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AP Chemistry Summer Assignment Chapter 1 and 2 Brown and Lemay
AP Chemistry Summer Assignment Chapter 1 and 2 Brown and Lemay
Chemistry is the study of properties of materials and changes that they undergo. Test & homework collection on Wednesday 8/24
1.1 The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry
Chemistry involves the study of the properties and the behavior of matter. 1) Read chapters one and two.
Matter: 2) Read the end of chapter problems for chapter
• is the physical material of the universe. 1 & 2 (not the additional exercises). These are
• has mass. •occupies space. ALL problems you need to be able to answer.
• ~100 elements constitute all matter. Define vocabulary words you don’t know and
• A property is any characteristic that allows us to recognize a particular type get help with problems you can’t answer.
of matter and to distinguish it from other types of matter. 3) Complete the following problems to turn in.
Elements
• are made up of unique atoms, the building blocks of matter. Chapter 1 & 2 HOMEWORK
• Element names are derived from a wide variety of sources #1~ Pg 31- #5, 15, 16, 24, 25, 28, 29, 35, 39, 41,
(e.g., Latin or Greek, mythological characters, names of people or places). 45, 57, 60, 65, 70
• Memorize element symbols #2~ Pg 7- #1, 9, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, 41,
Molecules 51, 53, 65, 69, 71, 84
• are combinations of atoms held together in specific shapes.
• Macroscopic (observable) properties of matter relate to submicroscopic realms of atoms.
• Properties relate to composition (types of atoms present) and structure (arrangement of atoms) present.
Pure substances:
• are matter with fixed compositions and distinct proportions.
• are elements (cannot be decomposed into simpler substances, i.e. only one kind of
atom) or compounds (consist of two or more elements).
Elements
• There are 118 known elements.
• They vary in abundance.
• Each is given a unique name and is abbreviated by a
chemical symbol.
• they are organized in the periodic table.
• Each has a one- or two-letter symbol derived from its name.
Compounds Mixtures
• Compounds are combinations of elements. (The • A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances.
compound H2O is a combination of the elements H and O.) • Each substance retains its own identity; each substance is a
• The opposite of compound formation is decomposition. component of the mixture.
• Compounds have different properties than their component • Mixtures have variable composition.
elements (e.g., water is liquid, but hydrogen and oxygen • Heterogeneous mixtures do not have uniform composition,
are both gases at the same temperature and pressure). properties, and appearance, e.g., sand.
• Law of Constant (Definite) Proportions (Proust): • Homogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout, e.g., air; they
A compound always consists of the same combination of are solutions.
elements (water is always 11% H and 89% O).
SI Units
• 1960: All scientific units use Système International d’Unités (SI Units).
• There are seven base units.
• Smaller and larger units are obtained by decimal fractions or multiples of the base units.
Length and Mass
• SI base unit of length = meter (1 m = 1.0936 yards).
• SI base unit of mass (not weight) = kilogram (1 kg = 2.2 pounds).
•Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object.
Temperature is the measure of the hotness or coldness of an object.
• Scientific studies use Celsius and Kelvin scales.
o Celsius scale: water freezes at 0ºC and boils at 100ºC (sea level).
o Kelvin scale (SI Unit):
•Water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K (sea level).
•is based on properties of gases.
•Zero Kelvin is the lowest possible temperature (absolute zero is -273.15°C).
o Fahrenheit (not used in science):
•Water freezes at 32ºF and boils at 212ºF (sea level).
Derived SI Units
• These are formed from the seven base units.
• Velocity is distance traveled per unit time, so units of velocity are units of distance (m) divided by units of time (s): m/s.
Volume
•Units of volume = (units of length)3 = m3.
•This unit is unrealistically large, so we use more reasonable units:
• cm3 [also known as mL (milliliter) or cc (cubic centimeters)]
• dm3 (also known as liters, L). Important: the liter is not an SI unit.
Density
•Is used to characterize substances.
•Density is defined as mass divided by volume.
•Units: g/cm3 or g/mL (for solids and liquids); g/L (often used for gases).
•density of water at 25°C is exactly 1g/mL. The gram is defined as the mass of 1.00 mL of pure water at 25ºC.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.4 (b) Calculate the volume of 65.0 g of the (c) What is the mass in grams of a cube
(a) Calculate the density of mercury if liquid methanol (wood alcohol) if its of gold (density = 19.32 g/ cm3) if the
1.00 × 102 g occupies a volume of 7.36 density is 0.791 g/mL. length of the cube is 2.00 cm?
cm3.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.8 A gas at 25°C fills a container whose volume is 1.05 × 103 cm3. The container plus gas have a mass of 837.6 g.
The container, when emptied of all gas, has a mass of 836.2 g. What is the density of the gas at 25°C?
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.9
If a woman has a mass of 115 lb, what is her mass in
1.6 Dimensional Analysis
grams? (Use the relationships between units given on the
Dimensional analysis is a method of calculation utilizing a knowledge of units.
back inside cover of the text.)
•Conversion factors are used to manipulate units.
•desired unit = given unit x (conversion factor)
•The conversion factors are simple ratios.
•conversion factor = (desired unit) / (given unit)
•These are fractions whose numerator and denominator are the SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.10
same quantity in different units. The average speed of a nitrogen molecule in air at 25°C is
•Multiplication by a conversion factor is equivalent to multiplying 515 m/s. Convert this speed to miles per hour.
by a factor of one.
Using Two or More Conversion Factors- We often need to use more than one
conversion factor in order to complete a problem.
• When identical units are found in the numerator and denominator of a
conversion chain, they will cancel. The final answer MUST have the
correct units.
Conversions Involving Volume
•Suppose that we wish to know the mass in grams of 2.00 cubic inches of
gold given that the density of the gold is 19.3 g/cm3. SAMPLE EXERCISE 1.11
•We could do this conversion with the following conversion factors: Earth’s oceans contain approximately 1.36 × 109 km3 of
2.54 cm = 1 inch and 1 cm3 = 19.3 g gold water. Calculate the volume in liters.
•The calculation would involve both of these factors:
(2.00 in.3) (2.54 cm / in.)3 (19.3 g gold / 1 cm3) = 633 g gold
•Note that the calculation will NOT be correct unless the centimeter to
inch conversion factor is cubed!! Both the units AND the number must
be cubed.
Summary of Dimensional Analysis
•In dimensional analysis always ask three questions:
1. What data are we given? 2. What quantity do we need?
3. What conversion factors are available to take us from what we are given to what we need?
The Mass Spectrometer is an instrument that allows for direct and accurate determination of atomic (and molecular) weights.
THREE DISTINCT PARTS
• ION SOURCE- Gaseous particles (atoms or molecules)
are bombarded by high-energy electrons. This breaks the particles
into all possible combinations of cations and anions/electrons.
Repeller plates and accelerator plates direct positively charged
particles into the mass analyzer while also preventing negatively
charged particles from entering the analyzer.
• MASS ANALYZER- Positively charged particles of
various sizes and charges are focused in a narrow beam
which passes through a magnetic field. The path of charged
particles bends as they pass through the magnetic field.
Higher charges bend more. Lighter particles bend more.
Only ions of the right mass can enter the detector, but the
strength of the magnetic field can be changed, such that all
particles can be detected under an appropriate field strength.
• DETECTOR- A mass spectrum will usually be presented as a vertical bar graph,
in which each bar represents an ion having a specific mass-to-charge ratio (m/z)
and the length of the bar indicates the relative abundance of the ion. The most Mass Spectrometer
intense ion is assigned an abundance of 100, and it is referred to as the base peak.
Most of the ions formed in a mass spectrometer have a single charge, so the m/z value is equivalent to mass itself.
2.6 Molecules and Molecular Compounds A molecule consists of two or more atoms bound tightly together.
Molecules and Chemical Formulas
•Each molecule has a chemical formula that indicates
1. which atoms are found in the molecule, and
2. in what proportion they are found.
•A molecule made up of two atoms is called a diatomic molecule.
•Different forms of an element, which have different chemical formulas, are known as allotropes. Allotropes differ in their chemical and
physical properties.
•Compounds composed of molecules are molecular compounds. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.6
•These contain at least two types of atoms. Give the empirical formula for the following
•Most molecular substances contain only nonmetals. compounds:
Molecular and Empirical Formulas (a) C6H12O6
•Molecular formulas (b) N2O
•These formulas give the actual numbers and types of atoms in a molecule. (c) B2H6
•Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2O2, O2, O3, and C2H4.
•Empirical formulas
•These formulas give the relative numbers and types of atoms in a molecule (the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms in a molecule).
•Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, HO, CH2.
Picturing Molecules Molecules occupy three-dimensional space. However, we often represent them in two dimensions.
•The structural formula gives the connectivity between individual atoms in the molecule.
•The structural formula can show the three-dimensional shape of the molecule.
•If the structural formula does show the shape of the molecule then either a perspective drawing, a ball-and-stick model, or a space-filling
model is used.
•Perspective drawings use dashed lines and wedges to represent bonds receding and emerging from the plane of the paper.
•Ball-and-stick models show atoms as spheres and the bonds as sticks. The angles in the ball-and-stick model are accurate.
•Space-filling models give an accurate representation of the 3-D shape of the molecule.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.6 Give the chemical
2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds
symbol, including mass number, for the ion of
•If electrons are added to or removed from a neutral atom, an ion is formed.
sulfur that has 16 neutrons
•When an atom or molecule loses electrons it becomes positively charged. Positively
and 18 electrons.
charged ions are called cations.
•When an atom or molecule gains electrons it becomes negatively charged. Negatively How many protons and electrons does the Se2–
charged ions are called anions. ion possess?
•In general, metal atoms tend to lose electrons and nonmetal atoms tend to gain electrons.
•When molecules lose electrons, polyatomic ions are formed (e.g. SO42–, NO3–).
Predicting Ionic Charges SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.8
•An atom or molecule can lose more than one electron. Predict the charge expected for the most stable
•Many atoms gain or lose enough electrons to have the same number of electrons as the ion of the following:
nearest noble gas (group 8A). barium oxygen
•The number of electrons an atom loses is related to its position on the periodic table.
Ionic Compounds aluminum fluorine
•A great deal of chemistry involves the transfer of electrons between species.
Example: •To form NaCl, the neutral sodium atom, Na, must lose an electron to become a cation: Na+.
•The electron cannot be lost entirely, so it is transferred to a chlorine atom, Cl, which then becomes an anion: Cl–.
•The Na+ and Cl– ions are attracted to form an ionic NaCl lattice, which crystallizes.
•NaCl is an example of an ionic compound made of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions.
•Important: note that there are no easily identified NaCl molecules in the ionic lattice. Therefore, we cannot use molecular formulas
to describe ionic substances.
•Ionic compounds are combinations of metals and nonmetals, and molecular compounds are composed of nonmetals only.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.9 Which of the following compounds are ionic: N2O, Na2O, CaCl2, SF4, CBr4, FeS, P4O6, PbF2?
•Writing empirical formulas for ionic compounds:
•You need to know the ions of which it is composed.
•The formula must reflect the electrical neutrality of the compound.
•You must combine cations and anions in a ratio so that the total positive charge is equal to the total negative charge.
•Example: Consider the formation of Mg3N2:
•Mg loses two electrons to become Mg2+
•Nitrogen gains three electrons to become N3–.
•For a neutral species, the number of electrons lost and gained must be equal.
•However, Mg can only lose electrons in twos and N can only accept electrons in threes.
•Therefore, Mg needs to lose six electrons (2x3) and N gains those six electrons (3x2). That is, 3Mg
atoms need to form 3Mg2+ ions (total 3x2 positive charges) and 2N atoms need to form 2N3– ions (total
2x3 negative charges).
•Therefore, the formula is Mg3N2.
1) The correct name for SrO is __________. 17) Which species below is the nitride ion?
A) strontium oxide B) strontium hydroxide A) B)
C) strontium peroxide D) strontium monoxide
E) strontium dioxide C) D) E)
2) The correct name for SO is __________. 18) Which species below is the sulfite ion?
A) sulfur oxide B) sulfur monoxide
C) sulfoxide D) sulfate A) B)
E) sulfite C) D) E)
3) The correct name for is __________. 19) Which species below is the nitrate ion?
A) sulfuric acid A) B)
B) sulfurous acid
C) hydrosulfuric acid C) D) E) N3-
D) hydrosulfic acid
E) sulfur hydroxide 20) Which formula/name pair is incorrect?
7) The correct formula of iron(III) bromide is __________. A) iron(II) sulfate
A) B) C) FeBr B) iron(III) sulfite
D) E) C) FeS iron(II) sulfide
D) iron(II) sulfite
8) The formula of ammonium carbonate is __________. E) iron(III) sulfide
A) B)
C) D) 21) Which one of the following is the formula of hydrochloric
acid?
E) A) B)
C) HClO D) HCl
E)
22) The suffix -ide is used __________. 3) Which pair of atoms constitutes a pair of isotopes of the same
A) for monatomic anion names element?
B) for polyatomic cation names
C) for the name of the first element in a molecular compound A) X X B) X X
D) to indicate binary acids
E) for monoatomic cations C) X X D) X X
25) Which metal does not require to have its charge specified in 5) Horizontal rows of the periodic table are known as ______.
the names of ionic compounds it forms? A) periods B) groups
A) Mn B) Fe C) metalloids D) metals E) nonmetals
C) Cu D) Ca E) Pb
6) Vertical columns of the periodic table are known as _____.
A) metals B) periods
Nomenclature C) nonmetals D) groups E) metalloids
Answers 13) A
1) A 14) C
2) B 15) C 7) Elements in Group 1A are known as the __________.
3) B 16) D A) chalcogens B) alkaline earth metals
4) C 17) E C) alkali metals D) halogens E) noble gases
5) A 18) A
6) D 19) C
7) B 20) E 8) Potassium is a __________ and chlorine is a __________.
8) A 21) D A) metal, nonmetal B) metal, metal
9) A 22) A C) metal, metalloid D) metalloid, nonmetal
10) B 23) B E) nonmetal, metal
11) B same groups, so same ratio 24) hexanol
12) D 25) D
9) _____ are found uncombined, as monatomic species in nature.
A) Noble gases B) Chalcogens
C) Alkali metals D) Alkaline earth metals
E) Halogens
AP Chemistry Chapter Two Practice Quiz
• Know the response of alpha, beta , and gamma radiation
in an electric field. What do these responses tell us about 10) When a metal and a nonmetal react, the __________ tends to
the mass and charge of the particles? lose electrons and the __________ tends to gain electrons.
• Know the mass, charge, and location of the three A) metal, metal B) nonmetal, nonmetal
subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) C) metal, nonmetal D) nonmetal, metal
• Periodic table (locate and define --group, period, atomic E) None of the above, these elements share electrons.
number, atomic mass, metals, non-metals, metalloids,
transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
chalcogens, halogens, noble gases) 11) The empirical formula of a compound with molecules
• Development of modern atomic theory --Know how the containing 12 carbon atoms, 14 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen
experiments of Rutherford, Millikan, & Thompson atoms is __________.
provide evidence of subatomic particles. A) B) CHO
1) A certain mass of carbon reacts with 13.6 g of oxygen to form C) D) E)
carbon monoxide. __________ grams of oxygen would react with
that same mass of carbon to form carbon dioxide, according to the 12) What is the formula of the compound formed between
law of multiple proportions? strontium ions and nitrogen ions?
A) 25.6 B) 6.8 C) 13.6 A) SrN B)
D) 136 E) 27.2
C) D) E)
2) The nucleus of an atom contains __________.
A) electrons 13) The formula of a salt is . The X-ion in this salt has 28
B) protons, neutrons, and electrons
C) protons and neutrons electrons. The metal X is __________.
D) protons and electrons A) Ni B) Zn
E) protons C) Fe D) V E) Pd
14) The charge on the manganese in the salt is __________. 24) Which pair of substances could be used to illustrate the law of
multiple proportions?
A) +1 B) -1 C) +2
A) B)
D) -2 E) +3
C) D)
E) NaCl, KCl
15) Aluminum reacts with a certain nonmetallic element to form a
compound with the general formula AlX. Element X is a diatomic
gas at room temperature. Element X must be ____.
25) The charge on an electron was determined in the ________.
A) oxygen B) fluorine
A) cathode ray tube, by J. J. Thompson
C) chlorine D) nitrogen E) sulfur
B) Rutherford gold foil experiment
C) Millikan oil drop experiment
D) Dalton atomic theory
16) Potassium forms an ion with a charge of __________. E) atomic theory of matter
A) +2 B) -1
C) +1 D) -2 E) 0
26) All atoms of a given element have the same __________.
A) mass
17) Calcium forms an ion with a charge of __________. B) number of protons
A) -1 B) -2 C) number of neutrons
C) +1 D) +2 E) 0 D) number of electrons and neutrons
E) density
A) 132, 132, 54
20) Predict the empirical formula of the ionic compound that B) 54, 54, 132
forms from magnesium and fluorine. C) 78, 78, 54
A) B) MgF D) 54, 54, 78
E) 78, 78, 132
C) D)
E)
29) Which isotope has 45 neutrons?
A) Kr B) Br C) Se D) Cl E) Rh
21) The ions and form a salt with the formula ___.
A) B)
C) D) E) 30) Which isotope has 36 electrons in an atom?
A) Kr B) Br C) Se D) Cl E) Hg
22) Magnesium and sulfur form an ionic compound with the
formula __________.
A) MgS B)
C) D) 31) The atomic mass unit is presently based on assigning an exact
integral mass (in amu) to an isotope of __________.
E) A) hydrogen B) oxygen
C) sodium D) carbon E) helium
23) Consider some postulates of Dalton's atomic theory:
(i) Each element is composed of extremely small particles 32) Vanadium has two naturally occurring isotopes, with an
called atoms.
(ii) Atoms are indivisible. atomic mass of 49.9472 amu and with an atomic mass of
(iii) Atoms of a given element are identical. 50.9440. The atomic weight of vanadium is 50.9415. The percent
(iv) Atoms of different elements are different and have abundances of the vanadium isotopes are __________% and
different properties.
__________% .
Which of the postulates is(are) no longer valid? A) 0.2500, 99.750 B) 99.750, 0.2500
A) (i) and (ii) B) (ii) only C) 49.00, 51.00 D) 1.000, 99.000
C) (ii) and (iii) D) (iii) only E) (iii) and (iv) E) 99.000, 1.000
33) An unknown element is found to have three naturally
occurring isotopes with atomic masses of 35.9675 (0.337%),
37.9627 (0.063%), and 39.9624 (99.600%). Which of the
following is the unknown element?
A) Ar B) K
C) Cl D) Ca
E) None of the above could be the unknown element.