IEE REVIEW

The physics of fusion welding

Part 2: Mass transfer and heat flow

J.F. Lancaster, BEng, CEng, FIM, Hon F Weld I

Indexing terms: Industrial applications of power, Arcing, Stability, Power utilisation and industrial applications, Welding

Doan and Weed [232] burnt a coated electrode on to a

The second part of the review covers mass and moving steel strip, and thereby separated the drops.
heat transfer in fusion welding, other than that Larson [233] passed a thin steel strip through the arc to
specifically related to the arc column. Metal trans- achieve the same end. Subsequently the use of this
fer is considered under the headings of flux- method has been questioned on the grounds that drops
shielded and gas-shielded processes. The major could fuse together on the collecting device.
portion of experimental work is concerned with Light cinematography has been used by many investi-
the gas-shielded processes, for which a substantial gators: for example, Hilperts [234] and Erdmann-
amount of quantitative information is available on Jesnitzer [235]. Details of the process may be seen but it
such matters as transfer modes, drop rates, drop is impossible to distinguish with certainty between slag
temperature, the effect of shielding gas and the and metal when viewing slag-shielded processes, and in
effect of pressure. The development of specialised such cases high-speed X-ray photography may be pre-
power sources for the gas metal arc process is con- ferred [236, 237]. In submerged arc welding it is possible
sidered. Flow in the weld pool has been studied to insert a ceramic tube in the groove ahead of the weld
for those cases (for example, submerged arc
welding) where it is mechanically induced, and for and make high-speed light films through the tube, which
gas tungsten arc welds where electromagnetic or melts as the weld advances [238, 239]. Indirect methods
surface tension forces may dominate. The exten- include the acoustic measurements which have been
sive literature on heat flow in the workpiece is reviewed earlier [207, 215], oscillograms of current and
briefly reviewed, and recent developments in voltage fluctuations (usually combined with other
welding process modelling are surveyed. measurements) and electronic digital recording of the
same phenomena [211].
Metal transfer modes have been classified by the Inter-
national Institute of Welding (IIW), as shown in Table 1
Part 1 of this Review (The electric arc in welding) was [7].
published in the September 1987 issue of IEE Pro-
ceedings Part B, Electric Power Applications, pp. 233-254.
Part 1 contained Sections 1-4, Figs. 1-26 and References Table 1: IIW classification of metal transfer
1-230.
Designation of Welding processes (examples)
transfer type
Free flight transfer
5 Metal transfer Globular
Drop Low current gas metal arc (GMA)
5.1 General welding
The nature of metal transfer in arc welding has been of Repelled CO2 shielded GMA welding
interest since the process was first introduced. Hudson Spray
[231] made the first cinematographic film of metal trans- Projected Intermediate-current GMA
Streaming Medium-current GMA
fer from coated electrodes (at 32 frames per second) in Rotating High-current GMA
1918. Since that time techniques have improved such that Explosive Coated electrodes
speeds of 104-2 x 104 frames per second are possible. Bridging transfer
Rehfeldt [211] has reviewed the methods that have Short-circuiting Short-arc GMA
Bridging without Welding with filler
been used and are now available for investigating the interruption wire addition
metal transfer process. These fall into three categories: Slag-protected transfer
mechanical, photographic and the measurement of sec- Flux-wall guided Submerged arc welding
ondary effects. Mechanical techniques use some method Other modes Coated electrodes, cored
for collecting individually transferred drops: for example wire, electroslag

Paper 5585B received in final form 13th February 1987. Commissioned

IEE Review. 5.2 Flux -shielded processes
The author is a consultant on materials and welding working from The Processes that use a flux share certain common features:
Cottage, Balcombe Forest, Sussex RH17, 6JY, United Kingdom for example the generation of gas through flux decompo-
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987 297
sition, and the modification of surface tension forces. It is [251]. Mazel [252] considers that when welding with
therefore convenient to group these together, as does coated electrodes under optimum conditions the amount
Houldcroft in his book on welding processes [240].

5.2.1 Coated electrodes: The early work up to 1942 is 15 3.0

well summarised by Spraragen and Lengyel [1]. The
most important single factor that governs directional 2:5
transfer of metal from electrode to workpiece would 10
appear, from this review, to be the generation of gas and D 2 0

its expansion due to the heat of the arc. Such gas gener- *- 1.5
ation may occur outside the electrode or inside the liquid
drop of steel at the electrode tip. In the latter case the 1.0
drop bursts, scattering droplets towards the weld pool;
alternatively it may expand until it touches the weld pool, 0.5
causing a short-circuit [241]. When welding in the over-
head position, most metal transfer takes place during the oL
TiO2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
period of short-circuits [234]. Erdmann-Jesnitzer et al. °/o of CaF2 in mixture
[242] confirmed that bubbles may form in the drop at
the electrode tip, and that such bubbles were due to Fig. 27 Relationship between electrode coating composition, transfer
rate n and drop mass mfor coated electrodes with 8 mm core wire; DC
carbon monoxide formation. Exploding drops have also electrode positive [248]
been observed in pulsed-arc GMA welding; in this case current = 350A, voltage = 32V
the droplets so formed are either deposited on the work- coating: TiO 2 CaF 2 mixture + 10% ferromanganese, 4% ferrosilicon, 2% cellu-
piece as spatter or reformed into a single drop [243]. lose, 4% mica
core wire diameter = 8 mm
Erdmann-Jesnitzer and Pysz [244] studied the cause of
spatter in welding with coated electrodes and found that
in certain cases at least it originated from the weld pool, of metal transferred by drops in free flight is unimpor-
and was caused by CO formation which generated tant, and the bulk of the metal transfers during short-
exploding bubbles. On the other hand, Klimant [245] circuits. Fig. 28 shows how the frequency of
made simultaneous high-speed X-ray and light films of
transfer from rutile-coated electrodes, and found little
evidence of bubble formation. In Klimant's work the
electrode was fully deoxidised.
The size, mass and other characteristics of metal drops 8. 20
transferred from coated electrodes have been determined
by many investigators, using the mechanical technique,
15
high speed cinematography and other means [245-253].
Van der Willigen and Defize examined high-speed films
and obtained frequency histograms for drops of various 10
sizes [246]. As a rule, electrodes with rutile coatings
produce relatively fine drops whereas the transfer from
basic coated electrodes is in the form of relatively large
diameter drops [246, 247]. When the coating is com-
pounded using a mixture of calcium fluoride and tita- 20 25 30 35
nium dioxide, the drop size increases as the CaF2/TiO2 arc voltage, V
ratio increases [247]. At the same time the drop rate Fig. 28 Effect of the rated arc voltage, when welding with electrodes
(number of large drops transferring per second) decreases with single-component coverings, on the number of short circuits [252]
(Fig. 27) [248]. The drop rate also increases in propor- 9 electrode positive
tion to the current density in the core wire. Drop rates • electrode negative
for electrodes with a different coating composition plot in
a similar way, but with a different gradient [249]. In
welding with coated electrodes, the drop rate is much short-circuiting increases as the arc voltage (i.e. the arc
higher than would be expected from a comparison with length) decreases. However, the work in question was
either gas-shielded or submerged arc welding using the carried out using light cinematography, whereas Klimant
same diameter wire [7]. Burnoff rates calculated from [245] found that in many cases apparent short-circuits
mean drop rate multiplied by mean drop mass for elec- consisted of slag which bridged between electrode and
trode negative are in the range 2.5-3 x 10" 6 kg/As workpiece, and that voltage peaks, interpretable as being
regardless of the type of coating [250]. Yoshida et al due to reignition, could result from the formation of a
found, from the examination of high-speed films, that double arc. Buschoff [253] also found that transfer from
metal transfer from coated electrodes fell into three cate- rutile-coated electrodes was in the form of relatively
gories: globular, spray and explosive. Drops had an coarse drops. In this investigation the voltage/arc length
initial velocity on detachment ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 characteristic was determined. The cathode fall was esti-
m/s. The drops were accelerated in transferring across the mated to be about 11 V, and the anode fall 6-8 V.
arc, and the gas velocity calculated from the acceleration Conn [8] developed an 'undulatory' theory according
was 250, 200 and 180 m/s for cellulosic, rutile and basic to which metal transfers from the electrode in a form
coated electrodes, respectively. These velocities are about akin a string of pearls [254], but Klimant found no evi-
three times the amount that would be calculated for an dence to support this view [245]. Based on an exami-
electromagnetically induced jet and the flow was con- nation of such high-speed X-ray films, Becken concluded
sidered to result from decomposition of the coating that pressure at the arc root due to vapourisation caused
298 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
oscillation of the liquid metal at the electrode tip,
resulting eventually in drop detachment or short-circuit
[15]. Both Mazel [252] and Becken [15] conclude that
electromagnetic forces play only a subsidiary role in
metal transfer from coated electrodes.
5.2.2 Submerged arc welding: The submerged arc
process was investigated using oscillographs by Paton
and his colleagues [255], and it was determined to be an
arc welding process and that metal transfer was by dis-
crete drops. Franz observed metal transfer through a
ceramic tube [238, 239] as did van Adrichem [256],
whereas Pokhodnya and Kostenko [257], and Eichhorn
and his colleagues [258-261] used X-ray cinemato-
graphy. Fig. 29 shows the arrangement used by Franz
(vii) (v i i i) (ix)
(vi)
(v) (iv)
(iii)
Fig. 29 Method of examining metal transfer in submerged arc welding
[238]
(i) workpiece (ii) bubble of molten flux (iii) ceramic tube (iv) gas inlet (v) polarisa-
tion filter (vi) camera objective (vii) flux (viii) electrode (ix) weld pool (x) slag
and by van Adrichem. Work prior to 1965 is reviewed by
Franz [238].
The character of drop formation and transfer depends
on the polarity of the electrode. When this is negative a
large drop of irregular shape forms at the electrode tip,
whereas with electrode positive the tip becomes conical
and small drops are formed and detached in a fairly
regular manner [238, 257]. Increasing current causes the
drop size to decrease and the drop rate to increase: Fig.
30 shows drop rate for electrode positive with 3, 4 and 5
mm-diameter electrodes [239]. When drops detach they
may travel in free flight to the weld pool or they may
80
60
I 20
E 0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800
welding current, A
Fig. 30 Mean drop rate as a function of welding current for sub-
merged arc welding [239]
Voltage 3O-33V, welding speed-0.33 mm/s, position polarity
(i) electrode diameter = 3 mm
(ii) electrode diameter = 4 mm
(iii) electrode diameter = 5 mm
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
project sideways to collide with the bubble of molten flux
surrounding the arc, and then transfer to the weld pool
through the flux [239, 256]. The bubble of molten flux
periodically bursts, reforms and expands [258, 259]. The
nature of the flux (which can be acid or basic) affects the
character of the drop transfer only slightly; similarly the
formation of carbon monoxide in liquid steel drops has
little effect [239]. Increasing arc voltage causes a modest
increase in drop mass and decrease in drop rate.
As will be seen below, metal transfer in submerged arc
welding is generally similar in character to that in gas-
shielded metal arc welding; however, the streaming mode
of transfer has not been observed, although Pokhodnya
and Kostenko consider that it is possible [257]. Electro-
magnetic forces, combined with the 'arc force' are con-
sidered to be dominant factors affecting metal transfer in
(x) submerged arc welding [239].
The possible effect of surface tension between metal
and slag has been considered by workers from the Paton
Welding Institute, Kiev [262, 263]. Surface tension was
measured by the drop weight method, giving a mean
value of 1.12 N/m for steel in air and 0.87-0.905 N/m for
steel in the type of slag used in electroslag welding. The
effect of adding chromium and vanadium to the steel was
also investigated, as it is known that the presence of these
elements may make the slag more difficult to detach after
submerged arc welding. It was found that the interphase
tension was reduced by such additions to between 0.6
and 0.7 N/m, and it was suggested that such a reduction,
by promoting wetting of the weld surface by the slag,
could have the observed effect on detachability [263].
5.2.3 Flux-cored arc welding: In this process the flux is
contained within a tubular steel sheath. The sheath may
be made from flat strip, and some of the typical cross-
sections are illustrated in Fig. 31 [264]. A limited number
area of metal
name of cross section diameter
wire of wire of wire,
mm (mm 2 ) ratio, %>
A o 1.6 1.45 72
B
o 2.0 1.92 61
C 2.0 1.90 60
NA
Fig. 31
o 2.0 1.95 62
Cross-sections and diameter of flux-cored wires tested by
Ushio et al. [264]
of investigations of metal transfer from such electrodes
have been made [264-267]. Ushio et al. [264] used the
types of wire shown in Fig. 31 with CO2 shielding. The
flux was of the rutile (titanium dioxide) type. With a
direct current of 230 A and electrode positive, the sheath
and flux melted together and transferred as single drops.
At a higher current (380 A) the sheath melted first such
900 that solid flux projected into the weld pool. Drops
formed on the side and were projected nonaxially. With
electrode negative the metal sheath always melted prefer-
entially so that flux and metal transferred separately to
the weld pool and metal drops projected nonaxially.
Typical burnoff (melting) rates for the 1.6 mm diameter
wire were 1.3 x 10 " 6 kg/As with electrode positive and
299
1.8 x 10 6 kg/As for electrode negative. The burnoff
rates for electrode negative were, for any given current,
always higher [264]. Melting rates for stainless steel flux-
cored wires increased as the electrical resistance of the
wire increased [265] and where iron powder was
included in the flux, a higher proportion of iron powder
reduced the burnoff rate [266]. Morigaki et al. found that
the diameter of transferred drops was reduced by increas-
ing the complexity of the metal section, by reducing the
wire diameter and by increasing the proportion of vola-
tile elements in the flux [267].
5.3 Gas -shielded processes
5.3.1 Transfer modes — electrode positive: Numerous
investigations of the character of metal transfer in inert
gas shielded welding have been made [268-284] and
Cooksey and Milner in particular covered a wide spec-
trum of metal/gas combinations [268]. The transfer
modes have been classified, as noted above, by the Inter-
national Institute of Welding [7]. This type of classi-
fication has been critically examined by Dilthey [269]
and by Ruckdesche [270] and has been discussed in rela-
tion to the possibility of fusion welding in space by Hoff-
meister and Rudiger [271, 272].
Needham [273] investigated the GMA process with a
1.6 mm diameter aluminium wire. The plot of drop rate
against wire feed speed (Fig. 32) shows a 'subthreshold'
500
200
100
50
20
10
2 -
1 -
0.5 -
0.2
20 30 50 100
electrode feed r a t e , mm/s
Fig. 3 2 Drop frequency for a 1.6 mm diameter aluminium wire in
argon [273]
(i) projected small droplet transfer
(ii) subthreshold large globular transfer
region where drops were relatively large, and detached
gravitationally, and a 'normal' region, where the drops
were projected from the electrode tip, with a discontin-
300
uity in the drop rate at the threshold. The burnoff rate is
higher below the threshold, and it has been suggested
that this could be due to a lower mean drop temperature
in the larger subthreshold drops, associated with convec-
tional heat transfer in the drop [274]. Needham's work
has been repeated with a solid-state power source
capable of maintaining a constant current output and it
has been found that there is no discontinuity in the drop
rate/current plot [275]. However, there is a discontinuity
in the wire feed speed/current curve, and plotting these
data as a function of wire feed speed gives a curve very
similar to Fig. 31.
Pintard [139, 276] examined the metal transfer mode
for the GMA process with a steel electrode of 1.2 mm
diameter and measured drop mass, anode root size,
initial velocity, initial acceleration of drops, and the
further acceleration of drops across the arc for the
current range 60-220 A. At all currents the drops pos-
sessed an initial velocity relative to the wire, and an
initial acceleration, prior to detachment. For currents of
140 A and below, the initial acceleration was below that
due to gravity but both velocity and acceleration
increased rapidly above this level (Fig. 33). At currents of
0.5 -
. 0.4
o
^ 0.3
0.2
0.1
0 50 100 150 200
welding current, A
Fig. 3 3 Initial velocity of drops relative to that of the electrode wire:
GMA welding with a 1.2 mm diameter steel wire [139]
190 A and above the arc root covered the whole drop
surface before detachment, and above this current the
electrode developed a conical tip [139]. Ando and Nishi-
guchi showed that under such conditions the solid-liquid
interface was also conical, and concluded that the conical
formation was caused by radial heat flow due to spread
of the arc root up the electrode [277].
At still higher currents there is a transition to stream-
ing transfer in which a tapering column of liquid projects
from the electrode tip, and eventually breaks up into a
spray of fine drops. The transition current increases with
electrode diameter and decreases as the length of elec-
trode projecting beyond the contact tube (the stickout)
increases. At still higher currents the liquid column col-
lapses into a rotating spiral [277].
For a steel electrode the drop rate increases sharply
with current. Lesnewich [278] found a sharp discontin-
uity in the drop rate at the transition between globular
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
and spray transfer, but Ludwig [279] obtained a contin-
uous curve. Fig. 34 shows drop rate and burnoff rate as
determined for a 1.2 mm diameter steel wire using a con-
100 140 180 220 260 300 340 380 420
arc current, A
Fig. 34 Influence of current and electrode extension on burnoff rate and metal transfer frequency using 1.2 mm mild steel in an argon/5% CO2 shield
[280]
A Q O burnoff rate • (i) region A: globular
A • • detachment frequency
A A electrode stickout, / = 20 mm
• • / = 10 mm
• O ' = 5 mm
stant current power source [280]. The drop rate against
current curves are continuous and the transfer modes are
not necessarily clearly defined. Needham et al. deter-
mined the terminal velocity of drops in the GM A welding
of various metals [281].
GMA welding is normally performed with a wire
having a diameter of 1.0 to 1.6 mm, but Watanabe et al.
[282] describe the transfer modes achieved with a 4 mm
wire shielded with argon-carbon dioxide mixtures. The
effect of arc voltage is shown in Fig. 35. At low voltages
(short arcs) the electrode stubs into the workpiece; as the
voltage (arc length) increases the transfer passes through
the short-circuiting and then into free flight modes. This
diagram suggests that the drop rate against current curve
will be displaced in the direction of higher current as the
arc voltage increases.
5.3.2 Transfer modes — electrode negative: The effect
of making a normal steel electrode cathodic is similar to
that observed in submerged arc welding; the drop at the
electrode tip becomes large and misshapen, and tends to
climb up the electrode. Welding under such conditions is
not practicable. However, if the wire has a relatively thin
coating of an alkali or alkaline-earth metal salt, the elec-
trode melting and metal transfer is similar to that with
the electrode positive [91, 278]. Thin coatings mainly
affect cathode processes, but larger amounts may modify
the behaviour of the arc column [283]. Increased pres-
sure has the effect of constricting the arc root area and at
0.5 MPa it is restricted to the tip of the electrode and
normal metal transfer is possible [284].
5.3.3 Drop temperature and the melting (burnoff)
rate: Drop temperature measurements in GMA welding
have been reviewed by Jelmorini et al. [285]. From mea-
surements of drop volume and drop mass, Pintard
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
obtained the specific gravity and hence, using standard
data, the mean temperature. For steel this was found to
increase from 1900 K at 60 A to 2830 K at 150 A [139].
460
(ii) region B:fineglobules/projected spray
(iii) drop spray
(iv) region C: stream spray
nominal arc length = 5 mm
Villeminot [286] measured the surface temperature of
steel drops in the current range 10-90 A and found steep
temperature gradients at the drop tip and adjacent to the
fusion boundary, with zero gradient in the central zone.
The cone that formed at 260 A, however, was close to the
boiling point at the tip, with a constant gradient down to
the fusion boundary. Measurements were made for both
electrode positive and electrode negative (Fig. 36), and as
will be seen, the drop temperature with electrode negative
is consistently lower than for electrode positive.
Jelmorini et al. [285] measured temperatures by
allowing drops to impinge directly on a thermocouple,
and for steel obtained a value of 2400°C which varied
little with current in the range 100-200 A. Most other
measurements have been made by calorimetry, [287-289]
and have yielded results, for carbon steel, in the range
2000-2700°C. Maruo and Hirata [289] estimate that the
drop temperature at 300 A is only 2000-2200°C; other-
wise, recent work would suggest that the results shown in
Fig. 36 are about right, possibly a little high.
Ando and Nishiguchi found that the mean tem-
perature of aluminium drops in GMA welding ranged
from 1800°C at 100 A (below the threshold) to 2200°C at
200 A (above the threshold) [290]. The variation of drop
temperature as a function of arc length has been mea-
sured for pure aluminium. With long arcs it was 1800°C,
at intermediate lengths 1200°C, and in the short-
circuiting mode, close to the melting point [291]. Like
steel, cupronickel drops formed at low current (30 A) had
a mean temperature just above the melting point, and
rose to 190O-230O°C at 300 A [292].
The burnoff rates due to arc heating for a number of
metals and arc atmospheres have been summarised by
Lancaster [7]. With electrode positive the variation in
different atmospheres is remarkably small [293, 294]. Of
the metals tested, copper appears to have the highest, and
aluminium the lowest, burnoff rate; steel is slightly higher
301
than aluminium. Tarasov [295] obtained similar results [299]. The amount of this contribution has been calcu-
at low currents (15-30 A), but found that the burnoff rate lated and compared with measured values [299-301].
decreased with increasing electrode diameter. Waszink and Van den Heuvel [208] found that the elec-
trical resistance of the stickout varies only slightly with
current, an increase in Joule heating being compensated
by an increase in melting rate.
The burnoff rate for electrical negative is higher than
35 for electrode positive except in the case of coated
(activated) steel. This could, in part, be accounted for by
the lower drop temperature [286], but it will be recalled
that measurements of the cathode heat on the surface of
a steel plate gave relatively low values [95].
o
a (vi)
5.3.4 Effect of shielding gas: Pure argon or helium is
1 25 used as a shielding gas for the GMA welding of non-
u ferrous metals, but in the case of carbon and alloy steel it
O
is necessary to add an oxidising gas to argon to restrict
20 movement of the cathode arc root (See Section 2.4.2). The
transfer mode is not greatly affected provided that the
proportion of oxidising gas is not too high [278].
However, additions of oxygen may reduce the current at
500 600 700 800 900 1000 which the transition to streaming transfer occurs [292].
welding current, A In high-current GMA welding, the CO 2 content of the
Fig. 3 5 Relationship between droplet transfer, welding current, and gas was found to have a more complex effect on tran-
arc voltage [282] sitions between the various transfer modes [282]. The
Shielding gas: Ar + 25% C O 2 ; welding speed = 600 mm/min; L = 20 mm effect of different gas mixtures on steel electrodes of
(i) globular and projected various diameters has been investigated, and changes in
(ii) projected and streaming
(iii) streaming the transfer mode were associated with changes in the
(iv) instant short circuiting shape of the luminous region of the arc [302].
(v) stubbing
(vi) short circuiting
CO 2 is a cheaper alternative to argon-oxygen or
(vii) globular argon-C0 2 mixtures as a shielding gas in GMA welding.
GMA welding with a 4 mm diameter steel wire However, the free flight transfer mode is unfavourable,
because the drop is repelled away from the workpiece,
3.Or
and directional control of transfer is lost [268, 303].
Repulsion of the drop has been variously ascribed to the
lack of plasma streaming in CO 2 [268, 303], to electro-
magnetic effects [269] and to the reaction force resulting
2.5
from fumes emitted by the drop [304]. Control of metal
transfer in CO 2 shielded GMA welding is normally
achieved by using a short arc and thereby obtaining
short circuit transfer [303] (see Section 5.3.6). However,
there may still be an undesirable amount of spatter, and
- 2.0
this may be reduced by pulsed arc welding, adjusting the
conditions to obtain one drop per pulse (Fig. 37) [305].
Spray transfer has been obtained with CO 2 shielding by
using activated wires [306].
Nitrogen has been used experimentally for gas shield-
1.5 ing for GMA welding with a copper wire (the solubility
of nitrogen in copper is very low). Cooksey and Milner
[268] found that the drop was repelled in nitrogen;
however, Young was able to obtain regular globular
transfer in the nitrogen-shielded welding of copper. No
1.0 transition to spray transfer was found up to 450 A and
100 200 300 welding was only possible in the flat position [307].
welding current, A Kiyohara et al. [291] identified a 'mesa-spray' transfer
Fig. 36 Drop temperature as measured pyrometrically for metal trans- mode at intermediate arc lengths in the GMA welding of
fer in argon-shielded GMA welding using a 1.2 mm diameter carbon steel aluminium. The transfer in this mode appears to be
electrode. After Villeminot [286] similar to the 'normal' mode as designated by Needham
electrode positive
electrode negative
[273]. Explosive transfer has been observed in GMA
welding with aluminium-magnesium wires in a 75% He
25% Ar shielding gas. The explosive effect was due to
The electrode stickout contributes to the total heating
effect due to its electrical resistance and the total burnoff selective vapourisation of magnesium [308].
rate b is given by [278, 296]. 5.3.5 Effect of pressure: The effect of above-
b = ccl + ft x (stickout) x / : atmospheric ambient pressure on the GMA process
(4) has received a limited amount of attention [203-205]
Values of a and fi have been obtained by various investi- and the subject was reviewed by Allum in 1983 [200].
gators [278, 284, 297, 298]. The contribution of resistance The effect of increased pressure in limiting the mobility of
heating to the burnoff rate is significant for steel wires cathode spots on the electrode and permitting directional
302 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
metal transfer has already been noted (Section 5.3.2).
Increasing pressure increases the current for the tran-
sition from projected to streaming transfer from about
10 15
peak current duration Tp , ms
Fig. 37 Reduction of spattering loss by the use ofCO2 pulsed welding
[305]
O /„ = 500 A
D lp = 450 A
• / = 250 A (CP)
CO 2 pulse welding; mild steel wire (1.2 mm diameter);
250 A at 0.1 MPa to over 300 A at 0.5 MPa. The burnoff
rate is little affected by pressure with electrode positive
but with electrode negative it is reduced quite sharply as
the ambient pressure increases (Fig 38) [284]. The drop
U 6
ambient gas pressure, MPa
Fig. 38 Burnoff rate of carbon steel wire in argon-shielded GM
welding as a function of ambient pressure
current = 350 A, wire stickout = 23 mm: streaming transfer
After Nishiguchi and Matsunawa [284]
• — • electrode negative
# — • electrode positive
rate as a function of pressure in the GMA welding of
aluminium was measured by Amson and Salter [309].
For a 1.6 mm diameter wire and a wire feed speed of 0.1
m/s with electrode positive, the drop rate increased from
about 80 drops/s at 13 kPa to nearly 500 drops/s at 0.2
MPa. In the same range the burnoff rate decreased from
2.7 x 10 ~6 kg/As to 2.0 x 10" 6 kg/As.
1EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
5.3.6 Short-circuiting transfer: Short-circuiting occurs
when the growing drop at the electrode tip contacts the
weld pool before it has grown to the size at which it
would normally detach; in other words, when the arc is
short and arc voltage low. Fig. 39 shows the short-circuit
150r
Jtl
100
20
50
10 20 30
open-circuit voltage, V
Fig. 39 Short-circuit transfer frequency curve for 1.19 mm diameter
wire showing typical oscillograms for different zones of voltage [303]
frequency as a function of arc voltage for CO 2 shielded
GMA welding [303].
On the left-hand side of the diagram stubbing occurs,
and on the right the transfer is almost entirely in the free
flight mode. With a constant potential type transformer-
rectifier power source, an inductance is connected in
series with the supply circuit to limit the rate of rise of
the short-circuit current and minimise spatter due to
explosive reignition of the arc. There is an optimum value
of the inductance (and, correspondingly of the time con-
stant of the circuit) for smooth welding operation [303].
The physics of short-circuiting transfer has been
studied by a few authors [310-312]. Bless [310] con-
siders that there is a critical drop size which varies with
the capillary constant. Drops larger than the critical size
are absorbed by the weld pool, whereas smaller drops
may form a stable meniscus. However, electromag-
netically induced streaming can make an otherwise stable
meniscus unstable. Zaruba [311], and Lebedev et al.
[312] have calculated the heat liberated during the short-
circuit/ period, and have compared the results with mea-
sured values. The limiting current for short-circuiting
transfer was calculated as a function of drop size and
surface tension [312]. Other authors have obtained for-
mulas to describe the dynamics of rupture of the liquid
metal bridge following a short-circuit [313]
5.3.7 Power source developments and pulsed GMA
welding: In normal GMA welding the wire feed speed is
set at a constant rate and advantage is taken of the self-
adjusting property of the arc, whereby as the arc length
decreases the burnoff rate increases and vice versa [314,
315]. Self-adjustment is improved by the use of'constant
potential' power sources which generate relatively large
303
changes of current for relatively small changes of arc
length and therefore arc voltage [280]. In manual
welding with coated electrodes or using the tungsten-arc
process, on the other hand, it is required that inadvertent
changes in arc length do not produce large current fluc-
tuations and thereby alter (for example) the degree of
penetration. It has been suggested that the same argu-
ment could apply to GMA welding, and that there would
be an advantage in operating at constant current [280].
A constant current supply is possible with the solid-state
power sources referred to earlier [58, 59] but the self-
adjusting property of the arc is lost and arc length must
be controlled by a feedback system which modulates the
wire feed speed [280]. Power sources incorporating such
systems have been termed (somewhat imprecisely) 'syn-
ergic', and have been used for constant current GMA
welding and pulsed arc welding [316].
Pulsed arc welding was developed to extend the use of
the GMA process to lower current ranges where the
metal transfer was normally globular, and process
control was inadequate [317]. However, in the earlier
version of the process, the current waveform was sinus-
oidal although variable frequency was possible [318].
Development of transistor-controlled power sources has
removed such limitations and made possible a variation
of pulse frequency, amplitude and waveform over a wide
range [280].
Transfer modes obtainable in pulsed current operation
are illustrated in Fig. 40. With high peak currents and
'b —•
Fig. 4 0 Schematic representation of pulsed metal transfer [289]
a Pulsed spray transfer
b One pulse-one droplet transfer
c Pulsed drop transfer
duration spray transfer develops during the peak period
and a number of drops transfer. Low peak currents and
short durations lead to transfer after several cycles.
304
Between these extremes one pulse-one transfer is possible
[289]. Transfer may also occur outside the peak and this
may be beneficial in welding aluminium [319, 320]. In
general, however, one transfer per pulse is preferred, and
results in minimum spatter [289]. One transfer per pulse
is obtained when l2p tp = constant, where Ip and tp are the
peak current and duration, respectively [280]. The
optimum shielding gas is Ar + 5% CO 2 . The burnoff
rate is proportional to the mean current, and is
2.8 x 10 ~6 kg/As for zero wire extension (stickout) with
various average current levels and pulse frequency. This
figure is the same as for continuous current operation
[289]. Allum and Quintino have examined the effect of
process variables on penetration [321] and have devel-
oped a simple model for the thermal balance [322].
Fusion characteristics have a practical significance
because the pulsed-current process, like short-circuiting
CO2 shielded welding, may be subject to lack of fusion
defects if the welding variables are not properly con-
trolled [321].
Waszink and Piena [323] examined the process of
necking and drop detachment in pulse arc welding and
found that, as with steady current, drops had an initial
velocity and acceleration, and were further accelerated in
crossing the arc. Prior to detachment, the area of the
neck diminished in proportion to time
Control of metal transfer in GMA welding may also
be achieved by applying a pulse motion to the wire feed
mechanism thereby shaking the drop off the electrode tip
at the required frequency [324].
5.3.8 Theory of metal transfer in GMA welding: Theo-
ries of metal transfer in GMA welding fall into two main
categories, those that rely on an equilibrium of the static
electromagnetic, gravitational and surface tension forces,
and those based on the theory of instability in cylindrical
fluids. These two categories will be reviewed in turn.
Green [325] assumed a spherical drop at the electrode
tip, with an 'active electrode area' carrying the arc
current at constant current density, and based on this
geometry, calculated the electromagnetic force acting on
the drop as a whole. The effect of this force is to increase
the apparent density of the liquid metal, and hence
reduce the size of the drop that can be supported by
surface tension forces. A graphical method was used to
construct drop profiles and hence obtain drop size as a
function of the material properties, and the point of mar-
ginal stability was found by matching the calculated
profile with the electrode radius. Voropai and Kolesni-
chenko [326] developed a similar method of calculating
drop profiles. Amson found that the drop shape as
observed, for example, in high-speed films could be rep-
resented by a few geometric forms, for each of which the
electromagnetic force could be calculated. These configu-
rations are static and cannot describe the development
and motion of the drop, so Cram [327] has used a 1-
dimensional model, taking account of surface tension and
gravitational forces only, in which the fluid has an axial
velocity. Profiles obtained by a numerical method show
the development of a bulbous drop with an elongated
neck.
Waszink and Graat [328] used the plasma-MIG
process [329], where it is possible to vary the current
carried by the wire electrode over a wide range, to
measure the gravitational and drag force (due to shield-
ing gas) on the drop, and by subtracting these from the
retention force due to surface tension, obtain the electro-
magnetic force. A plot of the figures so obtained is shown
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
in Fig. 41. Also shown are the results of calculations of
the electromagnetic force using the formula developed by
Greene [325] together with the result of Pintard [139]
100 150 200
current, A
Fig. 41 Forces acting on the drop at an electrode tip [328]
surface tension
— • — calculated electromagnetic force
V—V electromagnetic force
A—A drag force
• — D gravitational force
for anode spot size. The electromagnetic force is negative
at low values of the current because the anode spot diam-
eter is smaller than that of the wire. Agreement between
measurement and theory is good for currents up to 160
A, i.e. in the globular transfer range.
A second method of dealing with the problem of drop
detachment is to use the theory of instability in cylin-
drical systems, first developed by Rayleigh [330], later by
Chandrasekhar [331] and applied to the case of a current
carrying liquid cylinder by Murty [332, 333]. An oscil-
lating perturbation is applied to the cylindrical surface,
and the conditions under which the perturbation will
grow are expressed in a dispersion equation, from which
the critical wavelength for instability and the time con-
stant for the system may be obtained. A linear approx-
imation is used, such that the theory is strictly applicable
only to small perturbations. In the absence of an electri-
cal current, the only unstable mode is a radial pinch, but
with an axial electric current in a longitudinal magnetic
field, higher unstable modes are possible [333]. One such
mode is the kink instability, in which the cylinder col-
lapses into a spiral, and the existence of this mode was
demonstrated by Dattner using a falling column of
mercury [334]. Allum has extended Murty's analysis to
the case of a viscous cylinder carrying a surface charge of
electricity. For liquid metals it is found that viscosity has
a very small effect and may be ignored [335].
One way in which this theory may be applied to the
case of metal transfer is to assume that the drop at the
electrode tip will grow until its length is approximately
equal to the minimum wavelength for instability in a
cylinder of equivalent radius [336, 337]. From this
assumption it is possible to calculate the drop size and
drop transfer rate [337], and to obtain an order-of-
magnitude estimate of the initial velocity and acceler-
ation of drops [336]. Cech has explored the possibility of
applying Murty's results to GMA welding in a similar
manner [338].
1EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
It has been suggested that rotating transfer, which is
observed in high-current GMA and plasma-MIG
welding is due to a kink instability [336]. Basler [339]
found that in the presence of a longitudinal magnetic
field the transition to rotating transfer was shifted to a
lower current level, as would be expected from Murty's
analysis. However, rotating transfer has also been attrib-
uted to softening of the electrode wire combined with
axial pressure from the arc [278, 340].
Needham et al. [281] proposed that high-velocity
plasma jets acted on the drop to detach it and propel it
across the arc. Amson and Salter considered that about
half the detaching force was due to aerodynamic drag
and half to electromagnetic forces [309]. Paton and
Sheiko analyse drop transfer as an equilibrium between
surface tension and electromagnetic force [341].
Another factor that could affect metal transfer is pres-
sure in the arc column. Mechev and Sychev [342] have
made calculations for CO 2 shielded GMA welding that
indicate a fall in arc pressure as the molten drop grows,
and the authors suggest that such a change would facili-
tate transfer.
250
6 The weld pool
6.1 General
The form and behaviour of the molten weld pool in arc
welding is influenced by surface tension, which may
determine the profile of the reinforcement bead [343],
and of the penetration or root bead [344]. If there is a
gradient of surface tension on the weld pool surface this
may generate flow [345, 346]. Flow may also be gener-
ated mechanically due to the presence of a cavity or
depression in the weld pool surface [160]. Alternatively
flow may result from the electromagnetic force associated
with divergent current flow lines [144] or from the drag
of the electromagnetically induced jet in the arc column
[169]. As a rule, the form of the pool and the character of
the flow depend on the welding process used, and this
Section is subdivided accordingly.
6.2 Flux -shielded processes
6.2.1 Coated electrodes: The presence of a depression
in the weld pool surface below the arc in welding steel
with coated electrodes has been known for many years,
and was the subject of a number of papers by Doan and
his colleagues [159, 347]. The depression or crater was
considered then (as it is today) to be due to the stagna-
tion pressure of gases generated at the electrode tip.
Doan also suggested that a reduction of surface tension
at the centre of the weld pool contributed to this effect
[159, 347]. Berent and Minkoff [160] showed that in the
case of a rutile coated electrode with a welding current of
160 A, and a basic-coated rod at 188 A, the crater was
nearly the same depth as the final weld penetration. They
postulated the flow pattern shown in Fig. 42.
Razmyshlyaev [348] has calculated the flow rate of
liquid metal at the leading edge of a weld pool containing
a crater, taking account of electromagnetic forces,
gravity, arc pressure and viscosity. The maximum veloc-
ity so obtained is two orders of magnitude higher than
the welding speed. The thickness of the film of liquid
metal below the crater depends on the welding variables.
6.2.2 Submerged arc welding: The flow pattern in sub-
merged arc welding pools has been investigated by
Eichorn and Engel [349] and Mori and Horii [350]. Fig.
305
43 illustrates the results. A crater is formed at the forward
edge of the pool and liquid flows backward along the
fusion boundary and then forward across the surface.
liquid
Fig. 42 Melting process
a Without crater. The extent of the liquid/solid boundary is determined in the yy
direction by transfer of heat through the liquid bath. Any increase of penetration
in the yy direction requires excess heat expenditure on the pool
b With crater. Travel of the arc implies continuous melting off of a strip xx and
transfer to x'x'. An increment in depth may be obtained without heating an excess
depth of liquid [160]
original
plate
surface
Fig. 4 3 Typical flow pattern in submerged arc welding pool [349]
For clarity the electrode has been omitted from this diagram
Submerged arc welding is an automatic process usually
operated at high current, and the weld pool is relatively
large and elongated.
The submerged arc process is also used for overlay
welding with a strip electrode, thereby depositing a rela-
tively wide weld bead on the surface of the backing
material. Nishiguchi and collaborators calculated the
form of the meniscus of a 2-dimensional weld pool of this
type [351], and have also made a numerical analysis of
the 3-dimensional problem [352].
This work is summarised by Matsunawa [343]. The
2-dimensional analysis results in an expression for the
surface profile in terms of elliptic integrals, and indicates
that there is a maximum height for the liquid weld bead,
depending on the contact angle between deposit and
plate surface. The contact angle, in turn, depends on the
relationship between the bead width and the volume of
metal it contains. Fig. 44 shows the relationship between
bead width and height. The profile of horizontal-vertical
welds has been calculated in terms of the capillary con-
stant for various values of the weld width and cross-
sectional area [353].
Nishiguchi et al. have calculated the profile of fillet
welds using a 2-dimensional approximation and have
determined the relationship between leg length and
volume for the optimum weld bead shape [352].
306
6.3 Gas -shielded processes
6.3.1 Electromagnetic effects: Under conditions where
the depression in the weld pool surface is not sufficiently
deep to determine the pattern of flow, as, for example, in
GTA welding at low and moderate currents, electromag-
netic forces may have a significant effect. This effect may
be direct causing either a toroidal or a spinning type of
flow [354-357, 359] or it may be indirect, as when the
drag force of a plasma jet impinging obliquely on the
metal surface is dominant [169, 360, 361]. Such drag
forces are characteristic of high-current, high-speed auto-
matic GTA welding and may cause severe distortion of
the weld bead profile [169, 361].
Kublanov and Erokhin [354] simulated electromag-
netically induced toroidal flow by passing an electric
current from an electrode into a basin containing liquid
gallium. The flow pattern and velocity were determined.
It was observed by these authors and also by Lawson
and Kerr [357] that the liquid surface was depressed
around the current source; this effect has also been pre-
dicted theoretically [7, 145, 362]. Other authors have
used mercury to simulate the weld pool. In earlier work a
clearly defined toroidal flow pattern was not obtained;
instead eddies were observed near the electrode [355] or
the pool developed a spin [355]. BojareviSs and Scherb-
inin [356] report tests in which an insulated water cooled
electrode was used to introduce electric current to the
surface of a hemispherical bowl of mercury. In the first
set of experiments, the electrode pointed downwards, and
at low currents a toroidal flow directed inwards across
the surface was obtained. At currents above about 15 A,
however, this flow was accompanied by a rotation, as
observed by Woods and Milner [355]. Tests were also
made with the electrode passing upwards through the
bath of mercury but again discharging the current at the
surface. In this case a stable toroidal flow was set up
directed outwards across the surface, and when a rota-
tional flow was mechanically induced, it soon died out
[356]. Lawson and Kerr used tracer metals to show the
flow pattern in aluminium and steel GTA weld pools
[357], and determined the fusion boundary as an indica-
tion of flow in moderate to high speed GTA welding
[358]. The results of the second set of tests were inter-
preted as showing the effects of drag from the plasma jet.
The flow pattern was similar to that determined by Brad-
street.
At currents over 200 A, a depression forms in the weld
pool surface; hot metal from the leading edge of the pool
flows around the depression to the rear of the weld pool,
forming two parallel longitudinal channels. In a number
of cases the pool was deeper at the rear than at the front
and this was interpreted as being due to trapping of the
superheated metal at the rear of the pool due to the pres-
sure of the crater [358].
Flow from a point source of current in a hemispherical
container was considered theoretically by Sozou and
Pickering for the case of a dense, viscous fluid. As with
earlier investigations of such flows in a semi-infinite
medium, singularities appeared in the solution at low
values of the current [363]. Ignoring inertia effects, and
assuming a uniform current source of finite dimensions
and a container of hemispheroidal form, a positive result
is obtained [362]. With an electrode of relatively large
diameter and a relatively shallow container, it is found
that eddies form at the edge of the electrode (Fig. 45). The
presence of eddies near the edge of a shallow, developing
GTA weld pool may be inferred from work done by Ishi-
1EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
zaki and his colleagues [7, 364, 365]. Andrews and
Craine used a system of notional current sources and
sinks to simulate a distributed flow of current over the
flat surface of a hemisphere and found that, depending on
the disposition of these sources and sinks, double flows
and reversals of direction of the flow could be obtained
[366]. Other authors [367-369] have also set up mathe-
matical models for the electromagnetically induced flow
in simulated weld pools due to distributed current
sources [367-369]. In Reference 369, the work of Sozou
and Pickering on flows associated with a finite sized elec-
trode is extended to take account of inertia forces. As in
the case of a point source [363], the solution breaks
down above a relatively low current level. Also the eddies
that were found in the linear solution [362] did not
appear in this result.
1.0
6 = 90°
0.5
6=45°
0 2 U 6 8 surface tension streaming was inhibited in air due to the
bead width WB/{/2cr/pg
Fig. 44 Relation between width and height of liquid having constant
contact angle on flat plate [351]
Fig. 45 Streamlines for flow due to a uniformly distributed current
source at the surface of a hemispheroidal liquid pool, showing eddies at the
edge of the electrode [362]
The solid line represents part of the electrode; the dotted line is the free surface
Depth to width ratio of pool: a 0.22, b 0.24
Ratio of electrode diameter to pool diameter: a 0.89, b 0.876
Bojarevics and Scherbinin made a substantial contri-
bution by calculating the effect of a small azimuthal force
on an inwardly directed toroidal flow in a semi-infinite
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
conducting fluid (flow of this type is also called poloidal
and meridional). It is demonstrated that in the absence of
an azimuthal force, the axial velocity tends to infinity at a
critical value of the current, but in the presence of such
a force (which could be due to the presence of a
longitudinal magnetic field), both axial and azimuthal
velocities increase to a maximum just above the critical
current and then fall as the current is further increased.
The conversion of a meridional to a spinning type of flow
is analogous to the formation of a vortex in water drain-
ing from a sink or in a tornado. The calculations confirm
that outwardly directed flows are stable [356].
6.3.2 Surface tension effects: Ishizaki has studied the
effect of surface tension on the form of the solidified weld
bead, on circulation in the molten weld pool, and on the
mechanism of penetration, and has published many
papers on this subject. A selection of the more accessible
documents is referenced [364, 365, 370-372]. Ishizaki
proposed that circulation in the weld pool could be gen-
erated by a gradient of surface tension across the surface,
which in turn resulted from a temperature gradient. The
possibility of such flow was demonstrated by making a
simulated weld pool in paraffin wax, using a soldering
iron as a heat source [364].
Andersson confirmed the streaming effect with paraffin
wax; however, on repeating the experiment with water
and mercury no such streaming occurred, except with
mercury under high vacuum. It was concluded that
presence of surface-active agents [373], and that for the
same reason surface tension induced flow in weld pools
was unlikely.
Interest in this subject has been renewed in recent
years in connection with the problem of variable pen-
etration when making automatic GTA welds on austen-
itic chromium-nickel steel sheet from different casts.
Several proposals have been made regarding the cause of
such variations. One is that due to the presence of insu-
lating impurities such as aluminium or titanium oxide,
the anode current density may be reduced and the heat
input spread over a wider area [218, 219, 374, 375], or
the heat flux distribution could be modified by the vapo-
ration of volatile elements [98, 218, 376-378]. Most of
the recent investigations, however, have been concerned
with the effect of surface tension gradients on weld pool
circulation. This type of phenomenon was first investi-
gated by Marangoni and the associated flow is com-
monly termed 'Marangoni flow' [379].
Investigators of the problem of cast-to-cast variation
have frequently used the ratio of depth of the weld to its
width as a measure of weldability; casts giving low
depth-to-width (D/W) ratios being inferior. The presence
of more than 200 parts in 106 of aluminium tends to
reduce the D/W ratio [380] whereas higher sulphur con-
tents have the opposite effect [379]. Heiple and Roper
made GTA weld runs on stainless steel that had been
doped on the one hand with aluminium, and on the other
with sulphur, and examined motion in the weld pool as
evidenced by the behaviour of aluminium oxide particles
scattered on the surface. With aluminium doping, the
particles clustered around the outside edge of the weld
pool, indicating outward flow across the weld surfaces,
whereas the sulphur-doped welds showed an accumula-
tion of particles in the centre of the pool, indicating
inward flow [379]. This behaviour was associated with
the fact that when contaminated with surface-active
agents, iron has a positive gradient of surface tension
307
with temperature, whereas in the pure metal this gradient
is negative. Aluminium acts as a scavenger, combining
with surface-active agents and nullifying their effect
[388].
Subsequent work has confirmed and amplified these
results. Heiple et al. have shown that other surface-active
agents, including oxygen have an effect similar to that of
sulphur [381]. Keene et al. confirmed the reversal of
surface tension gradient by direct measurement [382], as
did Rogers [383]. Other investigators recommend
specifying that the sulphur content of type 304 L stainless
steel used for GTA welded tube be 100 to 200 parts in
106 [384]. Robinson et al. carried out tests with laser and
electron beam weld runs, and found that the variability of
penetration was the same as for GTA welding. The
authors conclude that material characteristics determine
the weld pool behaviour rather than arc effects [385].
Fig. 46 shows a comparison of the surface tension/
2.Or
sample A
(poor weldability)
19
sample B
(after prolonged
heating in H 2 )
1.7
sample B
(good weldability)
1.6
1500 1600 1700 1800
MOO
temperature, x10 °C
Fig. 46 Variation of surface tension with temperature for two samples
of type 316 stainless steel which exhibit poor and good weldability
sample with poor weldability
sample with good weldability
sample with good weldability after preheating liquid metal in an atmo-
sphere of H 2 to remove surface-active agents
temperature plots of two stainless steels having good and
bad weldability, respectively [386]. This problem is
encountered mainly in the welding of austenitic stainless
steels, which are usually produced with low sulphur con-
tents, but it has also affected low sulphur ferritic steel.*
A model for surface tension streaming in a semicylin-
drical basin, giving velocity distribution, temperature and
streamlines has been developed [387] and Craine [388]
has obtained a solution for the case of a moving weld
pool boundary.
Uda et al. determined the amount of nitrogen
absorbed under arc-melting conditions and compared the
results with the solubility of the same gas in levitation
ALLUM, C.J.: Private communication, 1986
308
melting. The arc-melted absorption is proportional to the
square root of pressure up to a saturation value of 0.06%
by mass, and is 20 times higher than the equilibrium
solubility. It was concluded that at the arc anode the
nitrogen is in an excited state, although the nature of the
excitation was not determined [389]. The absorption of
nitrogen in iron and steel welds is also increased by the
presence of surface active agents [390, 391]. This has
been ascribed to the effect of the adsorbed layer in hin-
dering the desorption of gas; Ishizaki, however, has sug-
gested that it could be due to surface tension streaming
carrying the nitrogen-rich solution formed at the arc root
down into the lower parts of the weld pool [392].
Ohji and Nishiguchi [393] have explored the possi-
bility of modelling weld pool profiles in the case of GTA
welding of thin plate, and have obtained results that are
qualitatively similar to those observed in practice. The
conditions for instability of a weld pool made in the flat
position (burn through) were also determined [393].
Bead profiles have been calculated for fillet welds [351],
as noted earlier in Section 6.2.2.
The flow velocity in a simulated weld pool was mea-
sured by Kublanov and Erokhin [354] and by Woods
and Milner [355]. Mori and Horii [350] and Eichhorn
and Engel [349] obtained values for flow velocity in real
(submerged arc) weld pools. The results have been tabu-
lated [7] and they range from 0.02 to 0.40 m/s. In cases
where a crater is formed, a relationship between welding
speed and flow velocity would be expected, and indeed
this appears to be the case [349]. Calculations of the elec-
tromagnetically induced flow in a hemisphere using a
point source model give values an order of magnitude
higher than measurement [7], but numerical computa-
tions based on a distributed source of electric current
give reasonable results [366].
Electromagnetic stirring, achieved by applying a longi-
tudinal magnetic field to the weld pool, has been used by
a number of investigators, mainly to improve metallurgi-
cal properties. This work has been surveyed up to 1979
by Willgoss [394] who found that the variability of
depth-to-width ratio in austenitic stainless steel welds
could be reduced by such means.
As indicated earlier, the pattern of flow, particularly in
GTA welding, can significantly affect the fusion boundary
profile [357, 358, 364, 371]. Essers and Walter [395] have
studied the effect of the impingement of drops transferred
across the arc on this profile. By applying an oscillating
magnetic field to the arc in plasma- MIG welding, it was
possible to swing the axis along which drops were pro-
jected from side to side. Two finger-like extensions of the
penetration were then observed (Fig. 47). It was con-
cluded from this and other observations that in high-
Fig. 4 7 Cross-section of weld bead on plate obtained with electromag-
netic control of impact point of droplets on molten pool [395]
current GMA welding superheated drops penetrate to
the bottom of the weld pool and transfer heat locally to
the plate material, giving rise to the central finger-like
penetration that is characteristic of these conditions.
6.3.3 Weld pool temperature: The temperature of the
molten pool has been measured using thermocouples
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pi. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
[396, 397] and its surface temperature distribution has
been obtained by infra-red pyrometry [398]. Howden
[399] and Erokhin [400] also used the evaporation rate
to assess the surface temperature of arc-melted metals.
Another indirect method is to measure the amount of
hydrogen absorbed by the molten pool [401]. The
average temperature may be obtained by ejecting the
liquid metal into a calorimeter [290].
The results of such measurements have been tabulated
[7]. For steel, surface temperatures in the range 1750 to
2200°C have been measured; Uda also found that the
temperature at the gas tungsten arc root in arc melting
iron was 2200°C [389]. Erokhin [400] determined that in
arc melting iron, nickel and stainless steel, the mean
surface temperature was about equal to the volumetric
mean.
A theoretical average weld pool temperature may be
calculated assuming a point heat source and zero convec-
tion. This is shown as a function of the operating param-
eter n (which will be discussed in Section 7.1.1) in Fig. 48.
2 0
o"
1-9
18
3 1.7
1.6
en
S 1.5
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
operating parameter, n
Fig. 4 8 Average temperature Tm of the molten pool based on thermal
conduction theory [436]
7} = melting point
As would be expected, the average temperatures measured
for steel welds by Ando and Nishiguchi [290] lie below
this curve; those for aluminium, however, lie above.
Slavin [402] found a peak temperature of 1700°C in
the GTA welding of austenitic chromium-nickel steel
sheet. Increased welding speed resulted in lower tem-
perature gradients in the weld pool and higher gradients
at the fusion line.
6.3.4 Welding with a keyhole: With the plasma arc,
laser and electron beam processes, it is possible to form a
'keyhole' that passes completely through the molten
region, and thereby to make a butt weld in a single pass.
The associated weld pool is annular in form, and its
movement has been studied by inserts, for example of
copper in steel. The flow is mainly circular, from front to
rear of the weld pool, but there is also some flow down
the front wall and up the rear wall [403].
The conditions under which a stable keyhole can be
maintained have been studied for the plasma welding of
relatively thin material [404-406]. The balance of forces
within a keyhole has been examined by Andrews and
Atthey [407] and by Quigley [161]. Surface tension and
gravitational forces tend to close the keyhole, which is
kept open due to recoil and vapour pressure resulting
from evaporation of the metal. Vapourisation is essential
for maintenance of a keyhole in thick material using the
laser or electron beam processes, and there is a minimum
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
power density of about 1010 W/m2 below which vapor-
isation does not occur. This mechanism does not apply to
the plasma arc welding of thin material [407, 408].
Oparin et al. found that in laser welding the absorption
coefficient of the metal was an important factor in deter-
mining the required welding conditions. Absorption coef-
ficients were measured and nomograms for calculating
the welding variables were obtained [408].
Dowden et al. have calculated streamlines and tem-
perature distributions for liquid metal surrounding the
keyholes in laser welding [409]. In their model the hole is
assumed to be circular, while flow in the liquid is irro-
tational. The results are shown in terms of non-
dimensional temperature and distance in Fig. 49. Lankin
y 0
-2 -
Fig. 49 Streamlines and temperature distribution for laser welding
with a keyhole, according to the model of Dowden et al. [409]
temperature distribution
streamlines
[410] has also developed a model for flow around the
cavity in deep penetration electron beam welding.
The shape of the keyhole in the electron beam welding
of carbon steel has been studied by high-speed X-ray
photography. There is a neck 2 mm under the surface,
and below this the cavity bulges before coming to a point
at the tip. In a typical case the bulge fluctuates period-
ically from about 1 to 4 mm in width [411].
Details of the energy interchange within the keyhole
have been considered [412] and the power requirements
for particular welding conditions have been calculated
[413]. A model of the transfer of power and matter
across the interface between the liquid and gaseous
phases in laser welding has been set up and used to calcu-
late the keyhole shape and the distribution of various
quantities as a function of depth. It is assumed that the
laser beam is totally reflected at the interface and that
heat transfer in the gaseous phase is by conduction [414].
In electron beam welding there is no such reflection
and it has been assumed that the front wall acquires a
shape such that each element of the surface absorbs
power from the electron beam so as to melt it at the same
rate. However, the front wall may be subject to pertur-
bations due to nonuniform flow of liquid metal [415].
An expression relating penetration depth, process vari-
ables and thermophysical properties of the metal has
been obtained. The depth of penetration depends mainly
on thermal conductivity and melting temperature if all
other variables are constant [416].
309
7 Heat flow in welding and welding process
modelling
7.1 Heat flow
A primary source of information on the mathematical
theory of heat flow in welding is to be found in the text-
book by Rykalin [417]. Rykalin also reviewed work
(mainly Russian) on heat flow up to 1968 [418] and pro-
duced an overview of the subject in 1970 [419].
Rosenthal was the first to explore analytical solutions
of the heat conduction equation for moving heat sources,
and to apply these equations to arc welding [420, 421].
The theory of moving heat sources is also covered by
Carslaw and Jaeger [422]. Myers et al. discuss the effect
of simplifying assumptions, such as constant thermal
properties, on the accuracy of the temperature distribu-
tions calculated using the Rosenthal equations [423].
7.1.1 Development of analytical expressions for heat
flow: Subsequent authors have developed this work pri-
marily in connection with the arc welding of steel, where
knowledge of cooling rates is important in relation to the
hardening and possible embrittlement of the weld metal
and adjacent regions [424, 425]. Adams studied cooling
rates and the effect of plate thickness [426, 427], whereas
Nippes developed a semi-empirical expression of the tem-
perature distribution in a plate of finite thickness [428,
429]. Jackson [430-432] has made many determinations
of the effect of welding variables on cooling rates, and has
related cooling rate to the cross-sectional area of the
fused zone (the nugget area) as shown in Fig. 50. Other
io 3 F
10
"F/s =
10
-2 -1
10 10
nugget area na, ir/
Fig. 5 0 Effect of nugget area on cooling rate at 538°C with 93-749°C
preheat [432]
T o SMAW
OSAW
A D GMAW
• GMAW (149°C preheat)
workers have made contributions along similar lines
[433, 434].
Wells [435] developed a useful relation between heat
input rate and weld width for 3- and 2-dimensional con-
310
ditions. These expressions have the advantage of simpli-
city but do not allow the calculation of weld thermal
cycles or cooling rates. The Rosenthal equations,
however, do yield such information and Christensen et al.
[436] carried out a major investigation to determine how
far the point source 3-dimensional model gave realistic
values for weld pool dimensions and thermal cycles. The
Rosenthal equations were expressed in nondimensional
terms, and the various quantities were plotted as a func-
tion of the operational parameter n:
qv
n = 4na2C p(T -T ) (5)
v e 0
where q is heat input rate, v is welding speed, a is the
thermal diffusivity, Cv is the specific heat capacity, p is
the density, Te is a chosen reference temperature (e.g. the
melting point of the metal) and To is the ambient tem-
perature.
It was found that the point source equation predicted
the fused cross-sectional area quite well over a wide
range of n, but that for other quantities it was less satis-
factory; in particular real weld pools are wider and
longer and cooling rates lower than would be predicted,
particularly at low values of n. These deviations were
considered to be due to the finite size of the heat source
and to convection in the weld pools [436].
An expression which allowed the calculation of
cooling rates for partial penetration welds, or weld runs,
on plates of finite thickness was obtained by Rosenthal
[421]. Nippes et al. found that at a point adjacent to the
weld, the cooling rate was proportional to the tem-
perature and was dependent on the heat input per unit
length of weld (q/v) but independent of travel speed
within a range 1-5 mm/s [429]. Adams developed equa-
tions for the cooling time between two temperatures for
3- and 2-dimensional heat flow [426, 427] and proposed
a graphical method of interpolation for an intermediate
condition [427]. In the case of 3-dimensional heat flow
such cooling times were also proportional to q/v. Tanaka
[437] obtained the temperature distribution due to a
moving point source on a plate offinitethickness taking
account of surface heat loss, and this work has been
reported in an English-language document by Kohira
[438]. The Tanaka equation may also be used to obtain
cooling times. Kas and Van Adrichem have also investi-
gated cooling times and have obtained a chart for the
cooling time between 800°C and 500°C (used by metal-
lurgists to assess the degree of hardening in the heat
affected zone) as a function of heat input rate and plate
thickness [439].
The relationship between heat input rate (q/v) and
cooling rate was investigated by Bennett, who found that
a weld made using the submerged arc process gave the
same cooling rate at the weld boundary as one made
with coated electrodes provided that the value of q/v was
the same [440]. Koslov et al. studied the effect of preheat
on cooling rate, and found that it had a significant effect
only below temperatures about equal to twice the preheat
temperature. For a substantial change at higher temper-
tures the unit heat input for preheating should be about
equal to that of welding [441].
7.7.2 Heat sources: In modelling the arc welding
process it is necessary to establish the form of the heat
source and the power distribution across its surface.
Some relevant measurements of power distribution have
already been noted [81, 229, 230]. Rykalin has also inves-
tigated the interaction between a plasma torch and a flat
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
solid [442] and has calculated the heat distribution in the
solid [443]. Generally, power distributions are Gaussian
in form [442] and in welding with coated electrodes
[347], submerged arc welding [349], high-current GMA
and high-current GTA welding [290], a crater forms
below the arc. Information on welding heat sources was
reviewed by Rykalin in 1974 [444].
Taking such facts into account, various geometric
forms and power distributions have been assumed for
heat source models to compute realistic temperature dis-
tributions. Pavelic and his collaborators [445] proposed
a disc source having radial symmetry and with a Gauss-
ian distribution of flux to represent GTA welding. Fried-
man [446] and Krutz and Segerlind [447] developed this
model by using an elongated source with a correspond-
ingly elongated power distribution. Surface heat sources
of this type represent a low-current gas tungsten arc quite
well, but for conditions under which a crater forms under
the arc a hemispherical or ellipsoidal representation of
the source is required. Westby [448] and Paley and
Hibbert [449] used such a model with constant power
density throughout its volume. Goldak et al. [450] con-
sidered the constant power density to be unrealistic and
proposed the use of an ellipsoid with a Gaussian distribu-
tion of heat flux centred at the origin. To simulate actual
weld pools more accurately a double ellipsoid is used in
which the front half is the quadrant of one ellipsoid and,
the rear half is the quadrant of another (more elongated)
ellipsoid (Fig. 51).
7.1.3 Computation of temperature distributions:
Numerical techniques using thefinite-differenceor finite-
flux q, J/ms,
Fig. 51 Double ellipsoid heat source configuration together with the
power distribution function along the £, axis [456]
element methods have been used to calculate the tem-
perature distributions in an electrode [74], in arcs [98,
133] and in the workpiece [409, 445^51].
Most authors have been concerned with the 3-
dimensional bead-on-plate problem. In a typical finite
element analysis, the temperature distribution in a refer-
ence plane at right angles to the line of travel of the heat
source is calculated, so that the problem becomes two
dimensional. Agreement with experimental results is
nevertheless good, and better than is obtainable with
point source models [451]. One advantage of numerical
analysis is the ability to take account of variations of
thermal properties with temperature. It has also been
shown that the heat of fusion and of transformation has a
significant effect on the result. A truly 3-dimensional
model is practicable but costly in computer time [451].
Transient effects have been studied; for example, the
1EE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987
change in cross-section of a weld run in an aluminium
plate, close to the start and finish [452], and temperature
profiles in the multipass welding of thick plate [453].
Computational techniques have been applied to deep
penetration welds. Goldak et al. [454] used the double
ellipsoid model to calculate cooling times for electron
beam welds, and obtained good agreement with experi-
ment. Using the Rosenthal line source equation for calcu-
lating fused zone and heat-affected zone widths for such
welds showed some deviation from measured values
[454].
Kerr and his colleagues used a line source to simulate
full penetration GTA welds in thin plate, taking into
account latent heat and cooling from the plate surface;
also using different values for thermal conductivity in the
weld pool and the plate. All computed outlines of the
weld pool were less elongated than real weld pools, and
this was considered to be due to the effect of convection
[455].
Passoja developed an equation for the temperature
distribution due to heat diffusion from a line source that
is analogous to the equation for unidirectional mass dif-
fusion, and obtained reasonable agreement with experi-
ment [456]. The temperature distribution in the liquid
around a keyhole (in this case simulating a laser weld)
has been calculated assuming steady irrotational flow,
and the results (Fig. 52) indicate a steep temperature gra-
dient at the rear of the weld pool [409].
i.o—i
Fig. 52 Temperature distribution in the molten region of a laser
keyhole weld, according to the model ofDowden et al. [409]
Linear dimensions are multiples of the keyhole radius
7.2 Welding process modelling
Process modelling has the objective of predicting tem-
peratures, stresses and strains and hence the mechanical
and metallurgical effects of welding; specifically, distor-
tion, residual stress, metallurgical transformations and
defects such as hot cracking and hydrogen cracking
[452]. Masubuchi has considered the mechanical aspects
[457] and Ueda and Murakawa [458] have reviewed
computational methods as applied to welding.
Acquisition of a database for use in weld process mod-
elling is considered by Key and his colleagues, who
studied automatic GTA welding of austenitic chromium-
nickel steel plate [459]. The same authors have described
the further development of this model [460]. Glickstein
[461, 462] and Shaw [463, 464] have also made basic
studies of the GTA process with the object of producing
computer models. The principles of closed-loop control
techniques for arc welding have been reviewed in relation
to power sources [465] and for the automatic welding of
pipe [466]. A theory for optimising control systems for
arc welding has been developed [467].
Clark describes the use of modelling techniques for the
control of the manual welding of low alloy steel with
311
coated electrodes. In the first stage [468] data relating
the dimensions of the fused and heat-affected zones for
single weld runs on plate were obtained. These were cor-
related using an expression originally obtained by Myers,
et al. [423] and adapted by Bennett [440]. The data were
then incorporated in a program designed to predict the
effect of process variables on the metallurgical quality of
2-layer welds [469] and finally means of applying the
required technique on the shop floor were developed
[470]. The use of computers for the control of welding
operations in production is the subject of a recent con-
ference [471].
Goldak et al. [452] discuss the extension of computer
modelling to the calculation of stress, strain and dis-
placment, and state: 'The costs (of computation) which
now are often less than the costs of experiment, will fall
by more than a factor of 100 in the next seven years and
in large problems by a much larger factor. Thus, we con-
clude that computational weld mechanics will become
the driving force advancing welding technology'.
8 Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express his appreciation of the help
of M. R. Bryant, J. Loader and the staff of the Library at
the Welding Institute, Cambridge, and to thank Emeritus
Professor A.E. Guile and Professor Ushio of Osaka Uni-
versity for their assistance and advice.
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296 WILSON, J.L., CLAUSSEN, G.E., and JACKSON, C.E.: The
effect of I2R heating on electrode melting rate', Weld. J. 1956, 35,
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297 VAN DEN HEUVEL, G.J.P.M., JELMORINI, G., and TICHEL-
AAR, G.W.: 'Messung der Tropfen-temperatur im Schweisslicht-
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298 WAZINK, J.H., and VAN DEN HEUVEL, G.J.P.M.: 'Heat gener-
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299 WASZINK, J.H., and VAN DEN HEUVEL, G.J.P.M.: 'Measure-
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300 VILLEMINOT, P.: Temperature distribution in the stickout in
MIG welding of weld steel'. International Institute of Welding
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301 HALM0Y, E.: 'Wire melting rate, droplet temperature, and effec-
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302 WANG, C.L., YEN, S.Y., ZHANG, J.H., and CUI, J.H.: 'Effects of
the arc luminous region shape on metal transfer mode in MIG
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303 SMITH, A.A.: 'Characteristics of the short-circuiting CO2-shielded
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London, 1966)
304 HILTUNEN, V, and PIETIKAINEN, Dh.: 'Investigations and
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305 MATSUDA, F., USHIO, M., ITONAGA, K., and YOKOO, T.:
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306 IBATULLIN, B.L., and MUKHIN, V.F.: 'Conditions of the spray
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33,(7), pp. 21-23
307 YOUNG, J.G.: 'Argon-nitrogen mixtures for the self-adjusting arc
welding of copper', Br. Weld. J., 1961, 8, pp. 349-353
308 WOODS, R.A.: 'Metal transfer in MIG welding of aluminium
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309 AMSON, J.C., and SALTER, G.R.: 'An analysis of the gas-
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310 BLESS, S.J.: 'Drop transfer in short-circuit welding', J. Phys. D,
1974, 7, pp. 526-539
311 ZARUBA, I.I.: The nature of short circuits of the CO 2 welding
arc', Autom. Weld., 1973, 26, (5), pp. 14-17
312 LEBEDEV, V.K, ZARUBA, I.I., and ANDREEV, V.V.: 'Condi-
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313 BELOUSOV, V.N., OSTROV, D.D., and STEPANOV, V.V.: 'On
the construction of a liquid metal bridge between the electrode and
the weld pool in CO 2 welding with periodic short-circuits', Weld.
Prod., 1977, 24, (5), pp. 38^2
314 NEEDHAM, J.C., and HULL, W.G.: 'Self-adjusting welding arcs',
Br. Weld. J., 1954,1, pp. 71-74
315 HULL, W.G., and NEEDHAM, J.C: 'Self-adjusting and con-
trolled arc processes', Weld. Res., 1953, 7, pp. 80R-96R
316 AMIN, M.: 'Synergic pulse MIG welding', Met. Constr., 1981, 13,
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317 NEEDHAM, J.C: 'Pulse controlled consumable electrode welding
arc', Br. Weld. J., 1965,12, pp. 191-197
318 JACKSON, C.E.: 'Metal transfer in variable frequency gas shielded
pulsed current arc welding'. International Institute of Welding
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319 QUINTINO, L., and ALLUM, C.J.: 'Pulsed GMAW: interactions
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320 QUINTINO, L., and ALLUM, C.J.: 'Pulsed GMAW: Interactions
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126-129
321 ALLUM, C.J., and QUINTINO, L.: 'Control of fusion character-
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242R-245R
322 ALLUM, C.J., and QUINTINO, L.: 'Control of fusion character-
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323 WASZINK, J.H., and PIENA, M.J.: 'Experimental investigation of
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324 DORN, L., RIPPL, P., and SCHOFER, E.: 'An examination of
metal transfer during shielded metal arc welding under mixed gas
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E146-E149
325 GREENE, W.J.: 'An analysis of transfer in gas-shielded welding
arcs', Weld. J., 1960, 39, (7), pp. 194-203
326 VOROPAI, N.M., and KOLESNICHENKO, A.F.: 'Modelling of
313
 the form of droplets of electrode metal in welding in shielding
gases', Autom. Weld., 1979, 32, (9), pp. 27-32
327 CRAM, L.E.: 'A numerical model of droplet formation', in NO YE,
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Holland), 1984)
328 WASZINK, J.H., and GRAAT, L.H.J.: 'Der Einfluss der Gas-
stromung auf die Tropfenablosung beim Plasma-MIG Schweissen',
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329 ESSERS, W.G., JELMORINI, G., and TICHELAAR, G.W.: 'Arc
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330 LORD RAYLEIGH: 'On the instability of jets', Proc. London
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331 CHANDRASEKHAR, S.: 'Hydrodynamic and hydromagnetic sta-
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332 MURTY, G.S.: 'Instability of conducting fluid cylinder due to axial
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333 MURTY, G.S.: 'Instability of a conducting fluid cylinder in the
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334 DATTNER, A.: 'Current-induced instabilities of a mercury jet',
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335 ALLUM, C.J.: 'Metal transfer in arc welding as a varicose insta-
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336 LANCASTER, J.F.: 'Metal transfer in fusion welding', in 'Arc
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337 ALLUM, C.J.: 'Metal transfer in arc welding as a varicose insta-
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338 CECH, F.: 'Abschniirung einer Stromfiihrenden Fliissigen Metall-
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339 BASLER, H-B.: 'Magnetische Beeinfliissung von Lichbogen und
Werkstoffiibergang bei der Metall-Schutzgasschweissung', in DVS
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fur Schweisstechnik, Dusseldorf, 1976); also International Institute
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340 HALM0Y, E., AND FOSTERVILL, H.: 'Rotating welding arcs'.
International Institute of Welding Document 212-558-83, 1983
341 PATON, B.E., and SHEIKO, P.P.: 'Controlling metal transfer in
arc welding with a consumable electrode'. International Institute of
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342 MECHEV, V.S., and SYCHEV, L.I.: 'Changes in characteristics of
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343 MATSUNAWA, A.: 'Role of surface tension in fusion-welding
(Part 1) — Hydrostatic effect', Trans. JWRI, 1982, 11, (2), pp.
145-154
344 MATSUNAWA, A., and OHJI, T.: 'Role of surface tension in
fusion welding (Part 2) — Hydrostatic effect', ibid., 1983, 12, (1), pp.
123-130
345 MATSUNAWA, A.: 'Role of surface tension in fusion welding
(Part 3) — Hydrodynamic effect', ibid., 1984, 13, (1), pp. 147-156
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346 ISHIZAKI, K., and KANBE, Y.: 'Mechanism of penetration in arc
welding'. International Institute of Welding Document 212-50-65,
1965
347 DO AN, G.E., and YOUNG, S.S.: 'Crater formation in arc
welding', Weld. J., (Research Supplement) 1938,17, (10), pp. 61-67
348 RAZMYSHLYAEV, A.O.: The hydrodynamic parameters of the
film of molten metal at the front wall of the crater of an arc weld
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349 EICHHORN, F., and ENGEL, A.: 'Mass transfer in the weld
pool'. International Institute of Welding Document 212-201-70,
1970
350 MORI, N., and HORII, Y.: 'Molten pool phenomena in the sub-
merged arc welding'. International Institute of Welding Document
212-188-70, 1980
351 NISHIGUCHI, K., OHJI, T., and MATSUI, H.: 'Study on bead
surface profile'. International Institute of Welding Document 212-
391-77, 1977
352 NISHIGUCHI, K., and OHJI, T.: 'Study on behaviour of molten
pool in arc welding (2nd Report). Numerical analysis of molten
pool surface profile', J. Jpn. Weld. Soc, 1981, 50, pp. 525-530 (in
Japanese)
353 BEREZOVSKII, B.M., SUREDALEV, I.V., and STIKHIN, O.A.
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314
of formation of horizontal welds in the vertical plane', Autom.
Weld., 1983, 36, (3), pp. 21-24
354 KUBLANOV, Y. and EROKHIN, A.: 'On metal motion in a sta-
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212-318-74, 1974
355 WOODS, R.A., and MILNER, D.R.: 'Motion in the weld pool in
arc welding', 1971, 50, pp. 163s-173s
356 BOJAREVICS, V, and SCHERBININ, E.V.: 'Azimuthal rotation
in the axisymmetric meridional flow due to an electric-current
source', J. Fluid Mech., 1983,126, pp. 413-430
357 LAWSON, W.H.S., and KERR, H.W.: 'Fluid motion in GTA weld
pools. Part I: Flow patterns and weld pool homogeneity', Weld.
Res. Int., 1976, 6, (5), pp. 63-71
358 LAWSON, W.H.S., and KERR, H.W.: 'Fluid motion in GTA weld
pools. Part II: Weld pool shapes', ibid., 1976, 6, pp. 1-17
359 WILLGOSS, R.A.: 'Regulation of fluid motion in the weld pool'.
International Institute of Welding Document 212-428-78, 1978
360 DEMYANTSEVICH, V.P, and MATYUKHIN, V.I.: 'Character-
istics of the movement of molten metal in the weld pool during
welding with a non-consumable electrode', Weld. Prod., 1972, 19,
(10), p. 1-3
361 PATON, B.E., MANDEL'BERG, S.L., and SIDORENKO, B.G.:
'Certain special features of welds made at high speeds', Autom.
Weld., 1971,8, (8), pp. 1-6
362 SOZOU, C , and PICKERING, W.M.: 'Magneto-hydrodynamic
flow in a container due to the discharge of an electric current from
a finite size electrode', Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. A, 1978, 362, pp.
509-523
363 SOZOU, C, and PICKERING, M.W.: 'Magneto-hydrodynamic
flow due to the discharge of an electric current in a hemispherical
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364 ISHIZAKI, K., MURAI, K., and KANBE, Y.: 'Penetration in arc
welding and convection in molten metal'. International Institute of
Welding Document 212-77-66, 1966
365 ISHIZAKI, K.: 'Interfacial tension theory of the phenomena of arc
welding — mechanism of penetration', in 'Physics of the welding
arc' (The Institute of Welding, London, 1966)
366 ANDREWS, J.G., and CRAINE, R.E.: 'Fluid flow in a hemisphere
induced by a distributed source of current', J. Fluid Mech., 1978,
84, (2), pp. 281-290
367 ATTHEY, D.R.: 'A mathematical model for fluid flow in the weld
pool at high currents', ibid., 1980,98, pp. 787-801
368 CRAINE, R.E., and WEATHERILL, N.P.: 'Fluid flow in a hemi-
spherical container induced by a distributed source of current and
a superimposed uniform magnetic field', ibid., 1980,99, pp. 1-11
369 AJAYI, O.O., SOZOU, C, and PICKERING, W.M.: 'Nonlinear
fluid motions in a container due to the discharge of an electric
current', ibid., 1984,148, pp. 285-300
370 ISHIZAKI, K.: 'Solidification of the molten pool and bead forma-
tion', in 'Arc physics and weld pool behaviour' (The Welding Insti-
tute, Cambridge, 1980)
371 ISHIZAKI, K.: 'A new approach to the mechanism of penetration',
in 'Weld pool chemistry and metallurgy' (The Welding Institute,
Cambridge, 1980)
372 ISHIZAKI, K., YOKOYA, S., OKADA, T., and MATSUNAWA,
A.: 'Role of surface tension and electro-magnetic force in arc
welding'. International Institute of Welding Document 212-620-85,
1985
373 ANDERSSON, D.: 'Streaming due to thermal surface tension gra-
dient'. International Institute of Welding Document 212-277-73,
1973
374 METCALFE, J.C., and QUIGLEY, M.B.C.: 'Arc wander and cast
to cast variations in TIG welding'. International Institute of
Welding Document 212-326-75, 1975
375 METCALFE, J.C., and QUIGLEY, M.B.C.: 'Arc and pool insta-
bility in GTA welding', Weld. J., 1977, 56, pp. 133s-139s
376 SAVAGE, W.F., NIPPES, E.F., and GOODWIN, G.M.: 'Effect of
minor elements on fusion zone dimensions in Inconel 600', ibid.,
1977, 56, pp. 126s-132s
377 GLICKSTEIN, S.S., and YENISCAVITCH, W.: 'A review of
minor element effects on the welding arc and weld penetration'.
Welding Research Council Bulletin 226, May 1977
378 CHASE, T.F., and SAVAGE, W.F.: 'Effect of anode composition
on tungsten arc characteristics', Weld. J., 1971, 50, pp. 467s-473s
379 HEIPLE, C.R., and ROPER, J.R.: 'Mechanism for minor element
effect on GTA fusion zone geometry', ibid., 1982, 61, pp. 97s-101s
380 BENNETT, W.S., and MILLS, G.S.: 'GTA weldability studies on
high manganese stainless steel', ibid., 1974, 53, pp. 548-553s
381 HEIPLE, C.R., BURGARDT, P., ROPER, JR., and LONG, J.L.:
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382 KEENE, B.J., MILLS, K.C., ROBINSON, J.L., and RODWILL,
M.H.: 'The effect of surface tension on variable penetration behav-
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383 ROGERS, K.J.: 'A study of penetration variability using mecha-
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384 TINKLER, M.J, GRANT, I., MIZUNO, G., and GLUCK, C :
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385 ROBINSON, J.L., DE ROSA, S., and HUTT, G.A.: 'Variable pen-
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surface coatings, and comparison with non-arc welding processes',
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386 KEENE, B.J., MILLS, K.C., and BROOKS, R.S.: 'Surface proper-
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387 YOKOYA, S., ASAKO, Y., and MATSUNAWA, A.: 'Surface
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388 CRAINE, R.E.: 'On determining the shape of weld pools'. Interna-
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389 UDA, M., OHNO, S., and WAD A, T.: 'Solubility of nitrogen in
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390 UDA, M., and OHNO, S.: 'Effect of surface active element on
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772-780
391 CHOH, T., and INOUYE, M.: 'Studies on the rate of absorption
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392 ISHIZAKI, K.: 'Surface active elements and arc welding pheno-
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393 OHJI, T., and NISHIGUCHI, K.: 'Mathematical modelling of a
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394 WILLGOSS, R.A.: 'Electromagnetic control of fluid motion in
TIG weld pools', in 'Arc physics and weld-pool behaviour' (The
Welding Institute, Cambridge, 1980)
395 ESSERS, W.G., and WALTER, R.: 'Some aspects of the penetrat-
ion in metal-inert gas (MIG) welding', in 'Arc physics and weld
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396 RABKIN, D.M.: 'Temperature distribution through the weld pool',
Br. Weld. J., 1959, 6, pp. 132-137
397 STAVIN, G.A., and EFIMOV, A.A.: 'Temperature conditions in
the weld pool when sheet metals are welded by pulsed arc process
with a non-consumable electrode', Autom. Weld., 1983, 36, (10), pp.
26-30
398 EROKHIN, A.A.: 'Metal surface temperature in arc welding'.
International Institute of Welding Document 212-427-78, 1978
399 HOWDEN, D.G.: 'Mass transfer of metal vapour and anode tem-
perature in arc welding', Weld. J., 1969, 48, pp. 125s-132s
400 EROKHIN, A.A.: The temperature field of the liquid metal pool
in arc heating', Weld. Prod., 1982, 29, (2), pp. 16-17
401 HOWDEN, D.G., and MILNER, D.R.: 'Hydrogen absorption in
arc melting', Br. Weld. J., 1963,10, pp. 304-316
402 SLAVIN, G.A.: 'An investigation of thermal processes in the liquid
metal of the pool in argon arc welding', Weld. Prod., 1977, 24, (6),
pp. 3-5
403 BASALAEVA, M.A., and RASHENKO, V.V.: The movement of
metal in the weld pool in electron beam welding', Weld. Prod.,
1977, 24, (3), pp. 1-3
404 JACKSON, C.E.: 'Mechanism and control of keyhole formation in
plasma welding'. International Institute of Welding Document 212-
234-72, 1972
405 TOMSIC, H.J., and JACKSON, C.E.: 'An examination of the
energy distribution of keyhole mode plasma arc welding'. Interna-
tional Institute of Welding Document 212-253-72, 1972
406 METCALFE, J.C., and QUIGLEY, M.B.C.: 'Keyhole stability in
plasma arc welding'. International Institute of Welding Document
212-398-77, 1977
407 ANDREWS, J.G., and ATTHEY, D.R.: 'Hydrodynamic limit to
penetration of a material by a high-power beam', J. Phys. D., 1976,
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408 OPARIN, M.L., NIKIFOROV, G.D., and FEDOROV, S.A.:
'Energy features of the heating of metals in welding with the light
beam', Weld. Prod., 1981, 28, (7), pp. 11-13
409 DO WDEN, J.M., DAVIS, M., and KAPADIA, P.: 'Molten-region
temperature distributions in laser welding', J. Phys. D, 1985, 18, pp.
1987-1994
410 LANKIN, Yu.N.: 'Flow of molten metal at the front wall of the
penetration channel during electron beam welding', Autom. Weld.,
1984, 37, (3), pp. 8-10
411 ARATA, Y., ABE, N., WANG, Hu, TOMIE, M., and ABE, F.:
'Dynamic observation of beam hole during electron beam welding'
Trans. JWRI, 1983,12, (1), pp. 1-7
412 KLEMENS, P.G.: 'Heat balance and flow conditions for electron
beam and laser welding', J. Appl. Phys., 1976, 47, pp. 2165-2174
413 DO WDEN, J.M., DAVIS, M., and KAPADIA, P.: 'Some aspects
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414 DOWDEN, J.M., POSTACIOGLU, N , and DAVIS, M.: 'A
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1987, 20, pp. 36-44
415 LESKOV, G.I, TRUNOV, E N , and ZHIVAGA, L.I.: The form,
dimensions and stability of vapour dynamic channels in the metal
in electron-beam welding', Autom. Weld., 1976, 29, (6), pp. 10-14
416 REZNICHENKO, V.F., and EROKHIN, A.A.: 'On calculating
the depth of penetration in electron beam welding', Weld. Prod.,
1976, 23, (3), pp. 3-6
417 RYKALIN, N.N.: 'Calculation of heat flow in welding' (Mishgaz,
Moscow, 1951) (in Russian); Also 'Berechnung der War-
mevorgange beim Schweissen' (Verlag Technik, Berlin, 1957); also
English translation by PALEY, Z., and ADAMS, CM.: US Army
Contract UC-19-O66-OO1-C-3817
418 RYKALIN, N.N.: 'Report on heat flow in arc welding'. Interna-
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419 RYKALIN, N.N., and NIKOLAEV, A.V.: 'Welding arc heat flow'.
International Institute of Welding Document 212-194-70, 1970
420 ROSENTHAL, D.: 'Mathematical theory of heat distribution
during welding and cutting', Weld. J., 1941, 20, pp. 220s-234s
421 ROSENTHAL, D.: 'The theory of moving sources of heat and its
application to metal treatments', Trans. AS ME, 1946, 68, pp.
849-866
422 CARSLAW, H.S., and JAEGER, J.C.: 'Conduction of heat in
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423 MYERS, P.S., UYEHARA, O.A, and BORMAN, G.L.: 'Funda-
mentals of heat flow in welding'. Welding Research Council Bulle-
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424 STOUT, R.D., and DOTY, W.D'O.: 'Weldability of Steels'
(Welding Research Council, New York, 1953)
425 "Welding Handbook' (American Welding Society, Miami, FL,
USA; Macmillan, London, 1982, 7th edn.)
426 ADAMS, CM.: 'Cooling rates and peak temperatures in fusion
welding', Weld. J., 1958, 37, (5), pp. 210s-215s
427 JHAVERI, P., MOFFAT, W.G., and ADAMS, CM.: The effect of
plate thickness and radiation on heat flow in welding and cutting',
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428 HESS, W.F., MERRILL, L.L., NIPPES, E.F., and BUNK, A.P.:
'The measurement of cooling rates associated with arc welding and
their application to the selection of optimum welding conditions',
ibid., 1943, 22, pp. 377s-422s
429 NIPPES, E.F., MERRILL, L.L., and SAVAGE, W.F.: 'Cooling
rates in arc welds in |-in. plate', ibid., 1949, 28, pp. 556s-564s
430 JACKSON, C.E., and SHRUBSALL, A.E.: 'Control of penetration
and melting ratio with welding technique', ibid., 1953, 32, pp. 172s-
178s
431 JACKSON, C.E., and SHRUBSALL, A.E.: 'Energy distribution in
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432 JACKSON, C.E.: 'Control of welding performance by selected
technique parameters'. International Institute of Welding Docu-
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433 DORSCHU, K.E.: 'Control of cooling rates in steel weld metal',
Weld. J., 1968,47, pp. 473s-484s
434 BRADSTREET, B.J.: 'Effect of welding conditions on cooling rate
and hardness in the heat-affected zone', ibid., 1969, 48, pp. 499s-
504s
435 WELLS, A.A.: 'Heat flow in welding', ibid., 1952, 31, pp. 263s-267s
436 CHRISTENSEN, N., DA VIES, V. de L., and GJERMUNDSEN,
K.: 'Distribution of temperatures in arc welding', Br. Weld. J.,
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437 TANAKA, S.: Temperature distribution in a finite thick plate due
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439 KAS, J., and VAN ADRICHEM, Th.J.: 'The effect of welding
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440 BENNETT, A.P.: 'A comparison between the temperature fields
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442 RYKALIN, N.N., KULAGIN, I.D., and NIKOLAEV, A.V.:
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443 RYKALIN, N.N., NIKOLAEV, A.V., and KULAGIN, A.D.: 'Cal-
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444 RYKALIN, N.N.: 'Energy sources for welding', Weld. World, 1974,
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445 PAVELIK, V., TANBAKUCHI, R., UYEHARA, O.A., and
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446 FRIEDMAN, E.: 'Thermo-mechanical analysis of the welding
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447 KRUTZ, G.W., and SEGERLIND, L.J.: 'Finite element analysis of
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448 WESTBY, O.: 'Temperature distribution in the workpiece by
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449 PALEY, Z., and HIBBERT, P.D.: 'Computation of temperatures
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450 GOLDAK, J., CHAKRAVARTI, A., and BIBBY, M.: 'A double
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451 MOORE, J.E., BIBBY, M.J., and GOLDAK, J.A.: 'The signifi-
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452 GOLDAK, J., BALVANTRAI, P., BIBBY, M.J., and MOORE,
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453 PINKO WISH, J.A., and WHITMAN, P.K.: 'Three-dimensional
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454 BIBBY, M.J., GOLDAK, J.A., and MEHROTRA, V.: 'The fusion
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455 GHENT, H., HERMANCE, C.E., KERR, H.W., and STRONG,
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456 PASSOJA, D.E.: 'Heat flow in electron beam welds', Weld J., 1966,
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457 MASUBUCHI, K : 'Analysis of welded structures' (Pergamon
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458 UEDA, Y., and MURAKAWA, H.: 'Applications of computer and
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459 KEY, J.F., SMARTT, H.B., CHAN, J.W., and McILWAINE,
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463 SHAW, C.B.: 'Diagnostic studies of the GTAW arc. Part 1: Obser-
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464 SHAW, C.B.: 'Diagnostic studies of the GTAW arc. Part 2: Math-
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465 LAMBERTS, K., and HOLLMAN, H-H.: 'Einfurung in die Regel-
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466 MASUBUCHI, K., HARDT, D.E., POYNTER, H.M., CON-
VERTI, J., and ZAKSENHOUSE, M.: 'Improvement of fusion
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467 RYKALIN, N.N., UGLOV, A.A., and MELUKOV, V.V.: 'Theory
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468 CLARK, J.N.: 'Manual metal arc modelling. Part 1: Effect of
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469 CLARK, J.N.: 'Manual metal arc modelling: Part 2: Treatment of
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470 CLARK, J.N.: 'Manual metal arc modelling. Part 3: Implementa-
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471 'Computer technology in welding'. Proceedings of International
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19, pp. 81-83
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 134, Pt. B, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1987