moats of
162 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163

Fig. 11. ‘A string of pearls’.

De Roovere would in the future become a task of the
inhabitants of the residential area (Fig. 12).
In The Netherlands, in order to stock a temporal
abundance of rainwater as a result of cloudbursts, the
construction of ponds in every new district is set by
the law. In the moats of De Roovere enough capac-
ity was found to store the excess water of the neigh-
bouring new residential area. By combining functions,
not only saving in costs would be realised, but also
a rather sustainable maintenance of the moats would
be guaranteed. A lot of other examples of this kind of
approach could be given.
3.4. Bringing visions into practice
The design of plans was not the end of the project.
Based on the vision laid out in the landscape plan, an
official agreement was signed by the former members

Fig. 12. Storage of excess water of the residential area by the moats of De Roovere.
 J.A.J. Vervloet et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 70 (2005) 153–163
of the advisory board. In this agreement they promised
to work together harmoniously to realise the vision set
down in ‘the string of pearls’ in the near future.
Moreover, we are proud to mention that in the
framework of the Belvedere Memorandum this project
won a price as an instructive and promising example
of planning practice in applied historical geography.
The prize money is to be invested in the next step of
the plan procedure—the elaboration of more detailed
specifications in order to make realistic plans and set
up budgets.
Stakeholders are now working together in taskforces
on a specific theme to bring presently executable parts
of the plan into practice. Other pieces of the vision
would be implemented step by step, in integration with
other development plans.
4. Discussion and conclusion
The project of the landscape plan for the defence
line of Bergen op Zoom has proved to be successful.
The landscape plan in which a vision on the develop-
ment of this historic structure, which can be integrated
with future development of other functions grants
more perspective for the cultural heritage than a tra-
ditional approach would have done. Full restoration
was not an option nor desirable and new develop-
ments can be an impulse for the comeback of historic
elements.
However, to maintain the support of all the stake-
holders, the agreements remained vague and could be
interpreted in many different ways. All depends on the
good will of the participants. This is the disadvantage
of the participatory approach.
The project taught us how refreshing it could be to
use the knowledge about our heritage for the devel-
opment of new landscapes and functions for it is not
always desirable or feasible to freeze the present situ-
ation or restore an historic situation. History is in the
past, but it has left us inspiring relics to use in design
and development.
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Jelier A.J. Vervloet has a Masters degree in Historical Geogra-
phy, Prehistory and Physical Geography from the Free University
in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. He is working on site evaluation,
designation and management planning in cultural landscapes. His
career started in 1968 as an assistant at the National Service for
Archaeological Heritage in the Netherlands in Amersfoort. Since
1974 he has been engaged as a researcher and policymaker in
applied historical geography at the Soil Survey Service of the
Netherlands, at The Winand Staring Centre and at the Department
of Landscape and Spatial Planning of Alterra in Wageningen.
Since 1988 he is professor of Historical Geography of the Dutch
Cultural Landscapes at Wageningen University (Department of
Rural History).
Jan-Hein Nijman has a Masters degree in Wood and Nature
Management and Historical Geography from the Wageningen
University, The Netherlands. He is working on site evaluation,
designation and management planning in cultural landscapes.
Since 2003 he has been engaged in research for the Historic
Buildings Council in Zeist.
Arjan J. Somsen is a student of Landscape Planning and Design
at Wageningen University since 1997. He has worked on several
design projects, including the “West Brabantse Waterlinie” project
in 2001. In 2002 he fulfilled his practice at the advise and design
office Croonen Adviseurs. He now follows a Masters thesis in
Landscape Architecture.