TOPIC: BODY COMPOSITION

Introduction:
Achieving recommended body weight improves health parameters, but most
importantly, it improves quality of life by allowing you to pursue tasks of daily living,
along with leisure and recreational activities, without functional limitations. You will also
rejoice in the way you feel if you follow a healthy diet, remain physically active, and
maintain a lifetime exercise program.

Objectives:
Define body composition and understand how it relates to recommended body
weight.
Explain the difference between essential fat and storage fat.
Describe various techniques used to assess body composition.
Be able to assess body composition using skinfold thickness and girth
measurements.
Understand the importance of body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference
(WC) in the assessment of risk for disease.
Be able to determine recommended weight according to recommended percent
body fat values and BMI.

Lesson:

What Is Body Composition?

To understand the concept of body composition, we must recognize that the human
body consists of fat and nonfat components. The fat component is called fat mass or
percent body fat. The nonfat component is termed lean body mass.
To determine recommended body weight, we need to find out what percent of total
body weight is fat and what amount is lean tissue—in other words, assess body compo-
sition. Body composition should be assessed by a well- trained technician who
understands the procedure being used.
Once the fat percentage is known, recommended body weight can be calculated
from recommended body fat. Guidelines for recommended body weight, also called
“healthy weight,” have been set at values where there are no medical conditions that
would improve with weight loss. The guidelines take into consideration body shape (or
fat distri- bution pattern) that is not associated with higher risk for illness.

Essential and Storage Fat

Total fat in the human body is classified into two types: essential fat and storage fat.
Essential fat is needed for normal physiological function. Without it, human health and
physical performance deteriorate. This type of fat is found within tissues such as muscles,
nerve cells, bone marrow, intestines, heart, liver, and lungs. Essential fat constitutes about
3 percent of the total weight in men and 12 percent in women. The percentage is higher in
women because it includes sex-specific fat, such as that found in the breast tissue, the
uterus, and other sex- related fat deposits.
 Storage fat is the fat stored in adipose tissue, mostly just beneath the skin
(subcutaneous fat) and around major organs in the body (intra-abdominal or visceral fat).
This fat serves three basic functions: as an insulator to retain body heat, as energy
substrate for metabolism, and as padding against physical trauma to the body.
The amount of storage fat does not differ between men and women, except that
men tend to store fat around the waist and women around the hips and thighs.

Body Shape and Health Risk

As you have seen, body weight affects more than just physical appearance. Excessive body weight
and lower health have been linked by research for decades. There is, however, another critical element at
work. A person’s total amount of body fat by itself is not the best predictor of increased risk for disease but,
rather, the location of the fat. Scientific evidence suggests that the way people store fat affects their risk for
disease.
Android obesity is seen in individuals who tend to store fat in the trunk or abdominal area (which
produces the “apple” shape).
Gynoid obesity is seen in people who store fat primarily around the hips and thighs (which creates
the “pear” shape).
Compared with people whose body fat is stored primarily in the hips and thighs, obese individuals
with abdominal fat are at higher risk for heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes (“non–insulin-
dependent” diabetes), stroke, some types of cancer, kidney disease, dementia, migraines, and diminished
lung function. One poignant study followed more than 350,000 people for almost 10 years and concluded
that even when body weight is viewed as “normal,” individuals with a large waist circumference nearly
double the risk for premature death.
Evidence also indicates that among individuals with a lot of abdominal fat, two different internal
locations of abdominal fat have different effects on disease risk.
● Those with fat deposits located around internal organs (visceral fat or intra-abdominal fat) have an
even greater risk for disease. Researchers believe that visceral fat is more metabolically active than
subcutaneous fat and secretes harmful inflammatory substances that contribute to chronic conditions.
● Those with fat deposits right beneath the skin (subcutaneous and retroperitoneal fat) have a better
metabolic profile than people with adipose tissue that is primarily visceral fat.

Techniques to Assess Body Composition

Body composition can be estimated using several methods. There is no method that can determine a
person’s exact amount of body fat. Some techniques, however, are more accurate than others.

Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry

Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is a method to assess body composition that is used most
frequently in re- search and by medical facilities. A radiographic technique, DXA uses very low-dose
beams of x-ray energy (hundreds of times lower than a typical body x-ray) to measure total body fat mass,
fat distribution pattern, and bone density. Bone density is measured to assess the risk for osteoporosis. The
procedure itself is simple and takes less than 15 minutes to administer. Many exercise scientists consider
DXA to be the standard technique to assess body composition. Other methods to estimate body
composition are used. The most common of these are:
1. Hydrostatic or underwater weighing 3. Skinfold thickness
2. Air displacement 4. Girth measurements
5. Bioelectrical impedance
Other techniques to assess body composition are available, but the equipment is costly and not easily
accessible to the general population. In addition to percentages of lean tissue and body fat, some of these
methods also provide information on total body water and bone mass. These techniques include air
displacement, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and total body electrical
conductivity (TOBEC).

Hydrostatic Weighing
Until the advent of DXA, hydrostatic weighing had been the most common technique used in
determining body composition in exercise physiology laboratories. With hydrostatic weighing, a person’s
“regular” weight is compared with a weight taken underwater. Because fat is more buoyant than lean tissue,
comparing the two weights can determine a per- son’s percentage of fat. The procedure requires a
considerable amount of time, skill, space, and equipment and must be administered by a well-trained
technician.
This technique has several drawbacks. First, because each individual assessment can take as long
as 30 minutes, hydro- static weighing is not feasible when testing a lot of people. Furthermore, the person’s
residual lung volume (amount of air left in the lungs following complete forceful exhalation) should be
measured before testing. If residual volume cannot be measured, as is the case in some laboratories and
health/fitness centers, it is estimated using the predicting equations, which may decrease the accuracy of
hydrostatic weighing.
Also, the requirement of being completely underwater makes hydrostatic weighing difficult to
administer to aquaphobic people. For accurate results, the individual must be able to perform the test
properly. Forcing all of the air out of the lungs is not easy for everyone but is important to obtain an
accurate reading. Leaving additional air (beyond residual volume) in the lungs makes a person more
buoyant. Because fat is less dense than water, overweight individuals weigh less in water. Additional air in
the lungs makes a person lighter in water, yielding a false, higher body fat percentage.
For each underwater weighing trial, the person has to (a) force out all of the air in the lungs, (b)
lean forward and completely submerge underwater for about 5 to 10 seconds (long enough to get the
underwater weight), and (c) remain as calm as possible (chair movement makes reading the scale difficult).
This procedure is repeated eight to ten times.

Air Displacement
When using air displacement (also known as air displacement plethysmography), an individual sits
inside a small chamber, commercially known as the Bod Pod. Computerized pressure sensors determine the
amount of air displaced by the person inside the chamber. Body volume is calculated by subtracting the air
volume with the person inside the chamber from the volume of the empty chamber. The amount of air in
the person’s lungs also is taken into consideration when determining actual body volume. Body density and
percent body fat then are calculated from the obtained body volume.

Skinfold Thickness
 Because of the cost, time, and complexity of hydrostatic weighing and the expense of Bod Pod
equipment, most health and fitness programs use anthropometric measurement techniques. These
techniques, primarily skinfold thickness and girth measurements, allow quick, simple, and inexpensive
estimates of body composition.
Assessing body composition using skinfold thickness is based on the principle that the amount of
subcutaneous fat is proportional to total body fat. Valid and reliable measurements of this tissue give a
good indication of percent body fat

Girth Measurements
Another method that is frequently used to estimate body fat is to measure circumferences, or girth
measurements, at various body sites. This technique requires only a standard measuring tape. The limitation
is that it may not be valid for athletic individuals (men or women) who participate actively in strenuous
physical activity or for people who can be classified visually as thin or obese.
Bioelectrical Impedance
The bioelectrical impedance technique is much simpler to administer, but its accuracy is
questionable. In this technique, sensors are applied to the skin and a weak (totally painless) electrical
current is run through the body to measure its electrical resistance, which is then used to estimate body fat,
lean body mass, and body water.
The technique is based on the principle that fat tissue is a less efficient conductor of electrical
current than is lean tissue. The easier the conductance is, the leaner the individual. Specialized equipment
or simple body weight scales with sensors on the surface can be used to perform this procedure.

Metrics Used to Assess Body Size and Shape

As you evaluate your body weight and the weight you would like to reach and maintain throughout life,
there are a few metrics that will be helpful to know in addition to knowing your body composition. These
metrics will help you estimate your personal healthy and unhealthy body weight. They are body mass index
(BMI), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), and waist circumference (WC). Assessments for these metrics require
only a scale and a measuring tape, are quick and easy to obtain, and offer a realistic way for you to track
your body weight and shape throughout the years.

Body Mass Index

The technique most widely used over recent decades to determine thinness and excessive fatness is
the body mass index (BMI). BMI incorporates height and weight to estimate critical fat values at which the
risk for disease increases.
BMI is calculated by one of two methods:
1. Dividing the weight in kilograms by the square of the height in meters.
2. Multiplying body weight in pounds by 705 and dividing this figure by the square of the
height in inches.
For example, the BMI for an individual who weighs 172 pounds (78 kg) and is 67 inches (1.7 m) tall
would be 27: [78 4 (1.7)2] or [172 3 705 4 (67)2]. You also can look up your BMI in Table 4.6 according to
your height and weight.
The math for BMI originally came from Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet, a Belgian
mathematician in the 1830s. He sought equations to define several features of the average man, including
the average build. He surveyed several hundred individuals and settled on the equation of dividing weight
by the square of the person’s height, which generally followed the average results for the builds of the men
measured. This equation was not connected to obesity until the 1970s, when a large-scale study made the
equation popular as a way to combine height and weight into a single number. The equation was coined
BMI and was immediately adopted by researchers studying large populations as a simple way to sift
through massive amounts of data, allowing them to connect general trends in height and weight to health
outcomes. Some modern researchers contend that a proper equation for BMI should be more complex, as
short and tall individuals may receive an inaccurate prediction of health risk. Regardless of its accuracy for
large populations, BMI was not initially intended to be used as a predictor of health outcomes for
individuals.
BMI is important to understand, however, because it is the most widely used method to determine
overweight and obe- sity across the world. Due to the various limitations of previ- ously mentioned body
composition techniques—including cost, availability, and lack of consistency—BMI is used almost
exclusively in place of body composition tests to determine health risks and mortality rates associated with
excessive body weight. As long as its limitations are kept in mind, BMI can add to our general knowledge
of the relationship between body size and disease risk, especially when used in conjunc- tion with waist
circumference.
BMI and disease risk. Scientific evidence indicates that the risk for disease starts to increase when
BMI exceeds 25.7 Although a BMI index between 18.5 and 25 is con- sidered normal (see Table 4.7 and
Table 4.9), the lowest risk for chronic disease is in the 22 to 25 range.8 Individu- als are classified as
overweight if their index lies between 25 and 30. A BMI greater than 30 is defined as obese, and one less
than 18.5 is considered underweight.
Compared with individuals who have a BMI between 22 and 25, people with a BMI between 25
and 30 (overweight) exhibit a mortality rate up to 25 percent higher; the rate for those with a BMI greater
than 30 (obese) is 50 to 100 percent higher. 9 Table 4.7 provides disease risk categories when BMI is used as
the sole criterion to identify people at risk. Currently, more than one-third of the U.S. adult population has a
BMI of 30 or more.

Waist Circumference
Researchers have firmly established that one of the most helpful ways to connect a person’s fat
distribution pattern to their disease risk is also the simplest: measuring the waistline. Other methods of
determining abdominal obesity are available. Complex scanning techniques can identify high intra-
abdominal fatness, but these methods are costly, while a simple waist circumference (WC) measure,
designed by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, has proven to be a reliable way to assess risk.
WC seems to predict abdominal visceral fat as accurately as the DXA technique.
WC and disease risk. A waist circumference of more than 40 inches in men and 35 inches in
women indicates a higher risk for cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes. Weight loss is
encouraged when individuals exceed these measurements.

Waist-to-Height Ratio: “Keep your waist

circumference to less than half your height.”
The waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) is the newest of these metrics to assess health risk. The ratio is
rapidly gaining popularity in the scientific community as research indicates that it is a better predictor of
health outcomes, including cardiac and metabolic complications, than BMI or WC, even across multiple
ethnic groups. WHtR may also accurately assess risk for school-age children and teenagers, though some
controversy exists and further research is needed. While WC is superior to BMI, two individuals with a
similar WC (e.g., 43) but of different heights may not be at the same risk for disease, whereas the new
WHtR method discriminates between individuals of different heights.
Calculate Your Recommended Body Weight
Your recommended body weight is computed based on the selected health or high fitness fat
percentage for your age and gender. Your decision to select a “desired” fat percentage should be based on
your current percent body fat and your personal health/fitness objectives. Following are steps to compute
your own recommended body weight:
1. Determine the pounds of body weight that are fat (FW) by multiplying your body weight (BW) by
the current percent fat (%F) expressed in decimal form (FW 5 BW 3 %F).
2. Determine lean body mass (LBM) by subtracting the weight in fat from the total body weight
(LBM 5 BW 2 FW). (Anything that is not fat must be part of the lean component.)
3. Select a desired body fat percentage (DFP) based on the health or high fitness standards given in
Table 4.11.
4. Compute recommended body weight (RBW) according to the formula RBW 5 LBM 4 (1.0 2
DFP).
As an example of these computations, a 19-year-old female who weighs 160 pounds and is 30
percent fat would like to know what her recommended body weight would be at 22 percent:
GLOSSARY
Essential fat Minimal amount of body fat needed for normal physiological functions;
constitutes about 3 percent of total weight in men and 12 percent in women.
Storage fat Body fat in excess of essential fat; stored in adipose tissue.
Overweight An excess amount of weight against a given standard, such as height or
recommended percent body fat.
Obesity An excessive accumulation of body fat, usually at least 30 percent greater than
recommended body weight.
Android obesity Obesity pattern seen in individuals who tend to store fat in the trunk or
abdominal area.
Gynoid obesity Obesity pattern seen in people who store fat primarily around the hips
and thighs.
Visceral fat Fat deposits located around internal organs linked with greater risk for
disease; also called intra-abdominal fat.
Subcutaneous fat Fat deposits directly under the skin.
Retroperitoneal fat Fat deposits in the abdominal cavity behind (retro) the peritoneum.
Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) Method to assess body composition that uses
very low-dose beams of x-ray energy to measure total body fat mass, fat distribution
pattern, and bone density; considered the most accurate of the body composition
assessment techniques.
Hydrostatic weighing Underwater technique to assess body composition.
Girth measurements Technique to assess body composition by measuring
circumferences at specific body sites.
Bioelectrical impedance Technique to assess body composition by running a weak
electrical current through the body.
Body mass index (BMI) Technique to determine thinness and excessive fatness that
incorporates height and weight to estimate critical fat values at which the risk for disease
increases.
Waist circumference (WC) A waist girth measurement to assess potential risk for
disease based on intra-abdominal fat content.

Reflect on this. Write your answer on a journal.

1. Briefly state your feelings about your body composition results and your recommended body
weight using both percent body fat and BMI.
2. Do you plan to reduce your percent body fat and increase your lean body mass? Write the
goal(s) you want to achieve by the end of the term and indicate how you plan to achieve them.
3. What physical activities have you been doing to maintain your body weight at a stable level during the
past 2 months? (Quarantine Time)

Want to know more? Log in to:

How to Calculate Your Body Mass Index (BMI): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIdrn7hLbGk

Does your body mass index (BMI) really matter? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZHi_A6tC40Y
This Is What REALLY Happens As You Start Exercising (Animated)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEhbYNmY3N4

Reference:
Hoeger, W. K. et al. 2018. Principles and Labs for Fitness and Wellness, 14th Edition. Canada: Nelson
Education. Ltd.