Dimensions of Quality

1) Performance: Performance is often a source of contention between customers

and suppliers, particularly when deliverables are not adequately defined within
specifications. The performance of a product often influences profitability or
reputation of the end-user.

2) Features: It is important that suppliers designing product or services from

performance
specifications are familiar with its intended uses, and maintain close relationships
with the end-users.

3) Reliability: Reliability may be closely related to performance. For example, a

product specification may define parameters for up-time, or acceptable faiiure rates.
Reliability is a major contributor to brand or company image, and is considered a
fundamental dimension of
quality by most end-users.

4) Conformance: Conformance answers several questions like if.a product

development is based on aperformance specification, does it perform as specified? If
its development is based on design specification, does it possess all of the features
defined?

5) Durability: Durability is closely related to warranty. Requirements for product

durability are often included within procurement contracts and specifications.

6) Serviceability: As end users become more focused on total cost of ownership than
simple procurement costs, serviceability (as well as reliability) is becoming an
increasingly important dimension of quality and criteria for product selection.

7) Aesthetics: The way a product looks is important to end-users. The aesthetic

properties of a product contribute to a company's or brand's identity.

8) Perception:' Perception is· reality. The product or service may possess adequate
or even superior dimensions of quality, but still fall victim to negative customer or
public perceptions.
As an example, a high quality product may get the reputation for being low quality
based on poor service by installation or field technicians.

Costs of Quality/Quality Costs

Any serious attempt to deal with quality issues must take into account the costs
associated with quality. Those costs can be classified into three categories:
appraisal, prevention, and failure.

1) Appraisal Costs: Appraisal costs relate to inspection, testing, and other activities
intended to uncover defective products or services, or to assure that there are none.
They include the cost of inspectors, testing, test equipment, labs, quality audits, and
field testing.

2) Prevention Costs: Prevention costs relate to attempts to prevent defects from

occurring. They include costs such as planning and administration systems, working
with vendors, training, quality control procedures, and extra attention in both the
design and production phases to decrease the probability of defective workmanship.
These are the costs of prevention of the production·of bad quality output. Thus,these
include costs of activity such as quality planning which tries to ensure that proper
precautions have
been taken to avoid wrong sampling plans being made or bad quality or raw material
entering into plant or improper methods and processes being followed in the plant.

3) Failure Costs: Failure costs are incurred by defective parts or products or by faulty
services. Failure cost can be classified into internal and external failures.

i) Internal Failures: Internal failures are those discovered during the production
process.Ex: defective material from vendors, incorrect machine settings,
faulty equipment, incorrect methods.The costs of internal failures include
lost production time, scrap and rework ,investigation ·costs, possible
equipment damage, and possible employee injury.
ii) Extemal failures are those discovered after delivery to the customer. External
failures are defective products or poor services that go undetected by the
producer. Resulting costs include warranty work, handling of complaints,
replacements, iabilitynitigation, payments to customers or discounts used
to offset the inferior quality, loss of customer goodwill etc. External failure
costs are typically much greater than internal failure costs

Juran’s Quality Triology:

Joseph M. Juran made many contributions to the field of quality management. He

revolutionized the Japanesephilosophy on quality management and in no small way
worked to help shape their economy into the industrial leader it is today. Juran
believed that main quality problems are due to management rather than workers.
The attainment of quality requires activities in all functions of a firm. Juran developed
a quality trilogy (quality planning, quality control, and quality improvement) to assist
management in the implementation of strategic quality planning.

1) Quality Improvement: Juran believes that true quality leadership requires a

revolutionary rate of improvement, which requires an organizational structure lacking
in many companies. Juran also believes that improvement takes place project by
project and quality improvement does not come free.

Quality Improvement follows the following sequence:

i) Establish a Quality: Establish a quality council to "launch, co-ordinate and
institutionalize annual quality improvement".
ii) Project Selection: It is an essential part of a structured approach to quality
improvement. This step includes; project nominations, project selection, project
mission statement and publication. Ideas from all areas should be solicited.
iii) Project Team Selection: A project team consisting of 6 to 8 people is selected.
The major reason for assigning a team is that the major quality problems are inter-
departmental in nature. Inter-departmental teams tend to be the best way to deal
with these problems.
iv) Assign Team Responsibilities: This. includes preparation of the mission statement
for each team by the quality council and a charter that sets out the activities to be
carried out by-the team to accomplish its mission.
v) Provide Recognition for the Team: Provide rewards for quality and quality
improvement.
 vi) Progress Review: It includes the review and evaluation of all projects individually
and collectively.

2) Quality Planning: This planning activity includes discovering customer needs and
developing products and processes to meet those needs.
Quality planning involves the following steps:
i) Identify the Customers
ii) Determine Customer Needs
iii) Translate the Needs :Translate customer needs into the language of the
organization.
iv) Develop Product Features: Develop product features that optimally respond to
customer needs.

3) Quality Control: The managerial processes used to "evaluate actual performance,

compare actual performance to goals, and take action on the differences". Juran
notes that the process of control is one of holding the status quo. It is based on a
feedback loop and involves the following basic steps:
i) Evaluate Actual Operating Perfonnance
ii) Compare Actual Perfonnance to Goals
iii) Act on the Difference(s)

DEMING’S 14 PRINCIPLES
1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service
2. Adopt the new philosophy for economic stability
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone….
5. Improve constantly and forever every process for planning, production, and
service,
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Drive out fear.
8. Adopt and institute leadership
9. Break down barriers between department and individuals.
10. Eliminate the use of slogans, exhortations for the work force
11. Eliminate work standards and numerical quotas
12. Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and retraining
14. Define top management’s permanent commitment to ever improving quality.

I. CREATE CONSTANCY OF PURPOSE FOR CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT OF

PRODUCT AND SERVICE:
 An organization must define its values, mission and vision of the future to
provide long term direction for its management and employees.
 Deming believed that businesses are social entities whose basic purpose is to
sever their customer and employees.
 To do this, they must take a long term view and invest in innovation, training,
and research.
II. ADOPT THE NEW PHILOSOPHY FOR ECONOMIC STABILITY:
 Old methods of management built on F.W.Taylor’s principles, such as quota
driven production and adversarial work relationships will not work in today’s
global environment
 Companies must take a customer drive approach based on mutual cooperation
between labor and management and a never ending cycle of improvement.
 Everyone from CEO to the lowest level employee of the organization must
recognize the need for a new philosophy to keep the firm and its functions alive
and growing in today’s competitive environment and must learn the new
philosophy.

III. CHASE DEPENDENCY ON INSPECTION TO ACHIVE QUALITY:

 Routine inspection acknowledges that defects are present, but does nod add
value to the product. Defects are inherent to any product or process, and we can
hope to prevent those defects from reaching customers only by inspecting them”
this is the traditional view of operations managers.
 Workers must take responsibility for their work rather than leave the problems for
the quality inspection
 Statistical tools can be used to help control processes and eliminate mass
inspection as the principal activity in controlling activity.

IV. END THE PRACTICE OF AWARDING BUSINESS ON THE BASIS OF PRICE

TAG ALONE:
 Purchase department have been driven by cost minimization, without regard to
quality
 There is a need for total cost assessment of any purchase. Low prices are often
associated with low quality with can actually rise overall costs through increased
expenses for inspection, scrap and rework inventory to replace defective items
and employee frustration.

V. IMPROVE CONSTANTLY AND FOREVER EVERY PROCESS FOR

PLANNING, PRODUCTION AND SEERVICE:
 Western management has viewed improvement in the context of large, expensive
technological innovations such as robotics and computer integrated
manufacturing whereas Japanese manufacturer’s success is primarily due to
incremental improvement.
 Also understanding the manufacturing process and developing designs having
reducibility are essential to achieve improved design.
 Improved production is achieved by reducing the causes of variation and
establishing stable, predictable processes.

VI. INSTITUTE TRAINING ON THE JOB:

 Training removes barriers between workers and supervisors, giving both more
incentives to improve further.
  Training result improvement in quality and productivity, but it adds to workers
morale.
 For continuous improvement, both employees and management require the
proper tools and knowledge people are an organization most valuable resource
and the management must take the responsibility of training them on their jobs so
that they do a good job.

VII. ADOPT AND INSTITUTE MODERN METHODS OF SUPERVISION AND

LEADERSHIP:
 The job of managers is leadership, not supervision. Supervision is simply
overseeing and directing work whereas means providing guidance to help
employees do their job better with less effort.
 They must encourage and promote team work and reward innovation and
initiative. Leadership qualities in supervisors and managers can help to eliminate
the element of fear from the job and encourage team work.
 Supervisors and managers must see themselves teachers, coaches and
facilitators who support the activities of workers in immediate contact with
process problems.

VIII. DRIVE OUT FEAR:

 To drive out fear, managers must create an environment that encourages people
to ask questions, report problems and try new ideas. Employees must know that
the firm will not punish, if the idea fails.
 Fear affects an operating system, organization in many ways. Some people are
afraid to ask question to reveal their weakness in their knowledge fear of poor
performance fear of termination prevents employees from taking up new
challenges.
 Managers must demonstrate the importance of trying something new that offers
change for major leap in effectiveness rather than sticking with safe methods that
offer only stable or declining results.

IX. BREAKDOWN BARRIERS BETWEEN DEPARTMENTS AND INDIIDUALS:

 Team work helps to break down the barrier between departments and
individuals.
 Interdisciplinary teams can enhance quality and effectiveness of efforts to
design and build products as compared with a strictly functionally oriented
process.
 In Japan, firms emphasizes that the next department or individual in the
production process is actually the customer and train those workers to manage
such customer relationship.

X. ELIMINATE THE USE OF SLOGANS,EXHORTATIONS FOR THE WORK

FORCE:
 Poster, slogans and motivational programs calling for “zero defects”, “Do it
right first time”, “improve productivity and quality”, and so on are directed at the
 wrong people. These slick messages assume that all quality problems are due
to human behavior.

XI. ELIMINATE WOEK STANDARDS AND NUMERICAL QUOTAS:

 Standards and quotas are short term perspectives and they create fear of penalty
actions.
 They do not encourage improvement, particularly if rewards and performance
appraisals are based on numerical quotas
 Workers may short cut quality to reach the target of numerical quotas.

XII. REMOVE THE BARRIERS THAT TREAT THE WORKERS AS COMMODITY:

 Employers treat/feel that workers and managers are ‘commodity’ which can be
used as per the wishes of the employers
 Employees are not recognized as valuable human resources
 Workers are given monotonous tasks, provided with inferior machines, tools or
materials and are asked work at odd hours.

XIII. INSTITUTE A VIGOROUS PROGRAM OF EDUCTION AND RETRAINNING:

 Continual training keeps the workforce up-to-date with the latest developments,
changes in the machines, design, new tools and innovative techniques.
 Organization must invest in training all the workers to sharpen their skills.

XIV. DEFINE TOP MANGAEMENTS PERMANENT COMMITMENT TO EVER

IMPROVING QUALITY AND PRODUCTIVITY:
 Top manager’s actions communicate the true importance of quality and TQM
throughout the firm
 The commitment of Top Managers to quality encourages many managers and
employees to follow top managers towards organizational and personal
success.

PDCA CYCLE (Plan Do Check Act)

PDCA CYCLE: - A Four step process for quality improvement.

 In the first step (PLAN), a plan to effect improvement is developed.

 In second step (DO), the plan is carried out.
 In third step (CHECK), the effects of the plan are observed.
 In the last step (ACT), action is taken to carry out the plan after making
necessary corrections.
 This is repeated till the original plan is achieved.
The concept of the PDCA Cycle was originally developed by Walter Shewhart,
the pioneering statistician who developed statistical process control in the Bell
Laboratories in the US during the 1930's. It is often referred to as `the Shewhart
Cycle'. It was taken up and promoted very effectively from the 1950s on by the
famous Quality Management authority, W. Edwards Deming, and is consequently
known by many as `the Deming Wheel'

PLAN

 A plan can be to initiate a new process or improve an existing one

 It should be based upto customer needs, and
 Resolved to more effectively fulfill the organization’s mission.
In this phase, analyze what you intend to improve, looking for areas that hold
opportunities for change. The first step is to choose areas that offer the most
return for the effort you put in-the biggest bang for your buck. To identify these
areas for change consider using a Flow chart

DO

Carry out the process as per the plan. (preferably on a small scale
• Implement the change you decided on in the plan phase.

• Do changes designed to solve the problems on a small or experimental scale

first. This minimises disruption to routine activity while testing whether the
changes will work or not.
CHECK

Review the gathered data to determine if the planned and implemented change has
created the quality improvement intended.
This is a crucial step in the PDCA cycle. After you have implemented the change for
a short time, you must determine how well it is working. Is it really leading to
improvement in the way you had hoped? You must decide on several measures with
which you can monitor the level of improvement. Run Charts can be helpful with this
measurement.

ACT

 Take action, either to implemented the change or change variables to see if

the process can be made more effective, or
 “Standardize” the new, successful process.
 Adopt the change, abandon it, or run through the cycle again.

After planning a change, implementing and then monitoring it, you must
decide whether it is worth continuing that particular change. If it consumed too much
of your time, was difficult to adhere to, or even led to no improvement, you may
consider aborting the change and planning a new one. However, if the change led to
a desirable improvement or outcome, you may consider expanding the trial to a
different area, or slightly increasing your complexity. This sends you back into the
Plan phase and can be the beginning of the ramp of improvement.

If the experiment was not successful, skip the Act stage and go back to the
Plan stage to come up with some new ideas for solving the problem and go through
the cycle again. Plan-Do-Check-Act describes the overall stages of improvement
activity, but how is each stage carried out? This is where other specific quality
management, or continuous improvement, tools and techniques come into play.

Meaning of Quality Circle

A 'quality circle is a completely voluntary group of 6 to 8 workers of a shop or who
meet regularly during company time once every fortnight or every month under the
leadership of a trained foreman or section head to examine work-related problems
that affect the quality of output and to recommend to the management possible
solutions to those problems.

Organizational Structure of Quality Circle

A quality circle has an appropriate organizational structure for its effective and
efficient performance. It varies from industry to industry, organization to organization.
But, it is useful to have a basic framework as a model. The structure consists of the
followng elements:
1) Steering Committee: This is at the top of the structure. It is headed by a senior
executive and includes representatives from the top management and human
resources development people.
2) Co-ordinator: He may be a personnel or administrative officer who co-ordiiiates
and supervises the work of the facilitators and administers the programmes.

3) Facilitator: He may be a. senior supervisory officer. He co-ordinates the works of

several quality circles through the circle leaders.

4) Circle Leader: Leaders may be from lowest level workers or supervisors. A circle
leader organizes and conducts circle activities
.
5) Circle Members: They may be staff workers. Without circle members the
programmes cannot exist. They are the lifeblood of quality circles. They should
attend all meetings as far as possible, offer suggestions and ideas, participate
actively in group process and take training seriously with a receptive attitude.

Benefits of Quality Circle

1) Improvement in quality.
2) Increase in productivity.
3) Better house-keeping.
4) Cost reduction.
5) Increased safety.
6) Working without tension.
7) Better communication.
8) Effective team-work.
9) Better human-relations.
10) Greater sense of belongingness.
11) Better mutual trust.
12) Development of participative culture

ELEMENTARY STASTICAL METHODS (7 QC TOOLS)

• Check sheet
• Graph
• Control chart
• Pareto chart
• Cause and Effect diagram
• Histogram
• Scatter diagram

CHECK SHEET
• It is simple document is used to collect data in real time.
• Data can be collected easily and concisely.
• The right data could be captured with all necessary facts included.
E.g 1. As when it happened?
2. How many?
3. What customers?

CREATING A CHECK SHEET:

• Identify the question
 • Identify the potential problem areas
• Tracking problems
• Recording problems

BENEFITS OF CHECK SHEET:

• Efficiency
• Systematic and organized
• Easy to use

HISTOGRAM
• Information from the checklist of tally chart is used to construct histograms.
These are basic forms that help standardize data collection.
• It summarizes data measured on a continuous scale, showing the frequency
distribution of some quality characteristic.
• Often the mean of the data is indicated on the histogram.

Weight of Soap(GMS)

GRAPHS
• Graphs are perhaps the most widely used but least but talked about tools in
business.
• Graphs are convenient ways to clearly show your data.
• They represent data in a variety of formats.
• There are 3 basic graphs forms
Bar graph
Line graph
Pie graph

BAR GRAPHS
• A bar graph is used to show relationship between groups.
• A series of bars representing the frequency of occurrence of data
characteristic measured on a yes or no basis are shown in the chart.
• The bar height indicates the number of times a particular quality characteristic
was observed.
LINE GRAPHS
• It represents data sequentially with data points connected by line segments to
highlight trends in the data.
• Line graphs are used to show continuing data, how one thing is affected by
another.

PIE CHARTS
• It represents quality factors as slices of a pie: the size of each slice is in
proportion to the number of occurrence of the factor.
• It is used to show how a part of something relates to the whole.

CONTROL CHART
• Quality control charts are graphs on which the quality of the product is plotted as
manufacturing or servicing is actually proceeding.
• It graphically represents the output of the process and uses statistical limits and
patterns of plot for decision making.
• Enables corrective actions to be taken at the earliest possible moment and
avoiding unnecessary corrections.

PARETO CHART
• It is used to graphically summarize and display the relative importance of the
differences between groups of data.
• This is often referred as the 80-20 rule that is , 80 percent of problems are
caused by 20 percent of the potential sources.
• The pareto analysis technique is used primarily to identify and evaluate non
conformities, it can summarize all types of data.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAMS

• An important aspect of TQM is linking each aspect of quality prized by the
customer to the inputs, methods and process steps that build a particular
attribute into the product.
• One way to identify a design problems needs to be corrected is to develop a
cause and effect diagram helps that relates a key quality problem to its potential
causes.
• The diagram helps management trace customer’s complaints directly to the
operation involved.
• Cause and effect diagram is also known as fish bone diagram.

OTHER EQUIPMENT PERSONNEL

DELAYED
MATERIALS PROCEDURES
FLIGHT
From the above diagram analyzing delays in flight departure. The main problem is
represented by the box at the head of the diagram and is also called ‘fish head’.
The major categories of the potential causes are labeled as structural bones and
likely specific causes as ribs.

SCATTER DIAGRAM
• It is a plot of two variables plotted along two axis used to determine whether
the variables are related.
• Each point on scatter diagram represents one data observation.
• It could be constructed by plotting the number of defective castings found for
each diameter of casting produced.
• After the diagram is completed, any relationship between and number of
defects for shafts of different diameters and the casting process can become
apparent.
• It can be used to examine both variables and attribute data.

7 New QC Tools
Seven new QC tools are fundamental instruments to improve the quality of
the product. They are used to analyze the production process identify the major
problems, Control fluctuations of product quality, and solution to avoid future defect.
Statistical to avoid future defects, Statistical literacy is necessary t0 actively use the
'seven QC tools. These tools use statistical techniques and knowledge to
accumulate data and analyze them.

1) Relations Diagram
2) Affinity Diagram
3) Systematic Diagram
4) Matrix Diagram.
5) Matrix Data Analysis
6) Process Decision Program Chart
7) Arrow Diagram.

Relations Diagram/Inter-Relationship Diagraph

 A technique developed to clarify intertwined causal relationships in a complex
situation in order to find', an appropriate solution. It is typical re resented graphically
as squared ellipses (concepts) connected b directed lines (arrow show direction).
The directed lines-.represent causal relations between the concepts, which can be
used to
 Determine and develop quality assurance policies,
 Establish promotional plans for TQC introduction,
 Design steps to counter market complaints,
 Improve quality in the manufacturing process
(Especially in planning to eliminate latent defects),
 Promote quality Control in purchased or ordered items,
 Provide measures against troubles related to payment and process control,
 Effectively promote small group activities,
 Reform administrative and business departments.

Affinity Diagram (KJ Method)

According to Mizuno, "the affinity diagram method (KJ method) clarifies
important but unresolved problems by collecting verbal data from disordered and
confused situations and analyzing that data by mutual affinity'. It is typically
represented graphically as nested squared ellipses (co(1cepts) which have smaller
and smaller sub-groupings of concepts.

KJ method can be used to:

1. Establish a ac policy for a new company or a new factory and to implement that
plan.
2. Establish a ac policy concerning new projects, new products, or new technology
and to implement that plan.
3. Conduct quality assurance market surveys when entering a new untested
policy.
4. Find a starting point for TQC promotion by creating a consensus among people
with varying opinions regarding the problems that arise within each
department.
5. Invigorate project teams within various groups.
Systematic Diagram (Tree Diagram)
According to Mizuno, "the systematic diagram method searches for the most
appropriate and effective means of accomplishing given objectives".
Systematic diagrams can be divided into two types:
i) The constituent-component-analysis diagram breaks-down the main subject into its
basic elements and depicts their relationships to the objectives and means of
obtaining those objectives.
ii) The plan-development diagram systematically shows the means and procedures
necessary to successfully implement a given plan.
It is typically represented graphically either a horizontal or vertical tree structure
connecting the elements, which can be used to:

i) Deploy a design-quality plan in the development of a new product.

ii) Depict the relationship between a QC production process chart and the
development of certified levels of quality designed to improve the accuracy
of quality assurance activities.
 iii) Create a cause effect diagram.
iv) Develop ideas in order to solve problems dealing with quality, cost, and
delivery that arise in new businesses.
v) Develop objectives, policies, and implementation steps.
vi) Pursue the specification of increased efficiency in parts and control functions.

Tree diagrams, also known as systematic diagrams; are an application of a

method originally developed for function analysis in value engineering.

Purpose of Tree Diagrams

The purpose of the tree diagram is to explore the ways and means to achieve
an objective, develop a list of alternate means to reach the desired situation in a
sequential order and to present them in visual understandable form. In this way, tree
diagram helps to generate a logical set of proposals at a number of levels which turn
a general problem into a set of possible actions:

Procedure of Tree Diagrams

The procedure to construct the tree diagram, as a process flow chart is given as:

State Problem

BrainstormAll possible causes (for Why-Why diagram) or

Method of addressing the problem(for a How-How diagram)

Decide appropriate form-cascade or tree-form of

diagram and start construction of the diagram

Identify primary, secondary and tertiary means from brainstorm

which relate most closely to problem Statement, and list the
same, Arrange in proper order in boxes

Rearrange boxes, if necessary, Use of 'post-it'

pads makes rearrangement simple

Matrix Diagram
According to Mizuno, "the matrix diagram method clarifies problematic spots
through multidimensional thinking".
1. The matrix diagram method identifies corresponding elements involved in a
problem situation or event
2. These elements are arranged in rows and columns on a chart that shows the
presence or absence of relationships among collected pairs of elements.
3. Effective problem solving is facilitated at the intersection points, also referred
to as the idea conception points.

Matrix Data Analysis Method

According to Mizuno, "the matrix analysis method qualifies and arranges matrix
diagram data, so that the information is easy to visualize and comprehend".
1) The relationships between the elements shown in a matrix diagram are
quantified by obtaining numerical data for intersection cells.
 2) Of the seven new QC tools, this is the only numerical analysis method. The
results of this technique, however, are presented in diagram form.
3) One major technique that this method also utilizes is k'l0wn as Principal-
Components Analysis.

Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)

According to Mizuno, "the PDPC method helps determine processes to use to
obtain desired results by evaluating the progress of events and the variety of
conceivable outcomes'.
1. Implementation plans do not always progress as anticipated. When problems,
technical or otherwise, arise, solutions are frequently not apparent. .'
2. The PDPC method, in response to these kinds of problems, anticipates
possible outcomes and prepares counter-measures that will lead to the best
possible solutions.

Arrow Diagram
According to Mizuno, "the arrow diagram method establishes the most
suitable daily plan is monitors progress efficiently".
The arrow diagram method utilized by PERT or CPM, is a network of lines
that connect all the elements related to plan execution. It is typically represented
graphically either a horizontal or vertical tree structure connecting the elements.

Quality function deployment(QFD)

According to Dr. YOJI Akao, Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a "method t
transform user demands into design quality, to deploy the functions forming quality,
and to deploy methods for achieving the design quality into sub-systems and
component parts, and ultimately to specific elements of the manufacturing . process".
.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a method of product development where the

product or process is directed from the Voice of the Customer (VOC) through
development of requirements, specifications design feature development, process
selection and process control.

The key features of QFD are as follows:

1) It Captures the Customer's Voice: The customer's voice is captured in order to
define product or service specifications.
2) It ensures Strong Cross-Functional Teamwork: Teamwork is ensured between the
various functions involved with design,such as marketing, R&D, and manufacturing.
3) It Links the Main Phases of Product Development: A more thorough use of QFD
ensures the generation of four matrices that link the four main phases of product
development:
i) Product planning, after customer needs are understood;
ii) Part deployment;
iii) Process planning; and production planning.

Elements of ISO 9000

ISO 9000 is actually a series of guidelines for selection and use of the appropriate
systems standards of ISO 9001, ISO 9002 or ISO 9003. Thus, ISO 9000 is the road
map to the entire series. ISO 9004 helps building up a quality system that can fit to a
specific situation. It offers guidelines for interpreting the elements required in ISO
9001, ISO 9002 or ISO 9003. The contents of ISO 9000 are as follows:

1) Management Responsibility
i) The quality policy shall be defined, documented, understood, implemented, and
maintained.
ii) Responsibilities and authorities for all personnel specifying, achieving and
monitoring quality shall be defined. In-house verification resources shall be defined,
trained and funded.

2) Quality System
i) Procedure shall be prepared.
ii) Procedure shall be implemented.

3) Contract Review .
Incoming contracts (and purchase orders) shall be reviewed to see whether the
requirements are
adequately defined, agree with the bid, and can be implemented.

4) Design Control
i) The design project shall be planned.
ii) Design input parameters shall be defined.
iii) Design output, including crucial product characteristics, shall be documented.
iv) Design output shall be verified to meet input requirements.
v) Design changes shall be controlled.

5) Document Control
i) Generation of documents shall be controlled.
ii) Distribution of documents shall be controiled.
iii) Changes to documents shall be controlled.
6) Purchasing I
1) Potential subcontractors and sub suppliers shall be evaluated for their ability to
provide stated .J.·
requirements
ii) Requirements shall be clearly defined in contracting data.

7) Customer-supplied Material
Any customer - supplied material shall be protected against loss or damage.

8) Product Identification and Traceability

The product shall be identified and traceable by item, batch, of lot during all stages of
production, delivery, and installation.

9) Process Control
i) Production (and installation) processes shall be defined and planned.
ii) Production· shall be carried out under controlled conditions: documented
instructions, in-process controls, approval of processes and equipment: and criteria
for workmanship.
iii) Special processes that cannot be verified after the fact shall be monitored and
controlled throughout the
processes.
10) Inspection and Testing
i) Incoming materials shall be inspected or verified before use.
. ii) In-process inspection and testing shall be performed.
iii) Final inspection and testing shall be perfoimed prior to release of finished product.
iv) Records of inspection and test shall be kept.

11) Inspection, Measuring, and Test Equipment .

i) Equipment used to demonstrate Conformance shall be controlled, calibrated and
maintained:
a) Identify measurements to be made.
b) Identify affected instruments.
c) Calibrate instruments (procedures and status indicators).
d) Periodically check calibration.
e) Assess measurement validity if found out of calibration.
f) Control environmental conditions in metrology lab..
ii) Measurement uncertainty and equipment capability shall be known.
iii) Where test hardware or software is used, it shall be checked before use and
rechecked during use

12) Corrective Action

i) Problem causes shall be identified.
ii) Specific problems and their causes shall be corrected.
iii) Effectiveness of corrective actions shall be assessed.

13) Quality Records

Quality records shall be identified, collected, indexed, filed, stored, maintained and
dispositioned.

14) Internal Quality Audits

i) Audits shall be planned and performed.
ii) Results of audits shall be communicated to management
iii) Any deficiencies found shall be corrected.

QS-9000 is the name given to the Ouality System Requirements of the automotive
industry which were developed by Chrysler, Ford,- General Motors and major truck
manufacturers and issued in late 1994. The influence of OS-9000 is being seen
throughout the automotive industry as it has virtually eliminated varying demands
and waste associated with redundant systems. Companies that become registered
under OS-9000 will be considered to have. higher standards and better quality
products.
OS-9000 is a quality system standard that focuses on helping automotive suppliers
ensure that they are meeting/exceeding automotive customer requirements. As
mentioned before, it uses ISO 9000 as a core (document contrOl, corrective action,
auditing, etc.), but adds quite a few additional requirements.

QUALITY AWARDS - ~1'

In order to motivate industries towards quality system and also to establish some
realistic weightages for different aspect of quality system, quality awards have been
instituted. Among them, Malcolm Balridge Award and Deming Award are most
prestigious ones. In India, two awards are instituted. They are Golden Peacock
Quality Award and Rajiv Gandhi Quality Award.
Deming Prize
The Japanese Deming Prize is significant for several reasons. Its introduction
launched the practice of selfassessment , and the concepts of scoring and site visits
in an award process were developed. This has ultimately led to the process by which
both the more recent Malcolm Baldrige and European Quality Awards are operated.
It is' generally difficult to get' information about the Deming Prize in the Western
world. As most of the documentation surrounding the award is written in Japanese,
and little has been translated into English, there is a general lack of information in
the normal quality literature. Even part of the award application for English speaking
nations must be in Japanese. The most useful source of Information comes from the
publication 'Deming Prize Guide for Overseas Companies'.
.
The prize now has three award categories: .
1) The Deming Prizes for Individuals,
2) The Deming Application Prize,
3) The Quality Control Award for Factorie~.
Deming Award Criteria
Deming Award is decided based on the following criteria:
1) Policies,
2) Organization,
3) Information,
4) Standardization"
5) Human resources,
6) Quality assurance,
7) Maintenance, /
8) Improvement,
9) Effects,
10) Future plans.
MBNQAlBaidrige Award
The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award was created by Public Law, and was
Signed by President Reagan on 20 August 1987. The Baldrige National Quality
Program led to the creation of a new partnership between the government and the
private sector, aimed at promoting quality and performance excellence. Private
sector support for the Program comes in the form of funds, volunteer efforts, and
knowledge transfer.
Purpose of Malcolm Baldrige Award
Three goals of the award are:
1) To help improve performance practices and capabilities.
2) To facilitate communication and sharing of best practices information among U.S.
organizations of all types.
3) To serve as a working tool for understanding and managing performance,
planning, training and assessment.

Benefits of Baldridge Assessment

The Malcom Baldridge ass,essment is successful in increasing profitability by
improving quality because of its extensive application process. The application
process does the following:
1) Involves and Motivates People: The process invites people to think about what
they do individually and as a part of a group, department and division to exceed the
customers' expectations. Companies use internal experts instead of hiring outside
experts to assess quality processes.
2) Provides a Quality System: The criteria have been designed and are continuously
improved by leading quality and business experts. It provides businesses with a
standard and effective process to assess their quality issues.
3) Focuses on the Customer: The application process helps businesses that have
forgotten their reason for existence focus on meeting and exceeding their
customers'. needs.
4) Assesses Quality: Businesses are able to determine their strengths and
weaknesses and find out if they are headed in the direction of improved quality.
5)' Demands Data: The award is based on proof on not just stories, assumptions and
opinions.
6) Provides Feedback: Reports what needs to be changed to improve the quality.
7) Encourages Sharing: Businesses can benchmark themselves against other
businesses to see how competitive they are and find ways to improve their quality
through other business successes and failures.
,/
8) Stimulates Change: Problem-solving techniques are used to improve quality
based on the results of the application process.
9) Builds Financial Success: It can improve financial performance by increasing
business, establishing an image as a quality leader, reducing the cost of poor quality,
and improving critical financial measures.

Meaning and Definition of Six Sigma

Six Sigma is a quality system based on measurements of how well an organization
meets customer requirements. It is a widely practiced leadership framework and
management methodology that drives business
improvement.
Six Sigma is a quality improvement programme with a goal to reduce the number of
defects to as low as 3.4 parts per million. It relies on the use of Normal Distribution
to predict defective rates. It is a benchmark of excellence for product and process
quality, popularized by Motorola based on zero defect concept introduced , by Philip
B. Crosby. It provides a quantitative statistical notion of quality useful in
understanding, measuring and reducing variation.
A product is said to be of Six Sigryla (6a) qualitY if there are no more than 3.4 non-
conformities per million opportunities at the part and process step level. 'Six Sigma is
an overall,strategy to accelerate improvements in its processes, products and
services. It is also a measurement of total quality to let the company know how
effective it is in eliminating defects and variations from its processes. It encompasses
tools from all improvement initiatives, including those in operational, technical and
customer excellence. It just applies to every function in the company, not just the
factory.

Objectives of Six Sigma

1) Six sigma quality levels are closest to zero defect. Less than 6cr does not yield
acceptable level of quality and more than 6cr does not yield substantial benefits. .
2) Total customer satisfaction can be achieved with reliable product services.
3) Reduction of cost is possible.
4) It-gives higher yield.
5) Improved reliability.
The goal of a six sigma quality programme is to improve customer satisfaction
through reducing and eliminating defects and to continuously improve processes
thereby improving quality and productivity.

Competitive Advantages of Six Sigma

Six sigma allows to become more competitive - regionally, nationally, or globally. At
this point, one probably does not need any justification for that statement. A
company that reduces its costs of doing business, meets the expectations of its
customers more effectively and efficiently, earns a reputation for quality, and fosters
a culture of dedication and pride will certainly enjoy advantages over its competitors.
It can provide higher quality outputs at a lower cost. The other advantages followed
by the six sigma are as follows:

1) Design Better Products: Six sigma can and does help many companies to design
better products with less waste and at a lower cost.
2) Improve Quality: Six sigma methodology at its best produces organization-wide
synergy, everyone pulling' together to improve quality, cut costs and drive
profitability.
3)Top Down Approach: The top down approach of six sigma means that what is
found to be good can be capitalized on and what is found to be bad can be removed
quickly, because the very top tier of management are involved and expecting
change, not running away from it.
".
Steps Involved in the Application of Six Sigma
.The methodology of Six Sigma consists of DMAIC and DMADV Cycle. Brief
explanations of the same are as follows.
DMAIC Cycle
1) Define : The primary aim is to identify, within each sub-process, the possibilities
for defects or
quality problems which can be arrived at through the use of different statistical tools,
such as regression analysis, design of experiments and Chi-square testing. The
quality problem which requires breakthrough solution has to be defined clearly in
measurable terms.
2) Measure: The second most important step is the establishment of the metrics that
will be improved using Six Sigma. It is also necessary to identify and.rank the
improvement opportunities.
3) Analyse: This is the stage at which new goals are set, and the route-maps created
for closing the gap between current and target performance levels. It begins with
benchmarking key product performance against the best.Fishbone Diagram, Pareto
analysis, etc. may be used for carrying out the analysis.
4) Improve: The objective of this phase is
i) To confirm the key process variables, and;
ii) Identify the maximum acceptable changes of the specifications; and tackle the
capability of the
process.
iii) If the existing quality level is < 3q': efforts must be directed to improve the
processes so as to achieve at least 3q.
5) Control: The final stage of Six Sigma implementation is to hold the gains that have
been obtained from the 'improve' stage. Unless there Is a good control we are likely
to go back to the original state. Hence, in this
stage, the new process-conditions are documented, and frozen into systems so that
the gains are permanent The process is assessed once more after the setting-in
period in order to check whether the improvements are being sustained or not.