World politics explainer: The end of apartheid

in South Africa
By The Conversation, adapted by Newsela staff on 08.20.19
Word Count 1,383
Level 1190L

Image 1. Protests against apartheid in South Africa in the 1980s sometimes turned violent. Photo by: Wikimedia

Racial divisions emerged in South Africa as early as the 1600s, due to Dutch settlement. It began
with the Europeans maintaining segregation and hierarchy between themselves, their slaves
(many from Asia), and local African populations.

The British seized the South African Cape of Good Hope during the Napoleonic period. Race-based
policies in the colony became increasingly formalized.

The 1806 Cape Articles of Capitulation secured the Dutch settlers' surrender in exchange for the
protection of their existing rights and privileges. This required the British to respect prior Dutch
legislation and gave segregation an enduring place within the legal system of the South African
colonies.

Laws Designed To Limit The Rights Of Non-Whites

Under British control during the 1800s, various laws were passed to limit the rights of non-whites
in South Africa.

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Laws were aimed at denying political, civil and economic rights. This included denying non-whites
the right to vote. There were laws limiting their right to own land. Non-whites were required to
carry passes for movement within colonies.

There was resistance to discriminatory laws in the first half of the 20th century by groups like the
African National Congress (ANC). However, these laws persisted over the decades.

Social change accelerated in South Africa during the Second World War. Industrial production
increased to service Europe's wartime demands for minerals and local manufacturing replacing
imports. African laborers were increasingly drawn to urban areas. Rebellious workers and ANC
activists were empowered in the process.

The threat of social change led South Africa's white population to elect the Afrikaner-dominated
Herenigde Nasionale Party (National Party) in 1948, rejecting the more progressive United
Party. The Afrikaners are the group of people in South Africa who descended mainly from the
Dutch settlers of the 17th century.

The National Party, which ruled South Africa until 1994, offered white South Africans a new
program of segregation called apartheid. Apartheid translates to "separateness," or "apart-hood."

Race-Based Policies

Apartheid was based on a series of laws and

regulations that formalized identities, divisions, and
different rights within South Africa. The system
classified all South Africans as "White, "Colored,"
"Indian" and "African." Africans were classified into
10 tribal groups.

From 1950, the Population Registration Act and the

Group Areas Act assigned all South African citizens a
racial status. The acts also determined in which
physical areas of South Africa different races could
live.

The 1949 Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act and

1950 Immorality Act outlawed interracial romantic
relationships. By 1953 the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act and Bantu Education Act
segregated public spaces, services and amenities.

Racial policies also contained language against communism. The 1950 Suppression of
Communism Act was central to banning any party that supported any ideology that challenged the
laws. Virtually any progressive opponent of the National Party could be defined as communist,
particularly if they disrupted "racial harmony." This severely limited anti-apartheid activists'
ability to organize.

The government also maintained socially conservative laws for all citizens regarding sexuality,
reproductive health, and vices like gambling and alcohol.

The Anti-Apartheid Movement And Nelson Mandela

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In this context, the ANC youth wing (including a young lawyer by the name of Nelson Mandela)
came to dominate the party. The party adopted a confrontational black nationalist program. This
group advocated strikes, boycotts and civil disobedience.

In March 1960, police attacked a demonstration against apartheid's racial pass system in the
Sharpeville township. They killed 69 people and arrested over 18,000 more. They then
implemented a ban of the ANC and the smaller Pan-Africanist Congress.

This pushed the resistance groups toward more radical, underground tactics. Following
authorities' further brutal treatment of a 1961 labor strike, the ANC launched an armed struggle
against apartheid through a military wing: Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK). As a leader of MK, Nelson
Mandela was arrested in 1962 and sentenced to life in jail.

Anti-apartheid resistance dimmed during the 1960s due to the harsh repression of activist
activities and the arrests of many anti-apartheid leaders. In the 1970s, it was revitalized by a
growing Black Consciousness Movement.

Signs Of Social Change

The independence of nearby Angola and Mozambique from Portugal, and discriminatory
education policies that led to the 1976 Soweto Uprising, were hopeful examples of change. By the
1980s, township rebellions, boycotts, union militancy, and growing political organizations pushed
South Africa's Botha government into a state of emergency. They were forced to make concessions
and negotiate with Mandela.

The British and American governments classified the ANC as a terrorist organization during the
1980s. However, the growing international criticism of apartheid moved those countries to finally
implement trade sanctions against apartheid. They were motivated by the disruptive resistance in
South Africa and the fact that the Cold War had ended so there was less urgency for an anti-
communism campaign.

In 1990, President Frederik de Klerk freed Mandela. He also removed the bans on anti-apartheid
political parties and allowed negotiations for a path to majority-rule democracy.

Despite right-wing backlash and outbreaks of violence, the white minority did overwhelmingly
approve negotiations for democratic transition. Mandela sought peaceful racial integration,
through a negotiated process of transition to free elections that included non-whites. A post-
apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission was formed to oversee this transition.

Mandela's Influence

Receiving the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize and then winning South Africa's 1994 elections, Mandela
was essential to the peaceful transition from apartheid to multiracial democracy.

What legacy has the end of apartheid left?

Globally, Mandela became an icon. He was often associated with resistance, justice, and extreme
self-sacrifice. The popular perception of Mandela and the anti-apartheid movement, though
capturing some elements of the struggle's history, generally demonstrates a shallow understanding
of what actually occurred.

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These narratives often fail to include Mandela's
leadership of military struggle, and the widespread
militant, and violent, action that forced the apartheid
government to negotiate. They often highlight
international campaigns against apartheid, but are
mute on the strong military and financial support
Western countries gave to apartheid South Africa
throughout the Cold War.

Untold Stories

While leaving a general message that opposition to

injustice can win, the anti-apartheid movement's
history is not well understood.

Regionally, the end of apartheid ended much of

southern Africa's conflict as black-ruled countries
united in far greater cooperation for social and
economic development.

The intervention of South African troops throughout

Africa was also greatly reduced. However, conflict has
continued in many areas of Africa as have operations
of the African Union and increasingly, the United
States' Africa Command.

Meanwhile, though still a regional power, post-apartheid South Africa failed to effectively support
neighboring democracies. Questionable governments such as Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF in
Zimbabwe were allowed to persist without adequate intervention. Newly stable southern Africa
was also increasingly open to trade and investment from China. Their increased global reach and
influence was an unforeseen result of freedom in many developing countries.

Problems Still Exist

In South Africa, the ANC entered power having promised redistribution of wealth and a general
raising of living standards. However, the ANC gradually embraced policies that have led to an
increase in poverty and inequality in South Africa over the past two decades.

The ANC's overwhelming dominance of government throughout this period has stifled the
development of effective parliamentary democracy. Even though South African civil society
remains vibrant and active, corruption throughout the ANC and South Africa in general has
become widespread. Narratives of "white genocide" in South Africa are not supported by facts,
although crime and racial hostilities remain virulent in South African society.

Today, South Africa still has reason to be proud, as it is one of the world's most multicultural and
inclusive countries.

Despite its troubles, South Africa is a nation with an inspiring story of struggle. An accurate vision
of the country's past and present requires engagement with many complexities.

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The South African example shines a light on
sometimes unpleasant realities of history, as well as
enduring aspects of human nature. For those who are
willing to seek out the details and contemplate the
contradictions, the end of apartheid leaves a valuable
legacy of insights for our time.

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