UNIT IIT ENGINEERING SURVEY Levelling - Types - LS and CS - contouring calculation of areas and volume- Theodolite survey - Traversing - Heights and Distances- Techeometry - Modern surveying instruments. Setting out of curves Permanent adjustments of levels and theodelites. LEVELLING It is the process of determining relative elevations of places with respect to a datum line. A ‘level surface’ is a surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of earth. Mean Sea Level at bomen rt was, taken as datum Alle Trigonometrical Survey of i v Bench Mark is a permanent mark of known elevation. Height of the instrument is the elevation of the line of sight of the instrument. « Reduction of Levels 1. Collimation system. It is rapid but had no check over R.L.s of intermediate sights. It is adopted where more number of ‘intermediate sights’ exist. 2. Rise and fall method. It is a slow process but absolute check exists over the computed R.L-s of intermediate sight. It is preferred jawhere less number of interm: lions do exist. HEIGHT OF RISE AND FALL COLLIMINATION METHOD METHOD ‘Simple, less | Laborious as the staff tedious and | reading of each station | quicker is compared to find rise There is —no| check on reduction on RL of . intermediate stations. |There is a complete or fall. check on reduction of RL of _ intermediate stations also. | Suitable where it There is two arithmetic checks SUM of BS — SUM of FS = First RL — Last RL is required to take number of staff readings from a single setup as in the case of LS and CS contours atc., It is suitable for a long | There are three | arithmetic checks SUM of BS — SUM of FS = SUM of RISE -| SUM of FALL =First RL-Last RL run of different (or) fly leveling and other precise works where intermediate sights are sparingly taken. Curvature. Curvature makes the objects appear ‘Lower’ than they really are. ‘LOR, BRK COMPLE: 2X, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT S2686HH%, 4864 31610,AB is a horizontal line AC is a level line. AB? = OB ~ OA? = (OC + BC)? — OA* = (R+C,)?—R® =2 RC. [C-’ is too small) £ 2R 12742 = 0.0785 d? metres. Since the curvature increases the staff reading, the correction is therefore subtractive. True staff reading = observed staff reading — 0.0785 D* R €e Refraction. Rays of light passing through different layers of air are refracted down, The curved path of refracted rays forms an arc of a circle of radius approximately seven times that of the earth. «Refraction makes appear the objects ‘Higher’ than they really are. = 0.0112d* Distance of Visible Horizon 2 Combined correction C = Ce - Cr. Combined correction for curvature and refraction C = 0.0673 d* ¥0.0673 = JL -3.ss3vh | } Parallax: tis the apparent movement of the image relative to the cross-hairs when the image formed by the objective does not fall in the plane of diaphragm. Elimination of Parallax: 1. Focusing the eye piece 2. Focusing the objective Telescope Normal: When vertical circle is loft of the observer & bubble is up. Telescope Inverted: When vertical circle is Right of the observer & bubble is down. Sensitivity of Bubble Tube depends up 1. Radius of curvature 2. Diameter of Level Tube 3. Length of vapour bubble 4, Viscosity & surface tension of liquid. 5. Smoothness of the finish of the intemal surface of the tube. FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAG: KEARAIKUDL CONTACT mes 9486 31610 mall! Pyramid academy @ yahoo: Com POLO, pyramid lar academy. Heyspet Cam.TYPES OF LEVELLING: 4. LONGITUDINAL OR PROFILE LEVELLING: It is the operation to determine the elevations of points spaced apart at known distances along a given line in order to obtain the accurate outline of the surface of the ground profile, Useful for projects like construction and design of sewers, pipe lines , highways, railways, canals, etc., and to determine cut and fil. 2. CHECK LEVELLING: It is a method of differential leveling run for the purpose of checking the elevation of points already established. It is also done to accurately establish a!BN) near the site of work from a knolWn BM check the accuracy of each days, work at the end of the day from the last station to the starting station or to a known BM. 3. CROSS SECTIONAL LEVELLING: This type of leveling is done to determine the,elevation of ground surface on either side’ of the predetermined profile line, at right angles to it. It is to determine the nature of ground surface in the lateral direction. 4, RECIPROCAL LEVELLING: It is a very precise levelling of finding R.L.s between two stations which are well apart by only two settings of levels, one nearer to each station. Errors due to ‘Collimation, curvature and partly refraction’ are eliminated, 5. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING: It is done when two points are at large distance apart, the difference in elevation between the two points is large or some. obstacle intervenes between the points. Errors in Leveling |. Instrumental Errors 1. Collimation error - line of collimation not parallel to. the bubble fine. 2. Object glass moving in inclined direction while focusing. 3. Sluggish bubble. IL Personal Errors 1. Improper levelling of telescope. 2. Improper holding of level staff. 3. Imperfect. sighting. 4, Settlement of level staff and level. Ml Natural Errors due to Wind and Sun BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRIRAM NAGAR, KEARAIKUDL CONTACT ESET, 486431610 | Bema gpa see Sonor, mete Ppratellbaep spt:THEODOLITE SURVEY Transit theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. It was invented by Roemer, a Danish astronomer in 1690. CLASSIFICATION: TRANSIT THEODOLITE: A theodolite is said to be a transit one when its telescope can be revolved through 180* in vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus directing the telescope in exactly opposite direction. The vertical circle is rigidly fixed to the telescope and rotates with the telescope. NON — TRANSIT THEODOLITE: In this theodolite, the telescope cannot be revolved through 180* in a vertical plane about its horizontal... axis. Nowadays such theodolites. are obsolete. Example: Y. Theodolite and Everest Theodolite. Definitions: Swinging the Telescope: Revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane, about its vertical axis . Lining In: It is the process~ of establishing intermediate points with a theodolite on a given straight line whose ends are intervisible. Balancing In: It is the process of establishing intermediate points with a theodolite on a given straight line, whose ends are intervisible. 4 Telescope Normal: When vertical circle is left of the observer & bubble is up. Telescope Inverted: When vertical circle is Right of the observer & bubble is down Fundamental axes of theodolite: Vertical axis Horizontal or trunnion axis Line of collimation Axis of plate levels ARONA Axis of altitude level. Relationship between the Axes 1. Axis of plate levels should generate a horizontal plane perpendicular to the vertical axis. 2. -Line of collimation is perpendicular to horizontal axis. 3. Horizontal axis. is. perpendicular to vertical axis. 4, Axis of altitude levels is parallel to line of collimation. 5. Vertical circle reads zero when line of collimation is horizontal. PERMANENT ADUJUSTMENTS: The permanent adjustments of a theodolite are so arranged in sequence that the next adjustment does not disturb the results obtained from the previous adjustments Therefore, if caried out haphazardly the new adjustment disturbs the effect of the previous adjustments. The adjustments of II FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT senemsist: 54864 31610 ASI boolthe theodolite should be done in the order given below. 1. Make the plate bubbles central to their run when the vertical axis of the theodolite is truly vertical [Plate level Test]. 2. Make the vertical cross-hair lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis [Cross-hair ring Test]. 3. Make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis [Collimation in Azimuth Test] 4. Make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis [Spire Test]. Central when the line of sight is horizontal [Bubble _ tube adjustment] 6. Make the vertical circle indicate zero when the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis [Vertical arc test] MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES: 1. Repetition Method 2. Reiteration Method COMPARISION OF METHOD OF REPETITION AND REITERATION: ¥ The method of repetition is to be © preferred for the measurement of a single = accuracy is > Make the Telescope . bubble 5 desired beyond the least count of the instrument with a coarsely graduated circle. Y On the other hand, the method of reiteration is-preferred in triangulation, where a number of angles may be required at one point by the instrument with a finely graduated circle. ¥ By exercising appropriate precautions instrumental errors can be eliminated theoretically, for either of the methods. ¥ Though the method of repetition appears to be better it is more time consuming and chances of personal” errors are more and even many repetitions may yield ordinary results, TREVERSING: The word traverse literally means ‘Passing across’. in surveying it means ‘determining the lengths and directions of consecutive lines’. The linear measurements are made with a chair or tape and the relative directions of the lines, are measured with a chain, compass or theodblite. The integrated measurement of distance and direction provides the essential two dimensional data for determining land area and for providing horizontal control, Le, the relative location of points in the horizontal plane. ; The results of a level network, for the same location when added to this ~TIEFLOOR, Ba&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRIRAMNAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT Seabees; 9486431610 asa boreinformation, provides a _— three dimensional representation of a section of the earth's surface. Traversing consists of reconnaissance [selecting, marking and referencing stations], picking up details, and booking the field notes. A traverse, in general, is run to locate the features already existing in the area to be surveyed or to establish points or lines in accordance with predetermined measurements. Traverses are classified as either closed ‘or open. CLOSED TRAVERSE: A traverse is said to be a closed one if it returns to the starting point thereby forming a closed polygon [Fig.1a} In addition, a traverse which begins and ends tat the points whose positions on the plan is know are also referred to.as aclosed traverse [Fig 1b]. A closed traverse is employed for locating the boundaries of-lakes and woods across which tie lines cannot be measured, for area ~- determination, control for mapping, and for surveying moderately large areas. OPEN TRAVERSE: ‘An open traverse is one that does not return to the starting point. It consists of a series of line expanding in the same direction [Fig 2). 6 ‘An open traverse cannot be checked and adjusted accurately. It is employed for surveying long narrow strips of country. Eg. The path of a highway, railway, pipeline, coast line , transmission line ete., METHODS OF TRAVERSING: 1. By Chain: The linear as well as angular measurements are done with the help of chain and tape only. This is a very crude method and cannot be relied upon. 2. Free or Loose Needle method: In this method the linear measurements are done with the help of either chain or tape and the bearings are measured with the help of a compass. Both fore and back bearings of lines are observed at each station. The results obiained by this method are, in general, not that accurate as obtained by the two methods ‘discussed in the foregoing. 3. Fast Needle method: In this method, the linear measurements are made with the help of a chain or tape and the bearings are measured with the help of a theodolite whose telescope is inverted for alternate backward and forward readings. It may be noted that if the fine of collimation is not MY FLOOR. BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDE, CONTACT SoBe, S486 3610,properly adjusted the included angles will be in error. The advantage of this method is that the bearings are obtained directly. The work can thus be checked during its progress and errors can be detected and rectified immediately. Also the field work is less cumbersome and the computations are simple as compared to the method of measuring angles. 4, By measuring angles: In this method of traversing, the angular measurements, ie, the measurement of deflection angles, azimuth, and angles to the right or included @hgles -are directly done with; a. theodolite. However the disadvantage of this, method is that the traverse can be checked only if itis closed. METHODS OF TRAVERSE SURVEY: 1. By parallel meridians through PLOTTING each station. By included angles. By tangents By chords By rectangular co ordinates 2k eD ADVATAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF METHODS OF PLOTTING TRAVERSE: Plotting of traverse by the methods of included angles or directions _ with protractor is the least accurate but the fastest method The most accurate and the best method to lay out a single angle precisely is by tangents. If a traverse falls to close and if the error is due to drafting, the error may be adjusted simply by rotating each line, except the first, slightly and progressively. In the chord method of plotting a traverse the erection of a perpendicular [in the tangent method) is eliminated but determination of the chord length is more laborious than finding “perpendicular offsets. The main disadvantage of the chord method is that an error in any of the traverse line is passed along to the succeeding line. Plotting by independent coordinates is supposed to be a belféF method since the independent coordinates of the stations do not affect the succeeding coordinates of the stations do not affect the succeeding coordinates and thus the error, if any, is localized to a particular point and therefore, correction usually involve the re plotting of the erroneous point only. In plotting with consecutive coordinates, ‘small errors of plotting are carried forward, Ill FLOOR, BE&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRIRAM NAGAR. KARAIKUDL CONTACT <@BeooSn, 94568 51610and in a closed traverse the closing error due to inexact plotting can be located, since the coordinates used have already been balanced. This may be considered to an advantage, as the cause of discrepancy can be scratched and eliminated. Since errors are not accumulated when plotting with independent coordinates they are preferred for plotting an open traverse. LATITUDE & DEPARTURE: The latitude is a line is its projection onto the reference meridian [North-south line]. The distance measured towards the North is called northing whereas that measured towards south is called southing. The Departure of a line is its projection onto a fine at right angles of the reference meridian. Similarly, any distance measured towards the East is called Easting, whereas that measured towards the West is called Westing, Northing +ve Latitudé-"Teos 0” { Southing -ve Easting +ve Departure‘/sin@’ | Westing -ve CLOSING ERROR: It is the distance by which the end of a traverse falls short in coinciding with the starting point o the traverse. The ratio of linear eee tot the perimeter PYRAMIL M I ¥ 8 of the traverse is the expression for precision of the survey. In a closed traverse if the work is correct the algebraic sum of the latitude [L] should be equal to zero. ie, )’2=0 and the algebraic sum of the departures [D] should also be equal to zero i.e, ))D=0. Closing Error e= |. +0? The direction of the closing error is determined from tan 0= ee BALANCING OF TRAVERSE: It is clear that the closing error should be so distributed throughout the traverse that its effect is as little apparent on the plan as possible. A traverse is balainced by applying correction. to latitudes and departures. This is called Balancing of traverse. This can be accomplished mathematically. 1, BOWDITCH RULE: It is also called compass rule. It is used to balance a traverse when the linear and angular measurements are equally precise. It is assumed that the errors in the linear measurements are proportional to v7 where | is the length of the line, and those in the angular measurements are inversely proportional to V7, which is questionable. if equal weights are assigned to linear and —_ angular IFLOOR, BE&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT Sanaessesen 94864 31510,measurements the errors and hence the corrections, are proportional to the lengths of the lines. Correction for latitude or departure of any side = Total error in latitude (or departure) x Length of that side ) Perimeter of traverse TRANSIT RULI This method of adjusting the consecutive coordinates of traverse is purely empirical and there is no sound theoretical foundation for it. It is employed when the -~—_ angular. measurements are more precise as compared to the linear measurements: [Theodolite traversing]. fi ‘ Correction for latitude or departure, of any sid Total error in latitude (or depairture) x Latitude or departure of that side Arithmeticsum of latitude or departure If the corrections are-applied separately then the following rules may be used. 1, Correction to northing of any sid: 3 Total erorin latitude x Northing of that Arithmeticsum of Northings 2, Correction to Southing of any side = oo PYRAMID ADEMY 1 7% Total ervor in latitude x Southing of that side ‘Arithmetic sum of Southings 3. Correction to Easting of any side = - Total error in Departure x _ Easting of that side Arithmetic sum of Eastings 4, Correction to Westing of any side = * Total error in Departurex Arithmeticsum of Westings ( ‘Westing of that side DISTRIBUTION OF ANGULAR ERROR: Angular error of closure is defined as the difference between the sum of the measured angles and the theoretical sum of the angles of a closed traverse. The theoretical sum of the angles of a closed traves is [2n-4] * 90, where n is number of sides of closed traverse. 1. The error of angular closure’is distributed equally among all angles, if measure with equal precision. 2. The angular error of closure should not exceed the least count multiplied by vn. ADJUSTMENT OF BEARINGS: Closing error in a bearing is the difference between the bearings of the last line as TIIFLOOR, BEEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT SESEEBERE 94864 31610observed at the first and the last station of the traverse, Correction to the first bearin e Correction to the Second bearing = 2 © Correction to the Last bearing = n Where n is the number of sides of traverse, and e is the closing error in the bearing. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS: It is impossible to measure all the lengths and bearings of a closed traverse. The values of the missing quantities can be determined, provided they do not exceed two in number. The observed and measurements are part of the closed omitted traverse the algebraic sum of all latitudes and that of all the departures are each zero. ie, )L=0 and S°D=0. Thus DL =|, 6088, +1, 0088, +1, 0080, Fone = 0 VY =hsing, +/, sind, +4, sind, +. Where fle sdy eco AMG 0,40, ,0, 000000 are respectively the lengths and bearings of the lines. From the above two equations the two 10 TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING It is angular surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are computed without direct measurement. TACHEOMETER: It is a transit thedolite fitted with stadia hairs. The stadia diaphragm consists of two stadia hairs at equal distances, one above and the other below the horizontal hair of the cross-hairs. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The constant should be 100. 2. The value of Additive constant value of the multiplying should be zero. 3. The telescope should be fitted with an anallactic lens. 4. The magnification of the telescope should be 20 to 80 diameters. 5. Magnifying power of the eyepiece is kept high. METHODS OF TACHEOMETRY: Stadia System 1. Fixed hair method. 2. Movable hair or Subtense method Fixed Hair Method Horizontal distance D=£ i For inclined sights — Staff held vertical +(f+d) 18 COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAG: KARAIKUDL CONTACT #553525 94565 31610,Vertical distance Ve [Locosascr+a)} Horizontal distance p-[Lscio(ra)}eosa i Staff held normal v=|Lus+(r+a)]sing [Exsr+a)} D=|Lxs+(r+d)|cos0 + hsind. [Zxs+rea] Anallactic lens is provided in a tacheometer between the diaphragm and the object glass to nullify the additive constant. It is a convex lens. The distance between the anal lactic lens and object glass is given by’ = fa fed Where, f = Focal length of objective fs /’= Focal length of the anal lactic lens. Movable Hair Method p=Lss(f+a) mp For inclined sights KS 65294. Ccos0 me D= v= cososind +Csind mane K f , Multiplying constant for an instrument. Usually the constant K is fixed as 1000. C = f+d= additive constant m= Total Number of revolution of micrometer screw. p = pitch of the micrometer screw. Thus stadia interval i= mp e = index error Horizontal Base Subtense Measurement : Horizontal distance d= in radians 2tan 2 Or 5% 206265 , in B ‘Seconds Horizontal distance a where # = Horizontal angle subtended by the theodolite in seconds between the two ends of the subtense bar. Tangential Method : s tan B—tana xtan tan tana s- Distance between vanes — staff intercept. B -Vertical angle to the upper vane @ = Vertical angle to the lower vane. ML FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT tema, 9486431610CHAIN SURVEY ‘Types of chains [Engineers ]-F.P.S.Chain—100 | Chain | feet long divided into | 100 links Gunters ~ FPS. Chain — 66 feet Chain long ~ divided into 100 links Revenue -FPS. Chain — 33 feet | Chain long - divided into 16 links Metric Chain | - 20 metres — divided into 100 links or 30 | metres ~ divided into | 160 links “Main Survey - Prominent stations. Stations” Main Survey - Chain tines joining lines these prominent stations. > Number of main survey lines should be as few as possible. > Three’ main survey lines form a triangle. > As far as possible these triangles should be triangles. nearly equilateral > A well conditioned triangle is one in which no angle is less than 30° nor greater t 12 + Base line is a prominent line passing through the heart of the area. > Check lines tun in between the main lines to test their accurate positions. Each triangle should have at least one check line. > A tie line is subsidiary line mainly run to get more details within the area. OBSTACLES : 1. Obstacles to ranging but not to chaining e.g. a hillock. Reciprocal ranging is adopted then. 2. Obstacles to chaining but not to ranging e.g. a river and a pond. 3. Obstacles to both chaining and ranging e.g. a tall building. length = Measured length x True Incorrect length of chain Supposed length of chain Similarly, Correct area = Measured area’ Incorrect length of chain ‘Supposed length of chain ERRORS IN CHAIN SURVEY 1. Cumulative Errors 4. Length of the chain is shorter than the standard one due to (i) links in chain (i) loss of links and (Ii) knots in links, III FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT -€eaaeras, 99864 316102. Slope correction (when > 4°) is Magnetic meridian is the standard not applied. reference line shown by a freely floating 3. Ranging is not in a straight line. balanced magnetic needle free from any 4. Length of the chain may be more _| extemal influence. than the standard one due to (i) Arbitrary meridian is. any other tine flattening of ring joints, and (ji) | taken for reference. | a— | opening of rings. I. Compensating Errors Whole circle bearings are always 1. Incorrect holding of chain. measured in the clockwise direction with 2. Chain not uniformly calibrated. reference to the Magnetic North. If the total length measured = L, then Quadrantal or reduced bearing are taken Cumulative errors a 1 with respect to Magnetic North or Magnetic Compensating errors e/Z South towards East or West i.e. they are measured clockwise in North East and Correction for temperature South-West Quadrants and anti-clockwise C=al,-T,)b in South-East and North-West Quadrants. Correction for pul Back bearing is the bearing of a line (P-R aE in the opposite direction. Deflection yangle is the included angle between the prolongation of the Correction for sag previous line and the succeeding line. Clockwise deflection is called tight Comecton or sone Cy =F; deflection and itis additive. a Anticlockwise deflection is left COMPASS SURVEY deflection and is subtractive. ~ Ina closed traverse Bearing ofa line is its direction ‘Sum of internal angles = (2n~4)x 90" with respect to a reference line ie. Sumof external angles = (2n+4)x90" meridian. Algebraic sum of deflection angles = 360° True meridian is the line passing the inalination of the magnetic through North pole and South pole. needle with tha horizontal I FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI KAMNAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT Spsasc, 94864 31610,the ‘Northern hemisphere’ while the Southern end is deflected down in the ‘Southern hemisphere’. At the equator the dip is zero. ‘Magnetic deciination = True bearing — Magnetic bearing When the magnetic meridian is to the East of true meridian, true bearing of a line is greater than its magnetic bearing and therefore magnetic. declination is +ve and designated as ‘E’. When the magnetic meridian is to the West of true meridian, true bearing of a line is smaller than its magnetic bearing and therefore declination is -ve and designated as w. hot constant but varies from time to Magnetic declination at a place is time. 1. Diurnal variation — within the same day ~ more during day time and less during night time. 2. Annual variation ~ within a year ~ more during summer and less in winter. 3. Secular variation - variation over a very long period. The variation is more near poles and less on the equator. oo PYRAMID s ADEMY magnetic | _ 14 Local attraction” at a place is the influence of magnetic materials as steel and nickel objects, iron ore, electric poles and current carrying conductors on the magnetic needle. Local attraction at a place is the same for all the bearings taken at the place. item Prismatic ‘Surveyors c s__| compass Bearing W.CB. RB. O° atSouth | 0° at North 90° at West —_| and South 18° atNorth | 90° at East 270° at East | and West | | Inverted East and | Graduations | because we | West |naveto see | interchang | them through | ed. | prism | Needle | Broad type- | Erect _, |fitted to the | Edge bar « bottom of type ; aluminium ring | needle — (-.cannot be | also acts seen) as an index. Free to float __| Attached to Scale | along with the | the box. broad type —| magnet. Sighting at | Can be done _| Sighting is object and | simultaneously | to be done taking first and bearings | ~ then the surveyor has to read the Northern end of the needle. |_- Tripod __| Notessential_| A must. 11) FLOOR, BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL, CONTACT SSSS@ESEE, 94964 31610ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEY 1. Instrumental Errors 1. Needle-bent 2. Pivot-bent, eccentric 3. Pivot edge-blunt 4. Needle-sluggish. 5. No counter weight provided on the needle against dip. Sight vanes-bent 7. Graduated ring-twisted. 8. Sight vanes and pivot-not in one line. 9. Horse hair-too thick. Ul, Personal Errors 1. Inaccurate centring 2 2) General notes on design of slabs : (ISI) it (4, ci(') <2 (@) Control of deflection : @ Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans upto 10m: Gil) Two way slabs Cantilever - 7° Simply supported - 20 Continuous - 6 (i) For two-way slabs of small spans upto (3.5 m) with mild steel span to overall depth ratios for loading class upto 3 KN/m’ are, ‘Simply supportedslabs = = (35 Continuous - 40 (&) Cover requirements : Clear over for main reinforcement shall be 20 mm as per latest code as against 15 mm of old code, (© Minimum percentage of reinforcement in any direction : 0.12% of gross area with Fess HYSD bars (Tor steel steel) 0.15% of gross area for Mild steel TLFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAMNAGAR, ‘KARAIKUDL CONTACT $9521 60010, 54964316107 ‘Two way slabs 1) Advantage over one way slabs : In two way slabs, the load is transferred to all the four supports and therefore, the bending moments and deflection are considerably small 2) _ IS code method : Can be used for any type of slab (restrained or unrestrained) (@ __ Restrained slabs : (Corners are prevented from lifting) : © Maximum bending moments per unit width ina slab are M, =a,wl? and M, ult : where a, and a, are coefficients based on boundary conditions W = total design load per unit area For two way slabs, slab panels may be considered as divided into middle strips and edge strips. The width of the middle strip along each, span is % th and edge strip is 1/8 th of the width of the span in that direction with limitation that no edge strip is more wider than half the short span.igures > Maximum moments calculated (MM, and M,) apply only to the middle strips and no redistribution shall be made. > Tension reinforcement provided at mid span in the middle strip shall extend in the lower part of the slab to within 0.25 1 ofa continuous edge or 0.15 1 of a discontinuous edge. > Over the continuous edges of a middle strip, the tension reinforcements shall extend in the upper part of the slab a distance of 0.15 1 from support and at least 50% shall extend a distance of 0.3 1 Torsion reinforcement : . Shall be provided where the slab is simply supported on both edges meeting at that corner. It consists of top and bottom reinforcements at comers extending from edges a minimum distance of one-fifth of shorter span. The area of reinforcements in each of these four layers shall be three quarters of the area required for the maximum mid span moments in the slab, > Torsion reinforcement need not be provided at any corner continued by edges over both of which the slab is continuous. One way slabs One way slabs are designed exactly the same way as singly reinforced beams except that the width is taken as 1000 mm. wii, For one way slabs, bending moment = —g Continuous Slabs (® Effective Span. The effective span depends upon the support conditions, width of the support, and type of supports. (8) Stiffness. For continuous slabs spanning in one direction (span / depth) = 26. For continuous stabs spanning in two directions (span / depth) = 40 AXL ADE! IMNS_ Permissible Loads in Compression Members (@) Short columns with lateral ties P=o4, +0 ug o) lumns with helical reinforcement ‘RAMID ILFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAMNAGAR, KARAIKUDL, CONTACT 99521 0010, 9486431616,P=1.05(0,4. + OuAy)« However, the ratio of the volume of helical reinforcement to the volume of the core shall not be less than 0.36. Long Columns ‘The maximum permissible stress in a long R.C.C. column is obtained by applying a reduction co-efficient to the normal permissible stress. The reduction co-efficient C, is given by ly oC, =125-—e— C,H 125-22 or 38 —e FOUNDATIONS Objectives of Providing Foundation (@) The pressure intensity on the underlying soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil (b) Settiement ofthe structure should be uniform and within permissible limits. Thickness of the Footing (©) In R.C.C. and plain concrete footings the thickness at edge shall not be less than 150 mm for footings on soils and not less than 300 mm in the case of pile cap slabs. : ‘Bending Moments It should be calculated at the critical sections. For an isolated footing the maximum BM. = a where 1 = Size of the footing and a = Size of the column. Shear Force (@) The critical section for shear as a measure of diagonal tension shall be assumed as a vertical section located from the face of the column, pedestal or wall at a distance equal fo the effective depth of the footing known as one way shear. (©) Two way action of the footing with potential diagonal cracking along the surface of truncated cone or pyramid around the concentrated load at a distance one half of the effective depth from the periphery of the column. ‘Transfer of Load at the Base of the Column ‘The design permissible bearing stress in concrete is 0.25 f.,. BOND _ Definition : When a reinforcing bar is embedding in concrete, the concrete adheres to its surface and resists any force that tries to cause slippage of bar relative to its surrounding concrete, by a phenomenon called Bond. Bond between steel and concrete should be perfect at service loads. Bond transfers stress from one ‘material to the other, by strain compatibility. Bond Stress: (@) Bond Stress : Bond is achieved by the development of shear stress at the interface of bar and concrete and is known as bond stress. (b) Factors affecting development of Bond stress : 1, Pure adhesion : It is due to gum like property of colloidal materials produced in concrete during hydration of cement. igtional Resistance : Due to shrinkage in the concrete, thereby gripping the steel. YRAMID kay phe LFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 99521 60010, 9864316109 3. Mechanical Resistance : Due to deformation or twisting of the bar. "The bond resistance of plain bar is due to adhesion and friction between concrete and steel = The bond resistance of deformed bars is due to mechanical resistance in addition to adhesion and frictional resistance. Types Of Bond : ‘The bond have two types : (@) Flexural Bond : It develops along the length of a bar in order to let the concrete and steel act together. (&) Anchorage bond : It develops in anchorage zone at the ends of bar or at the cut off point of'a bar within a span of beam so that bars are not pulled out. Development Length : ‘The reinforcement bar must extend in the concrete sufficiency so that it ‘can develop the required-stress, ‘The extended length of the bar required to transmit the bar force to concrete is known as development length (La) . Ly -f where t= anchorage bond stress ig o, _ = stress in reinforcing bar (0.87 f, in LSD and o, in WSM) $ — = diameter of reinforcing bar Working stress method Grade of | Mis Mao Mos Myo Mas Moo concrete . _ |. bd (Nimm’) [0.6 08 oy) 10. ia 12 ‘Note : (i) In case of Tor Steel increase the above values by 40%. Limit state method Grade of concrete [Mis Meo Mas Mao Ty(N/mm?) | 1.0 12 14 15 Note : (i) In case of Tor Steel increase the above values by 60%. (ii) In case of compression, the values can be further increased by 25%. Examples for ‘La’ for different materials in tension and compression in LSD method : In terms of dia of bar Tension Compression - Mis Mao ‘Mos Mis Mao Mos (e250) ) 550 46 390 450 370 320 wan 570 410 410 470 380 380 : asa 680 570 490 370 460 390 Anchorage Value Of Hooks : The anchorage value of a hook or a bend is the equivalent length of straight bar. The anchorage value of each 45° bend is equal to 4 © and subjected to a maximum value of 16 ©. “= : ey RAM ID: FLOOR, BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAGAR, Mt KARAIKUDL CONTACT 99521 0010, 9486431616,1. Splicing of bars should be avoided at a section where the bending moment moment of resistance of the section, 10 50% of 2. Not more than 50% of bars should be spliced at a section, 3. Bars of diameter greater than 36 mm should not be spliced but should be welded. 4. Lap splices should be staggered. Ifthe center to center distance of laps is greater than 1.3 ‘times the lap, the laps are assumed staggered. 5. The lap length for bars in bending tension not less than L, or 306. 6. The lap length for bars in direct tension should not be less than 2 Z, or 309. 7, The lap length in compression is not less than L, ot 24 ¢ whichever is greater. LIMIT STATE DESIGN LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE: Strength must be adequate to carry the loads, this corresponds to 1] Flexure 2] Compression 3] Shear 4] Torsion Partial safety factor for load in LS of collapse: Load combination | DL [LL | WL} DELL 15 [15 DLAWL. lis 13 DLAWL 09 1s DLALLAWL 12/1212 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY: To satisfy this state, 1] Deflection 2] cracking 3] vibration ‘must not be excessive. Partial safety factor for load in LS of serviceability: Load combination | DL | LL | WL. DL#LL 1.0 [1.0 DLAWL 1.0 1.0 ~ DEALLAWE 1.0 [0.8 [0.8 Factored load = Characteristic load x Partial safety factor Design values for materials: Design strength = f,=2+ Jy ~ Characteristic strength Yu» Partial safety factor Ym-_ 15 For Concrete & 1.15 for steel Charactérisfc strength = o - Standard Deviation Design value for loads: Design load Wa XW, 1, = Characteristic Load = Partial safety factor Characteristic load W,= X +1.650° Modulus of rupture of concrete f= 07 Vf Modulus of elasticity of concrete E,= 5000 fa Maximum strain in concrete = €,,= 0.0035 S878 0.002 z, Maximum strain in steel = ¢ 2 Maximum stress in concrete = 0.446 fk Maximum stress in steel = 0.87 fy Limiting Depth of Neutral axis 0035 sp 0.0055 + —— — * E, Sue = gd we 1100+ 08757 ~ Where B, =2x10°N/ mn? Total compressive force C= 0.36 x, x fokxb Total stress in steel = 0.87 fyAst 87x H% Ay oy 4g BASE 036x fekxb fekxb Lever arm distance Z = [d~-0.416x,] Moment of Resistance = Force x Lever Aria I FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROADSRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 99521 60010, 94968 31610WL Mu= 0.36x fekxb xx, x(d-0.416x,) In case of over reinforced sectioi, it should be Mu= 0.87% fy x Astx (d-0.4163 redesigned. fy Aste ( m) Grade ofsteel | x,,,, | Mulimit %, < yim ~ Under Reinforced section ste Fe250 053 d [0.148 fekbd™ X, > Xyyq + Over Reinforced section Fe als 0.48.4 [0.138 fek bd? Fe 500 0.46.4 | 0.133 fok bd X, = %vim ~ Balanced section LIMIT STATE METHOD ~ TORSION Definition : If the longitudinal axis of a structural member and loading axis are perpendicular to cach other, the structural member will be subjected to twisting, called Torsion. Ex: a) Canopy beams, b) Curved beams in horizontal plane (ring beam of water tank) ©) Grids “d) End beam of a frame (L- beam) DESIGN OF A RECTANGULAR BEAM SECTION : (As per IS 456) IS method is based on simplified skew bending theory of ‘Hsu’ a) The Design Approach : It does not require determination of torsional reinforcement separately from that required for bending and shear. Instead, the B.M. and S.F. are modified to account for torsional moment. The reinforcement details are as follows : @~ Total longitudinal reinforcement is determined for equivalent moment obtained from flexural moment and torsion, Gi) Transverse or web reinforcement is determined for equivalent shear obtained from shear and Torsion, It shall be in the from of closed stirrups placed perpendicular to the axis of the member. b)_Desigh Steps : Step 1: Determine equivalent shear ‘Step 2: Determine equivalent nominal shear stress Vi aV,+ 16 1, where oo force, T, = Torsional omega PS wath of beam PYRA — De a OMS WAIN DDADMIN AGAR Tee ea pany TI FLOOR, B&K COMPLER, MAIN ROADRI RAM NAGAR, ARAIKUDL CONTACT 9521 60010, 2485431610The value of *r,,” shall not exceed *T.yuq’s Otherwise cross sectional dimensions should be revised. if r,, 25mm 4, Types of rivets a) Hot driven b) Cold driven * Hot driven Rivets: Rivets are heated red hot before driving. * Cold driven Rivets: Driven at atmospheric conditions without heating. Has more strength compared to hot driven rivet. 5. Another classification of rivets: a) Shop driven ’) Field driven * Shop driven rivets have more strength Field driven- 10 % lesser strength than shop driven 6. Important rivet heads : Snap head or Round head = used for connecting structural members. * Counter sunk head : used for provide a flush surface. 7. Pitch or rivets (p): Distance between centre of two consecutive rivets measured parallel to the direction of the force in the member lying on the same rivet line. + it is also defined as C/C distance of rivets measured along the length of the member or connection. *Minimum pitch Maximum pitch, in tension = 16t or 200 mm| which ever is less *Maximum pitch, in compression = 12t or 200| mm which ever is less Where t= thickness of thinner plate * Maximum distance between the centre of two] adjacent rivets (cross pitch), including tacking 32 or 300 mm which ever is less. ing rivets (or stitch rivets): Used to make two sections act together and in compression ‘members to prevent buckling, 8. Gauze (@): Bigtance between adjacent rivet lines or Cit etween two consecutive 3 rivets measured at right angles to the direction of the fore: - Also defined as c/c distance between two consecutive rivets measured along the width of ‘member or connection 9, Rivet line (or gauge line): Line along which rivets are placed. 10, Edge distance: Minimum edge distance = 1.54 (approx) Maximum edge distance = 37 mm + 4t Where t = thickness of thinner outside plate in ‘mm! LL. Zypes of Riveted joints: a) Lap joint * Has eccentricity: of load and thus causes bending on the riveted connection. ) Butt joint: * In double cover joint, no eccentricity of load. Hence, no bending effect. * For single cover butt joint cover plate thickness required is 1.25 times the main plate. * For double cover butt joint, each cover plate thickness is 5/8 x thickness of main plate. 12. Failiare of riveted joints : Shear failure of rivets, shear failure of plates, tearing failure of plates, bearing failure of rivets, bearing failure of plates etc. Sy © wie ratte ters oF plan IMI FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486431610,com 2) i BEARING FRILURE OF PLATES Fie, nearing faltore of pists SRATTNG FRLURE OF pLares 13. Assumptions in design of riveted joints: * A load is assumed to be uniformly distributed among all the rivets. * Shear stress is assumed to be uniformly distributed over its gross area of rivets. * Bending stress in rivets is neglected. * Friction between plates is neglected. * Rivet hole is assumed to be completely filled by the rivet. 14, Permissible stresses in rivets: (as per IS 800-1984) ‘Type oftivet [Axial [Shear | Bearing tension | (MPa) | (MPa) (Pa) fs, | op Power driven | 100 100 300 shop rivets _ Hand driven] 80 80, 250 * For field rivets, the permissible stresses are reduced by 10 % * The permissible stresses in rivets and bolts may be increased by 25 %, if the effect of wind or earth quake load is considered, 15. Strength of rivet in shear, ma so 4 iin single shear x, cei oa —— in rivet 16. Strength of rivet in bearing, Pp = ato} {= thickness of thinner plate in lap joint = thickness of main thinner plate or sum of cover plates thickness, which ever is minimum in the butt joint. opr = Permissible bearing stress in rivet. 17. Rivet value, (Rv) = Minimum of strength of rivet in shear and bearing Rv = Smaller of P; and Py 18. No. of rivets required N = Load / Rivet value. 19, Strength of plate in tearing Where B = width of plate No.of rivets at the section ickness of plate Allowable tensile stress in the plate 0.66, = 150 Némm? 20. Strength of joint = Total strength of rivets or plate strength (P), which ever is less 21. Efficiency of the joint, __ Sirength.of joint 3” ‘Strengthof solid.plate Strength.of solid plate = B.t.y, 21, Diamond of zig-zag riveting is more efficient than chain riveting 2. For bolted joints, the diameter of hole = diam.of bolt + 1.5 mm, WELDED JOINTS * For structures metal arc welding is generally used. 1, Advantages of welded joints: - No holes are formed. Home members are more effective in taking load, - Over all weight of joint is reduced. - Speed of fabrication. IIIFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT. 9186431610,- Complete rigid joints can be achieved. ~ Efficiency of welded joint is more than the riveted joint. 2. Disadvantages : ~ Internal stress and warping are produced. = Welded joints are more brittle and their fatigue strength is less = Defects like intemal air pockets and incomplete penetration. 3. Types of welds * Fillet weld : * Butt weld 4. Size of fillet weld (S) : - Length of the sides of the largest right angled triangle in the cross section of the fillet welled. (Le. leg lengtti of weld) 5, Max size of fillet weld, Smax Swax = Thickness of thinner member < 1.5 mm. > for square edges. Smax = % of thickness of angle or flange> for toe of angle or round edge of flange 6. Min.size of fillet weld, Smin : Smin= 3mm, when thickness of thicker plate<=10 mm_ MIM, when thickness of thicker plate 10 0 20 mm ‘MAM, when thickness of thicker plate 20 to 32.mm, F bpast LES as fete 7. Throat of fillet () : Length of perpendicular from right angle comer to the hypotenuse ‘Throat thickness, t= K x filled size K is constant, depends upon angle between fasion faces as shown Angle between fusion faces: 60-90° 91-100° 101-106° Constant K= 0.70 0.65 06. * for right angled filled, k = 0.70 5 8. Effective length of fillet weld = overall length ~2 times weldsize * Minimum effective length = 4 times weld size=4S * Only effective length is shown on the drawing. 9. Overlap in lap joint should not be less than 5 times thickness of thinner plate 10. Intermittent fillet weld : * Used when length of fillet weld required to transmit a force is less than the continuous length of the joint. * Any section of an intermittent filler weld should have minimum effective length of 45 or 40 mm which ever is greater. * Clear spacing between intermittent fillet sections should not be more than 120 or 200 mm which ever is less for compression should not be more than 16 t or 200 mm which ever is, less for tension. 11. Strength of fillet weld : Evaluated based on shear stress at the ‘minimum section (throat section) shear strength P=} Tv 1= Effective length of weld t= Effective throat thickness ‘vf = Permissible shear stress in.the weld (110 N/mm” for fillet welds) 12. Butt welds : - Full penetration welds : double-v, double-U For full-penetration welds, throat thickness, t= full thickness of thinner plate = For single-v, single-U, throat t = (5/8) x thickness of thinner plate ~ Strength of butt weld is taken equal to the strength of parts joined if full penetration of ‘weld metal is ensured. - For butt welds, the permissible stress is taken to be same as that of the parent metal. - For complete penetration butt welds, efficiency is 100% 13. wrength of butt weld. P= Lt Gat length of the weld t effective throat thickness Gat. = permissible stress in. tension or conapression of the parent metal HIFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 948643161014, Permissible stresses in the welds are reduced by 20 % when the welding is done in the field. 15. When effect of wind or earthquake are considered, the permissible stresses are increased by 25% 1. Eccentric load : A load is called eccentric load when its line of action does not pass through the C.G of the rivet group or weld. - Because eccentricity (e), additional moment is induced in the joi na e 6 * Fillet weld is subjected to direct shear Joad(W) and torsional moment (W.e) let I= length of the weld (total) += throat thickness * Vertical shear stress in the weld, P= WI * Torsional stress due to moment at any point M in the weld, p=!" distance of the point under consideration 1, = polar moment of inertia = ky + ly (of the weld) Resultant stress, P, + 2. When load or Moment acting rivets ~ Rivets are subjected to vertical shear load (W) and a moment M= W.e ~All the rivets are subjected to shear stress only. = Vertical shear force on each rivet due to direct load, W is Fy R= W/N - Force dute to moment (M) on any rivet, the plane of tance of rivet from C.G of rivet group ~ The resultant force, F, acting on a rivet is - For safety F; shall be <= rivet value. 3. For design, approximate tio.of rivets required may be worked out from the following formula; 1 =no.of rivets in a single vertical ECCENTRIC WELDED JOINTS : Fillet weld aa the plane of weld, p= VPP +R +2P, R005 For safety P, shall be <= 110 N/mm? Fillet Weld : Load not lying in the plane of the weld: * Vertical shear stress in the weld P.=W/2.dt = Load /Throat area * Horizontal stress due to bending at extreme fibre, M 4 Yo — Ynax IpPape * Resultant stress Pr= VPs +7 * For safety, P, <= 110 Némmi 1 1= 12.204, y= a2 (nat?) Butt Welded joint loaded eccentrically t = thickness of weld * shear stress in the we * Tensile or compressive bending stress at extreme point, Py M 1 Rally ad? y= d/2 * As per IS code, if butt welds are subjected to shear and bending equivalent stress, pp= VBP +P <= 0.9 hy * The permissible value of equivalent stress = 09 x fy=225 Mp, TENSION MEMBERS A tension member (or tie) carries a direct axial tension in a roof truss or bridge truss. II FLOOR. B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD. SRI RAM NAGAR KARAIKUDL CONIACT 948d 3610,99521 00101. A tension member is designed for its net sectional area at the joint. 2, Net area in case of chain riveting (for plates) Ane = (b-nd)t width of plate d= gross dia of rivet n=no.of rivets at the section ickness of smaller plate 3. Zig-Zag riveting [Net effective area along section ABCDE [o-mre{S 082 ro igi ABs Steiman's formula no.of rivet holes at the section (3 in the above figure at section ABCDE) S1 or S:= staggered pitch (measured parallel to the force ) 81 OF ge = gauge distance (measured perpendicular to the force direction) * In zig-zag riveting, the net cross sectional area along a chain of rivets is increased by S’t/ 4g 4. Single angle connected by one leg only : ANSILE Srcriqn COMMECTED Witt eee aeaey OOTSTAN DING —ttAe LEG Aa ColVNECTED LEG Gusses PLATE net effective area, Ane: = Ai + KiAz ‘Where A; = net cross sectionaliarea of the ‘connected leg = (a-d-t/2)t ‘Az = gross cross sectional area of unconnected leg = (b-/2)t Ki =3A1/(3A1 + Aa) * Area ofa leg of an angle = (length of leg % thickness of leg) x thickness 5. Pair of a angles placed back-to-back connected by one leg of each angle (or by the flange of a T-section) to the same side of a gusset plate: Aree = At + Ky pgs os legs yet FO VEC ER OOTSTRVOING Ieen) ‘Aa™ gross area of out standing legs (or web of nD Ka= SA, /(5Ai + Aa) * The area of web of T = (depth - thickness of flange ) x thickness of web * The outstanding legs of pair of angles should be tacked by rivets at a pitch not exceeding Im. 6. For double angles or T's placed back to back and connected to each side ofa gusset or to each side of a'rolled section : (on opposite sides of the gusset plate) ‘Ana= gr0ss area ~ area of rivet holes Provided that the angles or the T's are tack riveted along their length of at a pitch not exceeding | m. * When two angles or Ts placed back-to-back are not tack-riveted the provisions under (5) and (6) above do not apply and each angle or Tis designed as single angle or single T connected to one side of the gusset. piyones CotvMECTED Te pee GbE op GioSSEN PLOTE neh SIDI 7. Permissible stress in tension (64) .6 fy fy = yield stress for steel (250 N/mm? for standard structural steel) It FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRI RAM NAGAR, RARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486431610, 99521 60016,8. Design of axially loaded tension member: Steps : 1. Calculate net area required : Ang = Axial load / 6x 2. Try a suitable section having sectional area 20 to 40 % excess than the Ane required. 3. Calculate the Ape available in the trial section. 4, The trial section will be ok if Ang available >Ava required as per step (1) 5. Calculate no.of rivets required, n axial force / rivet value 9, Lug angle : It is a short length of an angle used at a joint to connect the outstanding leg of member. + Used to reduce length of the joint. * A lug angle is provided at the beginning of a joint so that it can be effective in sharing load. Specifications : * The lug angle and its connection to the gusset plate should be capable of developing a strength not less than 20 % in excess of the force in the outstanding leg of the angle (i.e. 1.2 times) * The attachment of the lug angle to the main angle should be capable of developing 40 % in excess of that force (ie. 1.4 times ) * Minimum rivets to connect Iug angle are 2 nos. * Where lug angles are used to connect an angle member the whole area of the member should be taken as effective. i.e. Ana = gross area ~ Rivet holes. 10. Tension splice * A joint for a tension member. * Tension splices are the cover plates used on both sides of the butt jointed tension member, * When members of different thickness are spliced, packing is required to fill the gap. * If the packing is more than 6 mm thick, additional rivets at the rate of 2.5 % for each 2 mm thickness of total packing is to be provided. COMPRESSION MEMBERS 1. Eg: Stanchions (in buildings) ‘boom (in a crane) rafter (ina truss) 2. Compressive strength, P= Ax oa Where A = gross area llowable compression stress a= 3. IS - code uses Merchant-Rankine formula to calculate ox, follows Leif, +f, a Gas = 0.6 Where f, ~ yield stress of stee! fe elastic critical stress in compress a factor, assumed as 1.4 2 slendemess ratio effectivelengthofmember = Tadiusofgyrationofmember radius of gyration, r= V7) = \(Momentofinertia/ Areaofeross section) 4, Effective length of compression member(\): a) Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at both ends (both ends fixed) 1=0.65L. . b) Effectively held in position at both ends, restrained against rotation at one end (ore-end fixed and other end hinged) 1=080L ©) Effectively held in position at both ends, but not restrained against rotation (both ends hinged) I=L. 4) Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at one end but not held in position or restrained against rotation at other end (one end fixed, other end free) i=2L LFLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486431610©) Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation at one end, and at the other end restrained against rotation but not held in position, 1 =1.20L * L= unsupported length of member. = (length between cic of intersection of members) * For batten column, the effective length shall be increased by 10% 5. For angles struts, the specifications are different as follows * For discontinuous members (whether single or double angle) [For single Ji =L 08 0. rivet or bolt For — double |] = 0.85 L, Sac rivet, double bolt & weld _ * For Continuous members (For single or double angle) For any type [1=0.7 to One ofconnection | _0.85L 6, Composite compression members back to ‘back: The members shall be tack riveted. Maximum spacing of tacking rivets = 600 mm (wo angles, channels T-s) = 32 t or 300 mm which ever is _ less (For built up compression member with cover plates ) Where t = thickness of thinner outside plate. *,A minimum of 2 rivets or bolts shall be used in each connection (one on line of each gauge mark, where the legs of connected angles. are >= 125 mm wide) 7. Maximum slendefness ratio Q.) : a) A member carrying compressive | Xmsx loads resulting from D.LandL.L {180 b) A member subjected to | 250 compressive loads resulting from wind o earth quake forces 7 reversal of stress due to loads other than wind or seismic forces ©) A tension member in which | 180 @) A member normally carrying | 350 tension but subjected to reversal of stress. due. to@@ind or earth quake forces. i. ©) Compression flange of a beam ) Tension members 8. Design of compression members : Steps : a) assume some value of og, and calculate the approximate area, required, Aspprox = load / Gxe For single section (Ll) - Gae may be assumed as 80 Némm? : For built up sections - oy, may be assumed as 110 N/mm’ ) Select trial section having area ~—Asppox c) Determine actual 4 (slendermess ratio) and actual 6: for the trial a section 4) Calculate load capacity of the selected section and compare with the external load acting, If not tallied, repeat the above steps. e) Slendemess ratio 9. Lacing and Battening for built up compression members. * The different components of built up sections are placed in such a way that the built up section has same radius of gyration about both axes. (16. t= Ty) OF ex “ly * The different components of built up sections are connected together so that they act as a single column. * Lacing and battening systems are used to connect the members. * Lacing is generally. preferred: in’ case of eccentric loads. For axially loaded members, battening is preferred. oth df (A): SINGLE ‘LACING tay GoUBLE Laci ACW OF: CoMPression tucnoeRS, “ANS IML FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486431610| PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY — KARAIKUDI Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 2007 Exam -130 (Our Stedent 6 Umasankar Fist rank (2715) in PWD-WRO, reclving appoiameat ode fram Honourable Chet master TOPPERS 2007 SSSolavalahm— PSenthil Kumae V.K Jgsdheash Kumar Highveys rank Buildings Hlrank Highways [Vrank ‘Overall Tk Over illank Over rank 215 274.5 2148 Rueyakumar Playaprakash G Suthager Boing ignore Highways 2612535267 253.5 PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY Ill Floor, B & K Complex, Main Road, Sriram Nagar, Karaikudi Ph 94864 31610 Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 Salsimurvgan — MM-Poongosi—LVatiingnn (rer rank WROL rank Buildings rank 267, 26 iy y Axsishnan (252) P.Ganepathy(250.5) D Sivakumar 250.)10. Lacings : (Specifications) * Flat bars, angle, channel and tubular sections are used for lacing. * Lacing system should not be varied ‘throughout the length of the member. * The single-laced system on opposite sides of the main components should be in the same direction so that one be the shadow of the other. * Tie plates should be provided at the ends of the lacing system and at points where lacing systems are interrupted. * The lacing system should be designed to resist @ transverse shear = 2.5 % of the axial force, Inclination lacing system with vertical should be between 40° and 70° =a Slendermess ratio (2) of lacing bar should not exceed 145. For single lacing (riveted) le =I (1 = length between inner end rivets) For double lacing riveted at ends |. = 0.7 1 For welded lacing l. = 0.71- Due to fixity For flat bar (b xt), fin = t/ VI2 For riveted or welded lacing system, L / twin < 50 or 0.7 times maximum 4 of member as a whole, which ever is less. Where raiq = minimum radius of gyration of the components of compression member Minimum width of lacing bar in riveted connection Nominal dia of rivet (mm): 22 20 18 16 Width of lacing bar (mm) :65 60 55 50 * approximately 3 x nominal diameter. (rivet) Minimum thickness of lacing bar t> 1/40, for single lacing +> 1/60, for double lacing ‘The lacing should be designed to resist @ transverse shear, V = 2.5 % axial load The lacing should be designed to resist additional “shear due to bending if the compression carries bending For single I tensile ) in the force (compression or _PYRAMID TAs AC y 10 F=V/2sin0 ; For double lacing F = V / 4 sind Compressive stress in each bar = F /b. ¢ shall not be greater than Ge allowable Tensile stress in each bar = F / (b-d) t shall not ‘greater than Gx atowabe End connection : For case (a) , no. of rivets = F / Rivet value For case (b) no. of rivets = 2 F cos / Rivet value 11, Battens : * The no. of battens should be such that the member is divided into not less than three parts longitudinally (e., minimum 4 batten plates ) * Flat plates are used for battens * Effective length of battenéd column should be increased by 10% aan }—spacin Design Specifications : Spacing of battens ‘C” is such that, the slendemess ratio of the lesser main component, C/ tin 50 oF 0.7 times the 4 of the member as a whole about X-X axis (parallel to battens), which ever is less. Where r'nig = minimum radius of gyration of component. IK FLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94868 31610,S = transverse distance between centroids of rivet group or welding pacing of battens ; sntroid distance of member effective depth of batten t= thickness of batten >a for end batten. > 3/4) a for intermediate battens > 2b for any batten © Thickness of batten, t Za) 2. Depth of beam is restricted. * Approximate area of each cover plate required, Ap=(Zr—Za)/d ‘Where Zr = required modulus = M / oy Za = available section modulus, d= depth of beam * The gross area of flange plate is taken as 20 ‘% of extra to account for rivet holes. * The outstand of flange plate (beyond the rivet, should not exceed 16 t for compression) and 20 t for tension. [ If not satisfied local buckling of plate occur 16. For riveted built up beams, the actual bending stresses are calculated as follows: * Bending compressive stress, Orccat= (MI). Yn =. 1G ax * Bending tensile stress, recat = Ope! X Ag! Aner PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY KARAIKUDI Most Successful Institute in TNPSC 2007 Exam Total AE selections: 130 From Pyramid Academy * ‘OurStudeat EG Unasanlar, Fist enk (271-3) inPWOWRO, recsvngappaiament order fom ‘Honourable Chet minister NLFLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 9486431610ROOF TRUSSES * All joints are assumed to be hinged and loads applied at the joints only. * All members of a roof trusses are subjected to axial forces. Pitch=Rise/ Span Slope = Rise / (span) /2 Slope=2 x pitch * Common pitches for different roof sheets. Pitch 1/6 for GI Sheets 1/12 for AC sheets 1/4 for snow load occurs besides wind bad. Types of Trusses Aon io. dN. TEES ALN cf Gs. i, is wt rom Ae Sse a outoNmNeRa Tne King post Truss upto 6m Queen post Truss 6 10. 9m Pratt truss 6 to 30m ‘Spacing of trusses: Economical spacing 1/3 to 1/5 of span For economical spacing, cost of trusses = 2 x cost of purlins + cost of covering. Principal rafteygThe top chord members in a roof truss Mi. ‘Principal rafters. ‘They Is support the roof covering through purlins. ‘They are mainly compression members and may be subjected to shear and bending moment if the purlins are not placed at nodal points. Strats : The member carrying compressive forces in a roof truss are called struts. Ties : Members carrying tensile forces. Main Tie : The bottom chord member. It is ‘usually in tension and takes compression if reversal of loads occurs due to wind load. Ridge line and eves : The top line. of the roof truss is called the ridge line and the bottom edge of roof surface is called eves. OT on ie | +o e Po tcrhea Bet tha Loads on roof trusses : 1. Dead Load : a) Roof covering ) Purlins c) self weight of truss = 100 to 150 N/m? W=(1/3 +5)x10N/m* ing=3 104m span of truss in meters. 2. Imposed load on L.L: For roofs sloping > 10° a) For roof membrane, sheets or purlins : 750 N / m* — 20 N / m° for every degree increase in slope over 10° subjected to a minimum of 400 N/m? ‘b) For member supporting the roof members and roof purlins, such as trussed, beams, girders etc., 2/3 of load in (a). ILFLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRIRAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT $4864 316103. Snow load 25 N/m? per om depth of snow. If > 50° slope, snow load need not be considered 4, Wind load : The design wind pressure on a. roof is determined by combination of external wind pressure and internal air pressure. a) External wind pressure: Extemal wind pressure in term of basic wind pressure ‘p' on roofs when wind is normal to ridge depends on slope The external wind pressure in terms of basic wind pressure when wind is parallel to the ridge is as follows. On the both slopes of roof for length equal to mean height of roof from ground > -0.6 P Over remaining length —- (-) 0.4 P b) Intemal wind pressure : Depends upon permeability of the structure, For different permeabilities of buildings, the internal air pressure in terms of basic wind pressure 'P’ is given below. ‘Type of Buildings 1. Zero permeability, no openings (Multistoried building with pane! wall and no opening) 2. Normal permeability’ (up to 20 % opening) ( Flow of air commonly afforded by structure through open windows and doors). 3. Large Opening (Area of opening > 20 % of total wall area) (Hanigers and sheds) Purlins : Members subjected to transverse loads and rest on the top chords of roof trusses. They. support sheeting that carries roof covering They are horizontal beams spanning between the two adjacent trusses. Spacing generally varies from 2 m to 3m. Biaxial Bending subjected to “bending 16 Span of purlin = spacing of trusses Oe (01) Ou = Mx /Zx +My /Zy Max P. M in purlin M = WE/10 W = Ual / Unit length on putin inating wind ond PYRAMID JAS ACADEMY | KARAIKUDI Most Successful Institute in TNPSC 2007 Exam Total AE selections: 130 From Pyramid Academy ueStuen EG Unusaiar, Frees (Tes) mPWD-W2O, ‘reeling sppolament order fom “Honourable Chief mister Seal Kumar VK Jogadheech uae ok Buldigs Mak Highways IVeak ‘Ovell lik Overall lrank Over If ek 271.5 2745 274.5 RJgaiuose Pdsyepaiath GSeimpx. Una uldagsteank “Mghouge lnk Highways RD Tek 261 2535267 253.5 LIFLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD, SRIRAM NAGAR, |. KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 31610PYRAMID ACADEMY KARAIKUDI UNITV STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ‘Strength Of Materials Stresses and Strains — Elastic constants — Shear and tension ~ compound stresses — principal stresses and planes — Theories of failure ~ Theory of Simple bending ~ Shear stress distribution in beams — Deflection of beam ~ Strain energy in elastic deformation — Impact fatigue and creep. Colomns - short & long columns, unsymmetrical sections. Euler's theory - critical loads for different end conditions INTRODUCTION Strength’of Materials extends the study of forces that was begun in Engineering Mechanics. The field of Mechanics covers the relations between forces acting on rigid bodies. Strength of Materials’ with the relations between extemally applied loads and their internal ‘effects on bodies. The deformations in the bodies, however small they may be, are of ‘major interest. Elastic constants Stresses and Strait Shear and tension Every body- offers resistance against any disturbance to its natural state of formation. ‘This resistance, against deformation, per unit area is known as the stress. It is measured in terms of force exerted per unit area. ‘The stresses acting on any surface can be resolved into ao two components ie RAMID. normal to the % i surface and the other tangential to the surface. These are the two basic stresses, namely Normal stresses and Shearing stresses. All other stresses are either similar to these or a combination of those. The axial stresses resulting from axial forces which tend to elongate a member are called Tensile Stresses. Members which are subjected to predominantly axial tensile stresses are known as ties. Such axial stresses which tend to shorten or compress a member are called Compressive stresses. Members which are subjected to predominantly axial compressive stresses are called Struts. As per Saint Venant’s principle, these axial stresses will be uniformly distributed over the entire area of cross section. If a force is parallel to the surface on which it acts, it is called a shear ‘force. ‘The direction of shear stress on any plane'will be parallel to the plane of shear. Ultimate strength is the greatest stress ‘the material can withstand without ‘rupture. For obvious reasons of safety, the full strength is never utilised. Allowable stress is that part of the ultimate strength which will be used when maximum permissible force is applied. In the Straight line or Elastic theory, the Factor of Safety is, the stress at which the’ material yields (called as yield stress) divided by allowable stress. The séléction of factor of safety will be based on ‘degree of safety required, economy: reliability of the material, required -life of the structure, -londing conditions, method of assessment of qualities of the material, method of assessment of Toads, ‘aecess into the structure for maintenance and environmental conditions. IIIFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, TRARAIKUDL CONTACT Sito) S1610952100010Strain is the ratio of deformation 51, to the length J over which it occurred. Thus, =5 Jf. Strain is a non-dimensional quantity whereas stress is expressed in N/mm? ete. Generally almost all the structural materials will be capable of recovering original shape and size upon the removal of the deforming forces, provided they are not excessive. This property is called the elasticity.. The limit of stress upto which a material can exhibit Elasticity is called the Elastic limit. If the material is stressed beyond this limit full recovery is not possible. Some permanent defotmations will be left unrecovered. ‘That part, which is imecoverable is called Permanent Set. Robert Hooke formulated that “Stress is ‘proportional to__strain within certain Timits”. ‘The limit upto which Hooke’s avy holds good is called Proportional limit ‘or limit of Proportionality. Within the Elastic Zone, stress is. proportional to strain upto proportional limit and beyond this it is not Tinearly related. Thus the zone upto Elastic fi be divided as Linearly Elastic zone and ‘Non-linearly Elastic zone. The constant of proportionality between stress and strain, it (Elastic zone) can which gives a measure of stiffness or clisticity of the material is called “Modulus _ of Elasticity’ or Young's Modulus (after Dr. Thomas Young) and is denoted by E. a The PYRAMID ratio of shear stress ACAD E: 2 TKS ae 2 to shear strain within the shearing proportional limit is known as Shear Modulus, or Modulus of Rigidiny, denoted by N, C or G. Any normal stress is accompanied by a strain in its own direction and an opposite kind of strain in every direction at right angles 40 it. The ratio of unrestrained lateral linear strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson's Ratio, wy ‘or v. Usually, this varies from about 0.15 to 0. ‘The change in volume per unit volume is called the volumetric strain. Ifthe strains in the three: principal directions are ¢,,<, and ,, the volumetric strain will be the sum of these strain, ie. Ifa body is subjected to three stresses o,,0, and. ©, all tensile in the three principal directions x, y and z, respectively, strains in the three directions will be given by When a body is subjected to three perpendicular like direct stresses of same intensity, the ratio of this stress to the corresponding volumetric strain in the body is known as Bulk Modulus, K. ‘The three elastic constants E, N and K together with Poisson’s Ratio are connected by the following equations. ULFLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, TRARAIKUDL CONTACT 4804 318109952160070,g=2nq44 9NK Na3k It can be inferred that the Modulus of igidity for a material will be less than Modulus: of Elasticity Or, generally the materials will be weak in shear in comparison to normal stress e.g., for mild O4E. steel, Members with varying cross- sections are called Non-prismatic members. The total elongation or shortening of the member will be the algebraic sum of the changes in lengths of individual portions. If the cross-sections suddenly vary, 5 1= 56 1, Fh AE, If the cross section is uniformly where 51, = varying, the change in an element is to be integrated. For a circular rod tapering uniformly from a diameter dy to d2 over a Iength of 7 and subjected to a load P, the overall change in length, 6 7 will be given . a Fad.d; Every body tries to expand or contract depending on the changes in the surrounding temperature. If this change is not allowed the stresses will be developed in the body corresponding to such prevented changes, If prevented change = lat, strain= a t Corresponding stress = Eat Force developed = AEat where A is area of cross-section, E is Young’s modulus, a is co-efficient of linear expansion and t is the change in temperature. Ifa cylindrical bar of length / is subjected to its own weight, p being the unit weight of material, (By integrating extension in an element) al = pl'/2E Ifa conical bar is subjected to its. own weight, similarly, ot = 6E Ifa ductile material like mild steel is stressed upto fracture, the stress strain curve will be obtained as shown in figure 0 is starting point, i.e., zero stress and zero strain. A is proportional limit, B is Elastic limit. C is upper yield point. D is lower yield point. Point G is the ultimate strength. H is nominal breaking stress and L. is actual breaking stress. Solid curve is based on original area of cross section. Dotted curve is based on actual area of cross-section (possibly) from time to time. OA is linearly elastic zone and AB is non- linearly elastic zone. DF is plastic zone. FG is strain hardening zone. Strain energy in elastic deformation Resilience is the amount of energy stored in a strained body, also known as Strain Energy. The maximum amount of strain energy which can be stored in a unit volume {ILFLOOR, BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR. RARAIKUDL CONTACT 94854 316)0.952160010A member is said to be overhanging when the member does not stop over a support but continues beyond. Sometimes the end of the member may be left unsupported. By the app! stitesnamely ZH=0, EV=0 and ion of equations of EM about any point lying in the plane of the structure is equal to zero, only three unknown external reaction components can be determined. If the total number of. reaction components, based on the nature of supporting members exceeds the niimbet of equations which statics can offer, the member is said to be statically indeterminate, Degree of indeterminacy is total number of reaction components minus three. ‘The Shear Force at any section is ‘equal to the net transverse force (i.e., the algebraic sum of | the ~ transverse ‘components of force) either to the right or to the Jeft of the ‘section including reactions. Obviously, both will be same. The Bending moment at any section is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments about this section of various forces either to the’ right or to the left of the section including reactions. Theory of Simple bending Simple bending means flexure by pure couples applied to a beam without shearing force. The assumption that Plane transverse sections remain plane and normal to the of the beam oven after bending means the strains in the various fibres will be proportional to-their distances from neutral axis, Neutral axis is the line of intersection of Neutral plane and transverse section of the beam. This will pass through the centre of gravity of cross section. The assumptions that material obeys Hooke’s law, limit of proportionality not exceeded and Young’s ‘modulus is same in compression and tension mean that the stresses will be proportional to the strains in all the fibres. ‘The flexure formula is AL where M is the bending moment acting at the section, I is the second moment of the area about an axis passing through centroid, o is the stress in a fibre which is at a distance of y from neutral axis. E is Young’s modulus and R is the radius of curvature (change). This flexure formula is applicable with following limitations : (@ Loads must be static loads. (b) The beam shust be free from initial or residual stresses. (©) The beam must fail by bending only and not by twisting, or buckling etc. (@® There must be a plane of symmetry for the cross-section’ ind all loads ‘must be applied in this plane. Modulus of section with reference to any axis is the moment of inertia divided by the distance of extreme fibre from neutral axis. Tt can be observed from flexure M or the bent shape for a a formula that 2 R I FLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR.without permanent set is called Proof Resilience. ot Modulus of Resilience. The strain energy stored in a body due to axial stress is given by u =} x Stress x Strain x Volume or U = 2x Volume 2E If an axial toad P is applied gradually, corresponding stress will be, P/A. If the axial load P is suddenly applied, max. instantaneous stress will be 2PIA, which will gradually adjust to P/A. If the axial load P is dropped through a height ‘h’ or applied with equivalent impact, max. instantancous stress is given by P 2EAl, Pas fie ZZ Ae a If the loading is through a shock, and if the shock transmits U units of energy, EU ‘Al Beams Any structure whether a bridge or building ‘etc. will be subjected to various types of loads. Dead load includes all loads which permanently act on the stricture including the self weight of the * member under consideration, During the course of design of the structure only the weight of that element under consideration is to be assumed, all the other elements supported by it must fave been & designed already and the dead load from them known. Live load is that part which comes on to the structure based on the purpose when the structure is put to use. The loads may be concentrated at some points (known as concentrated loads) or may be distributed (known as distributed loads). The internal forces induced in various members of a structure will depend on how the structure is supported. If the ends of the structure are simply placed over supports, due to bending, the ends of the member get lifted up, thereby reducing the contact area which results in high bearing stresses. There is no connection between member and support. This will not be stable for high horizontal components. The end of the member may be supported over a hinge on rollers through a pin. This type of support cannot offer reaction in the plane of rollers. ‘This will permit the end of the member to rotate about the centre of pin and hence offers only one reaction component normal to the plane of the rollers. A hinged supported will offer two reaction components since it prevents vertical and horizontal movements of the -ends but permits rotation. ‘A built in support or fixed ‘support, when the end of the member is either built into the support or rigidly connected, will offer three reaction components, as it will not permit the end of the member to move or to rotate, IILFLOOR, BEX COMPLEX. MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, 'RARAIKUDE CONTACT Stued 3161099321ea019given moment will depend on the value of ELE is,a material property and J is a cross-sectional property. Hence the value EI is combined property of the beam section giving its stiffness. It is called Flexural rigidity. Shear stress dis ion in beams ‘The variation in bending moment along the axis causes differential horizontal stresses and calls for horizontal stress to develop. These stresses will be proportional to rate of change of bending ‘moment or shear force at the section, ‘The shear stress on a fibre at any Fay $e where F is the shear force at the section, Ay is the moment of the area between the level is given by fibre under consideration and corresponding extreme fibre taken about the neutral axis I is the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis, b is the width of the section at the level of the fibre under Fay lf Generally, unless the width at neutral axis is large, maximum shear stress consideration occurs near the neutral axis. The distribution of shear stress is of parabolic variation. The ratio of maximum shear stress to average shear stress will depend thus on the shape of the cross sec PYRAMID IAS ACADEMY KARAIKUDI Most Successful Institute. in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 ‘Our Stadent EMM Poongdt First rark (267) a PWD-VRO, ‘eeeiving apoinment er fom Honourable miner “TOPPERS-2008 EXAM 2Solaimenigan —-MMPoongodi LVaitilingum Orealtitrnk —WROTrank Bunge rath 267 26) 26) 261 RSumuel (2565) NEleehal (2565) MSNeniat 255°) IF CLUUK, Ws COMPLE. MIN KUALASKI RAM NAGAR, RARAIKUDE CONTACT S486} 316109953140016,Deflection of Beams Ify is the deflection of the beam at section x distant from origin, ay, a ar, the shear force at x. E1<2 ai, , the load intensity at x. 12 ad, the bending moment atx #12, the slope ofthe elastic curve at x It can be observed from above that by the integration of function of load intensity the shear force will be obtained and ete. Thus the following Laws of Beam Diagrams can be established. First Law of Beam Diagrams Slope of curve at any point is the ratio of Length of ordinate at the corresponding in any diagram point in the next higher diagram. The order of diagrams is (1) Load intensity diagram (2) Shear force diagram (3) Bending moment diagram. Higher diagram means the just previous diagram. Second Law of Beam Diagrams Difference in lengths of any = Area between corresponding two ordinates in any diagram ordinates of the next higher diagram, When a body is subjected to bending moment M, the strain energy stored will (Meds 2ET the flexure formula, . From Jo AK, oF when Mis constant (ie, pure bending moment) and EI is constant (i.e., prismatic member), the bent shape (or elastic curve) will be of constant curvature. So a prismatic beam subjected to pure bending moment will bend into circular are. In a simply supported beam subjected to pure bending moment, the maximum deflection will occur at centre and of ‘tude magnitude $+ As can be seen from the previous equations, the deflections can be calculated by integrated the bending moment expression twice in succession. The constants of integration can be. determined using the boundary conditions. If slope and deflection are calculated at a section, the slope and deflection at other section can be calculated by drawing the qualitative picture of elastic curve. Especially when there is no load in between the two sect s. Compound stresses ~ Principal stresses and planes It can be observed that even though the stresses act on a plane, the cracks will form on a different plane altogether. So there may be Blanes over which the stresses may be of ctitical nature and magnitude. On any plane the stresses. may be resolved into two components normal and tangential. Such planes on which no tangential stresses act will be known as Principal planes. The only normal stresses acting on these principal planes are’ called Principal Stresses. ‘The 1 FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, RARAIGUDL CONTACT s#u0a 3161099521600higher one is called Major Principal Stress and the smaller one is called minor principal stress. In any stressed member the maximum and minimum normal stresses will be Principal stresses. The two principal planes will be at right angles to each other. If the principal stresses are co, and ©, both of same nature maximum , shear stress will be given by By’ analysis the normal and tangential stresses on any plane inclined at a given angle can be found. The plane shear can be carrying maximum determined by differentiating shear stress expression w.rt. @ and equating to zero. Ellipse of stress and Mohr’s circle of stress can be used. If no shear stress acts on these two planes and o, and o, are equal and of same nature, then Mohr’s ill be a point. ‘The radius of any circle Moht’s circle will give the magnitude of the corresponding maximum shear stress. Columns - short & long columns, unsymmetrical sections. Euler's theory - critical leads for different end conditions “A column is. a vertical member subjected to compressive force predominantly. The short columns will fail by crushing. The long columns will fail due to instability, which will be usually earlier if the column is long. The load which can causé buckling in columns will depend of B, I and PYRAMID Y Land end conditions, Euler analysed columns with different end conditions. wel For both ends hinged P, = For both ends fixed, P, For one end fixed and the other’ free EL aE For one end fixed and the other hinged Effective length of a column is that Tength of the same column but with such a modified length with which the column will have same strength as that of a hinged ended column. Thus the effective length will be fora column with both ends hinged L, = Z fora column with both ends fixed Z, = 1/2 for a column with one end fixed and the other free L, =2L for a column with one end fixed and the other singed L, = Acolumn will have maximum strength when its both ends are fixed. Radius of gyration of a section is Wa ‘The radius of gyration will depend on the axis about which bending takes place. The ratio, Z,/r is known as Slendemess ratio. The Bulers formulae are valid only when Lf >i0. Some structures like masonry dams, chimneys etc. will be subjected to combined IL FLOOR, BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, RARATKUDL CONTACT 464 31610.9952160010 8bending and axial stresses. The masonry structures will: be weak in tension, ‘Therefore to avoid tension, the resultant of forces at any level should pass through, middle third of the base at that level. ‘That portion of the area of cross- section of a member within: which if a compressive force is applied no tension develops anywhere in the cross-section is called Core. In other words, to avoid tension at any fibre in the cross section, the compressive force should be applied within the core. The cecentricity of a compressive load is thus limited. Properties of materials Strength isthe ability of a material to resist forces by developing the stress based on the nature of the force without failure. Stiffness is that property of the material due to which a material can resist deformation. Tenacity is the ultimate tensile strength. Duct, is the property of the material that enables it to be drawn permanently’ through -great changes of shape without rupture. This is indicated by percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area from a tension test. Brittleness is the opposite of ductility. Brittle materials fail suddenly without waming when stressed beyond their strength, They ao cannot accommodate much YRAMID. “Eek fy change in shape without rupture. Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or abrasion or cutting, or soratching etc, It is given as force divided by the surface area (of contact) of the spherical indentation (e.g., BH). Toughness is the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy at high stress without fiacture, The measure of toughness is the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed upto the point of fracture. Creep is the property by which a ‘material continues to deform with time under sustained loading. Plasticity of a material is the property of the material by virtue of which it continues to deform without any considerable increase in stress, Tor A moment’s acting on a member about the longitudinal axis trying to twist one end of, the member with respect to the other is called trvisting moment or Torque. A bending moment bends the member whereas a twisting moment twists the member. A beam supporting a balcony or portico, itself being supported rigidly at the combined bending and torsion. Shafts in automobiles, beams in grid works will be subjected to torque. The assumption that a plane cross section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis remains same even after the application of torque is valid only for circular sections. The t_NO@ =S., where T is torsional formula is 2 J 7d III FLOOR, BAK COMPLEX. MAIN ROAD|SRI RAM NAGAR, RARATKUDL CONTACT "9468 S16109952100016,the twisting moment or torque in Nm. J is polar moment of inertia of the cross section inm*. r is the shear stress in the material at a radial distance of r, in N/m’, r is the radial distance of fib ¢ in m. Nis the modulus of rigidity in N/m. @ is the relative twist between two sections, 7 apart, in radians, 7 is the distance between the two section in m. ‘The stresses generated in the material will be shear stresses since the applied twisting moment will force each cross-section to slip ‘over the other. The material on the periphery will be subjected tor maximum shear stress. The ductile materials will allow cross-sections. Brittle ‘materials will fail by diagonal tension the crack occurring at 45° to the longitudinal axis, ‘The maximum twist will be small when compared to that in a ductile material. Horse power transmitted by a shaft Dan 0.45 x10 © torque in kg em. When a member is subjected to a bending moment M and twisting moment T, a single bending momient that can produce the same major principal stress called, equivalent Bending moment, is where n is rpm, T is given by, M, dai) Similarly, equivalent twisting moment producing VMP4T?. ‘The torsional formula is not valid for same max. shear stress is T,, impact loads. This is valid only for circular sections. If a crack develops it starts on the periphery and develops towards the centre, if it is a pure torsion. A helical spring will be close coiled or ‘open coiled based on the angle of helix. Ifthe angle is more and hence the spring is open coiled, it will develop bending stresses in addition to shear stresses when subjected to axial loads. If the mean coil radius is R, every ‘cross. section is subjected to a twisting moment of WR, when the spring is subjected to axial force W. Thus the material of a close coiled helical spring will be subjected to shear stress whert the spring is subjected to axial load. If the spring is subjected to axial twist, the number of coils in the spring will increase or decrease depending on the nature of the twisting moment. Because the overall length of the spring is same, when number of coils changes, the radius of curvature of the spring coils changes. When the radius of curvature changes for a member, the straining action will be bendiig moment. Therefore when a close coiled helical spring is subjected to axial twist, bending stresses will develop in the ‘material. * When an axial load of W acts on a close coiled helical spring, the spring undergoes a compression (or deflection) SAWR'n ca* ‘thé mean radius of the coil of the which is given by 5 » where W is the load, LUEFLOOR, Bik COMPCEX, MAIN ROADSRI RAM NAGAR, RARAIKUDE CONTACT "863 31010 9952100010 tospring, n is the number of coils in the spring, C is the modulus of rigidity and 4 is the diameter of the spring wire. ‘The load required to cause unit deflection is called Stiffness K 2 If two springs. are in series, and their Stiffness are Ky and Ke the stiffness of the combined spring is K If two springs with stiffnesses K, and Ka are in parallel, the stiffhess of the ‘combined spring is K %, where W = WrtW2. W=K5, W,=K,6, and W =5(K,+K,) KaK+K, If the helical springs crack, the crack will be initiated on the inner side of curvature. Rn The energy stored in a compressing ‘The stiffness of spring is spring is _WOAWR'n _ 320? Rn “2” ca ca" n Theories of Failure 1, Maximum _Principal_stress_theory or Rankine’s theory ork F.0.S.= RHS/LHS Itis valid for Brittle materials like cast iron, Failure envelope is in square shape. 2. Maximum Principal_strain_theory or St.Venant’s Theory 1 4, ~H(c, +0,)]=2 for 3 dimensions E 4 =A(o,)]= 4 for 2 dimensions The shape of the failure envelope is Rhomboid. 3. Maximum Shear stress Theory or Guest, Coulomb tresca’s theory fam = Fat =} Fae Maximum of ( for3-D ‘The shape of the failure envelope is Hexagon and is valid for ductile materials. Theor rubies sere, soe fe & for3 dimensions AI FLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR. RARATKUDL CONTACT 86431610 95521¢c010For 2 dimensions ‘The shape of the failure envelope is elliptical and is valid for ductile materials. 5. Maximum shear strain energy theory or Maximum distortion theory: brvalle,?-o.*) The shape of the failure envelope is elliptical [stretched on longer side] and is valid for ductile materials. po —__, PYRAMID JAS ACADEMY KARAIKUDI Most Successful Institute in TNPSC AE Exam Total AE selections from Pyramid Academy 2007 Exam -130 2008 Exam -178 (Our Student Er.6.Unssankar, Fst rank @2713) in PWOAWRO, reeiving appsiament ord fe ‘Honourable Chie miiar ‘TOPPERS-2007 EXAM ‘SiSolavalahan —P.Sertil Kumar V.XK Jogadheesh kumar ‘Highways Mak Buildings rank’ Highways Vek (cwall lank Overall Uenk Overall ak 218 2745 218.5 Ratu . ‘idogsrank Highwapy lean Highways RDI rk 261” 2535267 2535 PYRAMID TAS ACA EMY IIL FLOOR, WK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD.SRI RAM NAGAR, 12CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS Engineering Properties uses and tests for stones and Grek lime ~ sources, types and. properties - cement ~ composition, tests, specifications, properties - types of cements and admixtures. Miscellaneous materials - Glass, Rubber Plastics and materials for acoustics and insulation. ‘STONES 1. Rocks: > The hard and solidified strata available on the surface of earth. > It is parental source of supply of stones. Classification of Rocks: (B) Physical Classification (© Chemical Classification (A) Geological Classification: @ ~ Igneous Rocks > Rocks formed dry cooling of magma, > eg: Granite, Dolerite, Basalt. Gi). . Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks formed by the deposition of products of weathering on the pre-existing rocks. > eg: Gravel, sand stone, lime: stone, ‘gypsum, lignite (iii). Metamorphic Rocks: > The igneous as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they are subjected to heat, pressure and chemicaily acting fluids. eg: laterite, marble, moorum, quirtte, slate (B) Physical Classification: ("Stratified Rocks: Possess planes of stratification Gi) Unstratified Rocks do not posses planes of stratification. Gil) Foliated Rocks: Tendency to 2 3. Silica Predominates Hard and durable therefore not easily affected by weathering agencies. Argillaceous Rocks: Clay Predominates Dense and compact but brittle nature. ‘eg: Slates, laterites and shales. Calcareous Rocks: Calcium carbonate predominates. Lime stone, marbles, ete. Easily affected by atmospheric agencies. Natural Bed of Stone: Rocks have a distinct plane of division along with stones can be easily split. This plane is known as ‘Natural bed of stone” For sedimentary rocks, it lies along the planes of stratification. For Metamorphic rocks, it long the plane of cleavage or plan of foliation. Stones should be so placed that the load fine is at right angles to the natural bed. Different situations Arches: Stones are placed with their natural bed radial. ‘Thrust of arch acts normal to the direction of natural bed. Walls: Stones should be placed in walls with the direction of their natural beds horizontal. Cornices and String courses etc: Stones should be placed with direction of natural beds with vertical. Tests for stones: (Durability Tests (@) Acid Test (6) Smith Test (©) Crystallization Test (4) Brard’s Test (ii) Crushing Test Gii) Attrition Test (iv) Hardness Test () Impact Test (vi) Water absorption Test ! @ | Durability Tests: I FLOOR, B&K COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 3161059521 0016To check the durability of stone Acid Tes © 100g of stone chips are kept in a 5% solution of Hel for 3 days. If.water becomes dirty, indicates stone contains too much of earthy and mineral matter. Crystallization Test: * Loss in wt. of 50 mm cubes suspended in 14% sodium sulphate solution for four hours is noted. © The test is repeated for 30 times and the loss wt. is obtained. Brard’s Test: «Small pieces of freshly quarried stone are immersed in boiling solution sulphate of soda. © The loss. in wt. indicates the probable effect of frost. Gi) Crushing Test: Compressive strength of stone is found. ‘Size of Cube Stone: 40mm x 40 mm x40 mm Load applied at a rate of 14 ‘N/mm2 per min. Max. load at which sample fails divided by area given the crushing strength. Y Crushing strength ranges from 15 = 100 Nimm2. To. check the resistance “to abrasion. Y Conducted in Deval’s Attrition * testing machine. Y Aweight quantity W, stone is put fn the drum inclined at 30° to the hor, revolving at 2000 rp.hr. Y After 5 hr, the material is taken out and sieved through 2mm sieve and the retained material SN RS weighed as W2. 100 ¥ % Wear VY %gkicar should not exceed 3 sood building stone. 1 @) wi) ¥ Conducted Darry’s Testing Machine. ¥ After 1000 revolutions, the loss in weight of the —specimen-placed measured. Y Coveff. of hardness > 17. for-stone to be used in road work. Impact Test: To determine toughness of a stone, A steel hammer of wt. 20 N is allowed to fall axially in a vertical direction over the specimen of dia 25 mm and ht. 25 mm. Y The no. of blows ‘n’ which specimen breaks is noted as toughness index. Y Toughness index: 19 high toughness. Water Absorption Test: AA . % To test the stone for quality. v (@ ) © @ © Pereentage absorption of water after 24 hours. Y Water absorption > 5% Characteristics of good Building Stone: It should have a good strength. It should be hard and tough. It should have good durability ie. weather resistant. It should be resistant to fire. Us specific gravity should be in between 241028. (Q It should have toss porosity and absorption: (g) It should be easily dressed. (b) It showld have good appearance and colour — BRICKS Bricks: > Made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime. > Clay bricks are commonly used. > Standard size: 19 x 9 x 9 om (without mortar) > Standard size: 20 x 10 x 10cm (with mortar) > Frog: An indent of 1 ~ 2 cm deep formed on the top. > Purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar. IIEFLOOR, BEX COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAGAR, KARAIKUDL CONTACT 94864 3161099521 600162 Classification of Bricks: (A). FirstClass Bricks: (Characteristics of good bricks. (@® Thoroughly burnt with deep red, cherry oF copper colour. (ii) Surface should“ be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and square comers. @ Should be free from flaws, cracks and stones. (&) Should be uniform texture, (No impression should be on the bricks when a scratch is made by a finger nail. (m) Water absorption should be 12 ~ 15% of its dry wt. when immersed in cold water for 24 hours. (n) The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime. (©) A tietallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other. (p) Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 10.5'Nimm2. Uses: (i) Pointing Flooring Exposed fiice work in masonry structures (iv)Reinforced brick work. (B) Second Class Bricks: > Same requirements as the first class are except that @ small cracks and distortions are permitted. @-- “Water —_absorptic about 16-20% is allowed. Gi) Crushing strength should not be less than 7 Nmm’. Uses: All important and unimportant Masonry works. (©), Third Class Bricks: > Under burnt, soft and light coloured producing dull sound. > Water absorption is about 25% of dry wt. Use:: For building temporary structures. (D) Fourth Class Bricks: Uses: Ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road metal. 3. Ingredients of good brick earth: @ ¢ tions of, wgredients. a: 50-60% Alumina : 20-30% Lime :< 10% (5% desirable) Magnesia: <1% Ferric Oxide: <7% Alkalis <10% various Gi) i ious ingredients: @ Silica: > enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts durability. > Excess silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning. © Ataminas Imparts plasticity to the earth so that it can be moulded. > Excess quantity produces cracks in brick on drying. © Lime: > Lime prevents shrinkage of raw bricks. > Excess lime causes cracks to melt and loses it shape. (@ Oxide of Iron: > Itimparts red colour to the bricks. > Improves —_impermeability and durability. © Magnesia: > Imparts yellowish tint to the bricks and decreases shrinkage. > — Excess of magnesia léads-to decay of bricks. Gil) Harmful ingredients in brick earth: (@) Lime: > When present in lumps, it absorbs moisture, . swells and causes disintegration of bricks. > () Iron Pyrites: > Disintegrate the brick during burning. > Discolourises the brick. () Alkalies: > Excess alkalies make the’ - clay ‘unsuitable for bricks. FLOOR, BRK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD,SRI RAM NAGAR, ‘KARAIKUDI, CONTACT S864 31610,00521 «1016> Causes Efflorescence ie. white (©) Organic Matter: powder deposits on the brick which > Makes the brick porous, water spoil the appearance. absorption increases and strength reduced. @ Pebbles: > Will result in. week and porous bricks. Unsoiling | Piecing |_,| Weathering |_,[ Blending |__| Tempering OC) O ————+| Moulding Buming bo Bricks | OPERATION DIAGRAM FOR PREPARATION OF BRICK EARTH (A) Preparation of Brick Earth: (i Unsoiting-Top layer of soil, about 20 em is taken out and thrown away. (ii) Digging:Clay is dug out and spread on the level ground. Gii) Cleaning: Should be cleaned of stones, pebbles, vegetable matter. . Exposed to atmosphere for softening. iv) Blending: adding the ingredients. () Tempering: The water in require quantity is added clay and the whole mass is kneaded or pressed under the feet of men or cattle. Done to obtain'a homogenous mass of clay of uniform character. ‘Tempering is also done in pug mill. i. Moulding: 1 2. 3, (©) Drying: > The object of drying Process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth. ‘Types: (i) Hand moulding (ii) Machine Moulding . Hand Moulding: (i) Ground Moulding (ii) Table Moulding to remove the moisture to central the shrinkage and save fuel and time during burning. Moisture content is brought down to about 3% under exposed conditions > within 3 to 4 days. ®) Burning: — > Can be done in a clamp or Kiln, Tem 350° C to 100°C. > It imparts hardness and strength to the bricks and makes them dense and durable. 4, Testing of Bricks: hours and the water absorption is a. Water absorption Test noted as % by wt. of bricks. . b. Compressive Strength Test B) Five Hours Soiling Water Test: ©. Bfflorescence Test > The specimens are immersed in d. Warping Test water and boited for five hours and - - the water absorption is obtained as % @ Water Absorption Test: by wt. of bricks, () Compressive Strength Test: INTFLOOR, BEK COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR, RARATKUDI, CONTACT , $4864 3161099521 60010> The specimen is placed in the compression testing — machine ‘with flat faces horizontal. > Load applied at a rate of 14 Némm2 per minute til failure. > The maximum load at failure divided by the average area of bed face gives the comp. strength. (ip Rfloescence Tet: Bricks are kept in a 150 mm dia, glass dish containing 25 mm depth of water at room temperature. >> On drying gray or white powder patches appear on brick surface. Presence of Efflorescence is classified: 1, Nil. deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible. 2. Slight_efflorescence < 10% of exposed area‘ of brick. 3. Moderate efflorescence between 10 t0 50% of exposed area of brick.Serious .deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick surface, +4, Heavy efflorescence 50% of exposed area of brick (iy) Warping Test: > Measured with the help of a flat stool or glass surface. > The greatest distance of brick surface from the edge of straightness. Two types: (1) Concave warpage (2) Convex warpage 5. Fire Clay Bricks (or) Refractory— 5 > Burt at very high temperature in special Kiln, (Hoffiman’s Kiln) > Fire clay has greater % of alumina, > Fire clays are capable of resisting very high temperature upto 1700° C without molting or softening. > Presence of small percentage of lime and magnesia help to melt the clay particles at high temperature. > Refractory bricks are used in fining furnaces having acid slay, steel industry, coke oven and copper reverberatory furnaces, 6. Additives in the manufacture of Bricks: > Additives: (i) Flyash (ii)Sandy loan Gili) Rice husk (jv) Basalt Stone dust > Additives are added to modify the shaping, drying and firing behaviour of clay. > — To utilize the waste materials. Riya Waste material available from thermal power plants. > Contains amorphous glassy material, mullite, hematite, magnetite etc. > These silicates also help towards strength development in clay bodies on firing. > — Should be optimum to reduce drying shrinkage, chock drying losses. Sandy loam > Effective in controlling -the drying behaviour of highly plastic soil containing expanding group of clays. Rica Husk Ash: > Should have carbon content <3 ~ 5%. > Used with plastic’ soils excessive shrinkages. Besalt Stone Dust: A waste product available in large quantity from basalt stone crushing Bricks: units. > — Refractory Bricks are made of fire > To modify the modify the shaping; olay. drying and firing behaviour of bricks. (3) Lime: LIME Due to calcination of limestone, Some definition : moisture and carbon dioxide are (@) Caleinatior Heating to redness in contact with air is known as calcinations. 2) Hydraul It is the property of lime by which it removed from it. Product which remains thereafter is known as lime. Its chemical composition is (CaO) oxide of calcium. The chemical reaction is as follows: § CaCOs;= Ca0+ COp (Cine) (Can cite IVFLOOR eK COMPLEX MAIN ROAD SRIRAM NAGAR(4) Quick lime: Lime which is obtained by the calcination of comparatively pure limestone is known as quick lime. Its chemical composition is (CaO) oxide of calcium and it has great affinity for moisture. Quick lime as it comes out from kilias is known as lump lime. (9) Setting: Process of hardening of lime after it has been converted into paste form is known as setting. It is quite different from mere drying. In case of drying, water evaporates only and no setting action takes place. (©) Slaked lime: Product obtained by slaking of quick lime is known as slaked lime, It is in the form of white powder and its chemical composition is Ca(OH)2 or hydrated oxide of calcium. ~The chemical reaction is as follows: a0 +10 = Ca(OH) (Qiic tine) (Wat) — ytd tne) (2) Slaking: When water is added to quick lime in sufficient quantity, a chemical reaction takes place. Due to this chemical reaction, quick lime cracks, swells and falls into ‘a powder form which is the calcium hydrate Ca(OH), and it is known as hydrated lime. This process is known as slaking. Sources of lime: Lime is not usually available in nature in free state. ‘It is procured by burning one of the following materials: ~ (1) fimestones from stone hills, (2) boulders of limestones from beds of old rivers, (3) kankar found below the ground and (A) shells of sea animals, It may be noted that white chalk is pure limestone and kankar is an impure limestone. ACADEMY 6 retards slaking. A proportion of 8 to 30 per cent is desirable for making a good lime. (2) Soluble silica: It is essential to have silica and alumina present in chemical combination with limestone to develop dydraulicity. Silicates of calcium, magnesium and aluminium are responsible for hydraulicity. Such silicates are inert or inactive at low temperatures. But they become active and combine with lime at high temperatures. (3) Magnesium carbonate: Presence of this constituent allows lime to slake and set slowly, but it imparts more strength. Further, production of heat and expansion are less. (4) Alkaties and metallic oxides: When these are present in small amount up to about 5 per cent or so, they develop hydraulicity due to the formation of soluble silicates at low temperature. (8) Sulphates: Presence of sulphates in small quantities accelerates the process of setting and reduces slaking action. (© Iron: If iron is present in small quantity, it develops a complex silicate at high temperature, But excess of iron is objectionable. (2) Pyrites: It is undesirable to have pyrites in the composition of limestones. Such limestones should therefore be rejected. Classi tion of limes ()— Fatlime Q) Hydraulic lime @) Poor lime (1) Fat lime: This lime is also known as high calcium lime, pure lime, rich lime or white lime. It is popularly known as fat lime as it slakes -vigorously. and its volume is increased to about 2 to 2 % times the volume that of quick lime. It is prepared by calcining comparatively pure carboriate of lime, which is! composed of about 95 per cent of calcium oxide. Percentage of impurities in such limestones is less than 5 LIL FLOOR, Beek COMPLEX, MAIN ROAD SRI RAM NAGAR,