Topic Concept and Application of Ecology

Ecology is the branch of biology [1] which studies the interactions among organisms and their
environment. Objects of study include interactions of organisms that include biotic and abiotic
components of their environment.

Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms,
as well as cooperation and competition within and between species.

Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up,
and the non-living components of their environment.

Topic Levels, scope, and scale of organization

The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-
level (e.g., cells) to a planetary scale (e.g. biosphere) phenomena. Ecosystems, for example,
contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms that aggregate into
populations which aggregate into distinct ecological communities).

Hierarchy

To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological
world is organized into a nested hierarchy, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to
organs, to organisms, to species, to populations, to communities, to ecosystems, to biomes, and
up to the level of the biosphere.[9]

Some terms

A population is all the organisms of the same group or species, which live in a particular
geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding.

A biome is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the
environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of continents. Biomes are distinct
biological communities that have formed in response to a shared physical climate. [1][2] Biome is a
broader term than habitat; any biome can comprise a variety of habitats.

A biogeographic realm or ecozone is the broadest biogeography division of the Earth's land
surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided in
ecoregions, which are classified in biomes or habitat types.

The realms delineate large areas of the Earth's surface within which organisms have been
evolving in relative isolation over long periods of time, separated from one another by
geographic features, such as oceans, broad deserts, or high mountain ranges, that constitute
barriers to migration. As such, biogeographic realms designations are used to indicate general
groupings of organisms based on their shared biogeography. Biogeographic realms correspond to
the floristic kingdoms of botany or zoogeographic regions of zoology.
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The biosphere also known as the ecosphere is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also
be termed the zone of life on Earth, a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and
heat from the interior of the Earth), and largely self-regulating. [1] By the most general
biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living
beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning
with a process of biopoiesis (life created naturally from non-living matter, such as simple organic
compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago. [2]
[3]

Topic Branches of Ecology:

Based on taxonomic groups:

Plant Ecology

Animal Ecology

Based on habitat:

Terrestrial Ecology (Forest Ecology, Grassland Ecology, Desert Ecology) Aquatic Ecology
(Lake Ecology, River Ecology)

Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and
ecosystems in forests. The management of forests is known as forestry, silviculture, and forest
management. A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals and
micro-organisms (Biotic components) in that area functioning together with all of the non-living
physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.[1] The forest ecosystem is very important.

Forest ecology is one branch of a biotically-oriented classification of types of ecological study

(as opposed to a classification based on organizational level or complexity, for example
population or community ecology). Thus, forests are studied at a number of organizational
levels, from the individual organism to the ecosystem. However, as the term forest connotes an
area inhabited by more than one organism, forest ecology most often concentrates on the level of
the population, community or ecosystem. Logically, trees are an important component of forest
research, but the wide variety of other life forms and abiotic components in most forests means
that other elements, such as wildlife or soil nutrients, are often the focal point. Thus, forest
ecology is a highly diverse and important branch of ecological study.

Forest ecology studies share characteristics and methodological approaches with other areas of
terrestrial plant ecology. However, the presence of trees makes forest ecosystems and their study
unique in numerous ways.

Based on Ecological Hierarchy

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Autceology: This is also kwown as ecology of individuals, where we study the relation of
individual species to is environment. Thus at a given time, emphasis is given on the requirements
and relation of an individual species together with the influence of environment up on it.

Synecology: under natural conditions, however organisms- plant , animal and , and microbes live
together as a natural group affecting each other’s life in several ways. Thus, more complex
situations exist where unit of study, instead of single species is group of organisms –known as
community. Such an approach where unit of study is group of organisms is call synecological
approach.

Depending up on the level of organization, synecology may deal may deal with population,
Community, Ecosystem, and Biome.

Population Ecology

Community Ecology: Community ecology, is the study of species functioning of communities,

is observing interacting populations of the species living within a related area. When populations
of species interact with one another they form biological communities.

Ecosystem Ecology

Biome Ecology

Topic Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components

of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are linked
together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through
photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue.

Components of Ecosystem

A. Structural Components

a. Abiotic Abiotic components include ambient temperature, amount of sunlight, and pH of the
water and soil in which an organism lives

b.Biotic:

i.Producers Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually
eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food
using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers. In this way, it is energy
from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. [4] An exception occurs in deep-sea
hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture food
through a process called chemosynthesis.[5]

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ii.ConsumberConsumers (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and
need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called
herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plant
and other animals are called omnivores.

iii.DecmposersDecomposers (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and
wastes and release it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling.
Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter,
converting it into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use
again.

B. Functional Aspect

a. Nutrient Cycling A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of
organic and inorganic matter back into the production of matter. Energy flow is a unidirectional
and noncyclic pathway, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles
include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen
cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive
ecological nutrition.

b. Energy Flow

Energy flow, also called the calorific flow, refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and
is the focus of study in ecological energetics.

A general energy flow scenario follows:

 Solar energy is fixed by the photoautotrophs, called primary producers, like green plants.
Primary consumers absorb most of the stored energy in the plant through digestion, and
transform it into the form of energy they need, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
through respiration. A part of the energy received by primary consumers, herbivores, is
converted to body heat (an effect of respiration), which is radiated away and lost from the
system. The loss of energy through body heat is far greater in warm-blooded animals,
which must eat much more frequently than those that are cold-blooded. Energy loss also
occurs in the expulsion of undigested food (egesta) by excretion or regurgitation.
 Herbivores also consume primary producers. Energy that had been used by the primary
consumers for growth and storage is thus absorbed into the secondary consumers through
the process of digestion. As with primary consumers, secondary consumers convert this
energy into a more suitable form (ATP) during respiration. Again, some energy is lost
from the system, since energy which the primary consumers had used for respiration and
regulation of body temperature cannot be utilized by the secondary consumers.

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  Tertiary consumers, which may or may not be apex predators, then consume the
secondary consumers, with some energy passed on and some lost, as with the lower
levels of the food chain.
 A final link in the food chain are decomposers which break down the organic matter of
the tertiary consumers (or whichever consumer is at the top of the chain) and release
nutrients into the soil. They also break down plants, herbivores and carnivores that were
not eaten by organisms higher on the food chain, as well as the undigested food that is
excreted by herbivores and carnivores. Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi are decomposers,
and play a pivotal role in the nitrogen and carbon cycles.

The energy is passed on from trophic level to trophic level and each time about 90% of the
energy is lost, with some being lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and
some being lost as incompletely digested food (egesta). Therefore, primary consumers get about
10% of the energy produced by autotrophs, while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary
consumers get 0.1%. This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a
lot of the food chain's energy has been lost between trophic levels. This loss of energy at each
level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.

Topic Classification of Ecosystem

Topic Major Ecosystems

Pond ecosystem

On the basis of water depth and types of vegetation and animals there may be three zones in a
lake or pond littoral, limnetic and pro-fundal. The littoral zone is the shallow water region which
is usually occupied by rooted plants. The limnetic-zone ranges from the shallow to the depth of
effective light penetration and associated organisms are small crustaceans, rotifers, insects, and
their larvae and algae. The pro-fundal zone is the deep water parts where there is no effective
light penetration. The associated organisms are snails, mussels, crabs and

i) Producers:

The main producers in pond or lake ecosystem are algae and other aquatic plants, such as Azolla,
Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Nymphaea, Jussiaea, etc. These are
either floating or suspended or rooted at the bottom. The green plants convert the radiant energy
into chemical energy through photosynthesis. The chemical energy stored in the form of food is
utilized by all the organisms. Oxygen evolved by producers in photosynthesis is utilized by all
the living organisms in respiration.

ii) Consumers:

In a pond ecosystem, the primary consumers are tadpole larvae of frogs, fishes and other aquatic
animals which consume green plants and algae as their food. These herbivorous aquatic animals
are the food of secondary consumers. Frogs, big fishes, water snakes, crabs are secondary

5
consumers. In the pond, besides the secondary consumers, there are consumers of highest order,
such as water-birds, turtles, etc.

Decomposers and Transformers:

When aquatic plants and animals die, a large number of bacteria and fungi attack their dead
bodies and convert the complex organic substances into simpler inorganic compounds and
elements. These micro-organisms are called decomposers chemical elements liberated by
decomposers are again utilized by green plants in their nutrition

Topic Grassland ecosystem

Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae); however, sedge
(Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be found along with variable proportions of
legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except
Antarctica.

The Grassland Ecosystem covers about 10 percent of the Earth's surface. It is found where
rainfall is about 15-75 cm per year not enough to support a forest, but more than that of true
desert. Typical grasslands are vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate
climates.

These are known by different names in different region of the world like steppes in Europe and
Asia, pampas in South America, Veldt in South Africa and Downs in Australia.

Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other
herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called transitional landscape because grassland
ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in the area where there is not enough
for a forest and too much of a forest.

Components of Grassland Ecosystem

The components of the Grassland Ecosystem are discussed below:

1. Abiotic Components: These are non-living thing components consist of carbon, hydrogen,
sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous etc.

2. Biotic Components: These are living components and its sub-components are discussed

(I) Producers: The primary producers of food are the grasses such as Aristida, Cynodon,
Digitaria, Desmodium, Setaria etc. If herbs and shrubs are present, they also contribute to the
primary production of food.

(II) Consumers: The consumers in a grassland ecosystem are of three levels.

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(a) Primary consumers: These feed directly from the grasses (grazing) and include herbivores
such as Cows, Buffaloes, Goats, Rabbits, Mouse etc. and also insects, termites, centipede,
millipedes etc.

(b) Secondary consumers: These consumers are the carnivorous animals such as snakes, lizard,
jackal, foxes, frogs etc. which feed on the primary consumers.

c) Tertiary consumers: Hawk, Eagles and vultures constitute the tertiary consumer in the
grassland ecosystem which preys upon the secondary and primary consumer.

(III) Decomposers: The organic matter of the grassland is decomposed by the microbes like
actinomycetes, fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penincillium, and Cladosporium), aerobic
and anaerobic soil bacteria etc. They release the minerals back into the soil thus making the soil
fertile.

Functions of the Grassland Ecosystem

The primary function of an ecosystem is productivity. The producers fix the solar energy and
produce the complex organic matter with the help of minerals. It provides forage for livestock,
protection and conservation of soil and water resources, furnishing a habitat for wildlife, both
flora and fauna and (contribution to the attractiveness of the landscape. The functional aspects of
the Grassland can be studied by two means:

1. Food Chain in an ecosystem: There is an important feature of the ecosystem that one level of
an organism serves as food for another level of the organism. A series is formed which is known
as Food Chain. In an ecosystem, the food chain does not follow the linear pattern, but an
organism may feed upon more than one organism in the same food chain or upon organisms of
different food chains. Thus interconnected food chain system is formed known as a food web.

2. Nutrient cycle in an ecosystem: For any ecosystem to be successful, it is important that the
constituent materials move in a cyclic manner. The producers (green plant) takes up the mineral
elements from the soil and air, convert them into organic form and after passing through the
different trophic levels, are again returned to the soil and air.

Economic importance of Grassland Ecosystem

Grass lands biomes are important to maintain the crop of many domesticated and wild herbivores
such as horse, mule, ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer, zebra etc. which provides
food, milk, wool and transportation to man.

Hence, we can say that the Grassland Ecosystem is a mixture of grass, clover and other
leguminous species, dicotyledonous, herbs and shrubs which contribute to a high degree of the
preservation.

Forest ecosystem

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Forest, complex ecological system in which trees are the dominant life-form.

Tree-dominated forests can occur wherever the temperatures rise above 10 °C (50 °F) in the
warmest months and the annual precipitation is more than 200 mm (8 inches). They can develop
under a variety of conditions within these climatic limits, and the kind of soil, plant, and animal
life differs according to the extremes of environmental influences. In cool, high-latitude subpolar
regions, forests are dominated by hardy conifers like pines, spruces, and larches. These taiga
(boreal) forests have prolonged winters and between 250 and 500 mm (10 and 20 inches) of
rainfall annually. In more temperate high-latitude climates, mixed forests of both conifers and
broad-leaved deciduous trees predominate. Broad-leaved deciduous forests develop in middle-
latitude climates, where there is an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) for at least six
months every year and annual precipitation is above 400 mm (16 inches). A growing period of
100 to 200 days allows deciduous forests to be dominated by oaks, elms, birches, maples,
beeches, and aspens. In the humid climates of the equatorial belt, tropical rainforests develop.
There heavy rainfall supports evergreens that have broad leaves instead of needle leaves, as in
cooler forests. In the lower latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, the temperate deciduous forest
reappears.

Forest types are distinguished from each other according to species composition (which develops
in part according to the age of the forest), the density of tree cover, type of soils found there, and
the geologic history of the forest region.

Forests are among the most complex ecosystems in the world, and they exhibit extensive vertical
stratification. Conifer forests have the simplest structure: a tree layer rising to about 98 feet (30
metres), a shrub layer that is spotty or even absent, and a ground layer covered with lichens,
mosses, and liverworts. Deciduous forests are more complex; the tree canopy is divided into an
upper and lower story, while rainforest canopies are divided into at least three strata. The forest
floor in both of these forests consists of a layer of organic matter overlying mineral soil. The
humus layer of tropical soils is affected by the high levels of heat and humidity, which quickly
decompose whatever organic matter exists. Fungi on the soil surface play an important role in the
availability and distribution of nutrients, particularly in the northern coniferous forests. Some
species of fungi live in partnership with the tree roots, while others are parasitically destructive.

Animals that live in forests have highly developed hearing, and many are adapted for vertical
movement through the environment. Because food other than ground plants is scarce, many
ground-dwelling animals use forests only for shelter. In temperate forests, birds distribute plant
seeds and insects aid in pollination, along with the wind. In tropical forests, fruit bats and birds
effect pollination. The forest is nature’s most efficient ecosystem, with a high rate of
photosynthesis affecting both plant and animal systems in a series of complex organic
relationships.

Topic Trophic Level

The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. A food chain is a
succession of organisms that eat other organisms and may, in turn, be eaten themselves. The
trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the start of the chain. A food chain
8
starts at trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants, can move to herbivores at level 2,
carnivores at level 3 or higher, and typically finish with apex predators at level 4 or 5. The path
along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a food "web". Ecological communities with
higher biodiversity form more complex trophic paths.

Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic
levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.

 Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
 Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
 Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
 Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
 Apex predators by definition have no predators and are at the top of their food chains

Topic Food Chain and Food Web

A food chain is a linear network of links in a food web starting from producer organisms (such
as grass or trees which use radiation from the Sun to make their food) and ending at apex
predator species (like grizzly bears or killer whales), detritivores (like earthworms or woodlice),
or decomposer species (such as fungi or bacteria). A food chain also shows how the organisms
are related with each other by the food they eat. Each level of a food chain represents a different
trophic level.

Food Web

A food web (or food cycle) is a natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical
representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community. Another name
for food web is consumer-resource system.

A food chain differs from a food web, because the complex network of different animals’
feeding relations is aggregated and the chain only follows a direct, linear pathway of one animal
at a time. Natural interconnections between food chains make it a food web. A common metric
used to the quantify food web trophic structure is food chain length. In its simplest form, the
length of a chain is the number of links between a trophic consumer and the base of the web and
the mean chain length of an entire web is the arithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in a
food web.[1][2]

Types of Food Chains

The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms (herbivores to
carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten, is known as food chain.

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In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized – grazing food chain and detritus
food chain.

1. Grazing food chain:

This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to grazing herbivores, and on to
carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent on an influx of solar
radiation.

This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the movement of this
captured energy to herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this type of food chain.
The phytoplanktons →zooplanktons →Fish sequence or the grasses →rabbit →Fox sequences
are the examples, of grazing food chain.

2. Detritus food chain:

This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into microorganisms and then to
organisms feeding on detritus (detrivores) and their predators. Such ecosystems are thus less
dependent on direct solar energy. These depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced
in another system. For example, such type of food chain operates in the decomposing
accumulated litter in a temperate forest.

3. Parasitic food chain: In this type of food chain either the producer or the consumer is
parasitized and therefore the food passes to the smaller organism. The energy transfer through
this kind of food chain is not significant.

Producer→ Herbivores→ Parasite→ Hyperparasites

Trees→ Fruit eating birds→ Lice and bugs→ Bacteria and fungi

Significance of food chain

1. The studies of food chain help understand the feeding relationship and the interaction between
organisms in any ecosystem.

2. They also help us to appreciate the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation in
ecosystem and understand the movement of toxic substances in the ecosystem.

3. The study of food chain helps us to understand the problems of bio-magnifications.

Topic Ecological Pyramid

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An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid, eltonian pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes
food pyramid) is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or bio productivity at
each trophic level in a given ecosystem.

Pyramid of numbers

A numbers pyramid shows the relevant number of organisms that each trophic level occupies in
an ecosystem. Often, there are more producers than consumers, however, it can also be seen in
many ecosystems that there are more primary consumers than producers.

A "pyramid of numbers" shows graphically the population of each level in a food chain. It is an
upright pyramid given in an ecosystem, where usually the producers are more in number than
any other trophic level. This shows the number of organisms in each trophic level without any
consideration for their size.

Pyramid of biomass

A biomass pyramid shows the total mass of the organisms that each trophic level occupies in an
ecosystem. Usually, producers have a higher biomass than any other trophic level, but there can
be lower amounts of biomass at the bottom of the pyramid if the rate of primary production per
unit biomass is very fast.

A "pyramid of biomass" shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by
quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an energy community at a particular
time. It is a graphical representation of biomass (total amount of living or organic matter in an
ecosystem) present in unit area in different tropic levels. Typical units are grams per meter 2, or
calories per meter2. The pyramid of biomass may be "inverted". For example, in a pond
ecosystem, the standing crop of phytoplankton, the major producers, at any given point will be
lower than the mass of the heterotrophs, such as fish and insects. This is explained as the
phytoplankton reproduce very quickly, but have much shorter individual lives.

One problem with biomass pyramids is that they can make a trophic level appear to contain more
energy than it actually does. For example, all birds have beaks and skeletons, which despite
having mass are not typically digested by the next trophic level.

Pyramid of Energy

A "pyramid of productivity" is often more useful, showing the production or turnover (the rate at
which energy or mass is transferred from one trophic level to the next) of biomass at each trophic
level. Instead of showing a single snapshot in time, productivity pyramids show the flow of
energy through the food chain. Typical units are grams per meter 2 per year or calories per meter2
per year. As with the others, this graph shows producers at the bottom and higher trophic levels
on top.

When an ecosystem is healthy, this graph produces a standard ecological pyramid. This is
because in order for the ecosystem to sustain itself, there must be more energy at lower trophic
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levels than there is at higher trophic levels. This allows organisms on the lower levels to not only
to maintain a stable population, but also to transfer energy up the pyramid. The exception to this
generalization is when portions of a food web are supported by inputs of resources from outside
the local community. In small, forested streams, for example, the volume of higher levels is
greater than could be supported by the local primary production.

When energy is transferred to the next trophic level, typically only 10% or 12% of it is used to
build new biomass, becoming stored energy (the rest going to metabolic processes) (Pauly and
Christensen, 1995). In this case, in the pyramid of productivity each step will be 10% the size of
the previous step (100,000, 10,000, 1,000, 100, 10, 1, .1, .01).

Topic productivity

Productivity refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. It is usually expressed

in units of mass per unit surface (or volume) per unit time, for instance grams per square metre
per day (g m−2 d−1). The mass unit may relate to dry matter or to the mass of carbon generated.
Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that of
heterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity.[1]

Primary production

Primary production is the synthesis of new organic material from inorganic molecules such as
H2O and CO2. It is dominated by the process of photosynthesis which uses sunlight to synthesise
organic molecules such as sugar.

Gross primary productivity (GPP) and Net primary productivity (NPP)

Gross primary production (GPP) is the amount of chemical energy, typically expressed as
carbon biomass, that primary producers create in a given length of time. Some fraction of this
fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing
tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration"). [2][3] The remaining fixed energy
(i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as net primary production (NPP).

NPP = GPP - respiration [by plants]

Net primary production is the rate at which all the autotrophs in an ecosystem produce net useful
chemical energy. As noted, it is equal to the difference between the rate at which the plants in an
ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that
energy during respiration. Net primary production is available to be directed toward growth and
reproduction of primary producers. As such it is available for consumption by herbivores.

Both gross and net primary production are typically expressed in units of mass per unit area per
unit time interval. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit area per year (g C m−2 yr−1) is
most often used as the unit of measurement. Note that a distinction is sometimes drawn between
"production" and "productivity", with the former the quantity of material produced (g C m −2), the

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latter the rate at which it is produced (g C m −2 yr−1), but these terms are more typically used
interchangeably.

Primary Production and Plant Biomass for the Earth

Mean biomass World biomass

Area Mean NPP World NPP
Ecosystem type
(10⁶ km²) (g/m²/yr) (10⁹ tons/yr)
(kg/m²) (10⁹ tons)
Tropical rainforest 17.0 2,200 37.4 45 763
Tropical seasonal forest 7.5 1,600 12.0 35 260
Temperate evergreen forest 5.0 1,300 6.5 35 175
Temperate deciduous forest 7.0 1,200 8.4 30 210
Boreal forest 12.0 800 9.6 20 240
Woodlands and shrublands 8.5 700 6.0 6 50
Savanna 15.0 900 13.6 4 60
Temperate grasslands 9.0 600 5.4 1.6 14
Tundra and alpine 8.0 140 1.1 0.6 5
Desert and semi-desert 18.0 90 1.6 0.7 13
Extreme desert and ice 24.0 3 0.07 0.02 0.5
Cultivated land 14.0 650 9.1 1.0 14
Swamp and wetland 2.0 2,000 4.0 12.3 30
Lakes and streams 2.0 250 0.5 0.02 0.05
Total Continental 149 773 115 12.3 1837
Open ocean 332.0 125 41.5 0.003 1.0
Upwelling zones 0.4 500 0.2 0.02 0.008
Continental shelf 26.6 360 9.6 0.01 0.27
Algal bed and reef 0.6 2,500 1.6 2.0 1.2
Estuaries 1.4 1,500 2.1 1.0 1.4
Total marine 361 152 55.0 0.01 3.9
Grand total 510 333 170 3.6

From R.H. Whittaker, quoted in Peter Stiling (1996), "Ecology: Theories and Applications" (Prentice Hall).

Topic Methods of Measuring Primary Productivity:

Productivity is usually measured as the rate at which energy or biomass is produced per unit area
per unit time. This rate is expressed in such terms as kilocalories per square per year (kcal/m2/yr)
a measured or energy or germs per square meter per year a measure of biomass. Various
techniques used to estimate primary productivity are

Light and Dark Bottle Method

Radioactive Tracer Method

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Chlorophyll Concentration

Carbon Dioxide Flux

Harvest Analysis

Light and Dark Bottle Method:

This method is employed to measure primary productivity in an aquatic ecosystem such as a

pond. It is based upon the assumption that the amount of oxygen produced is proportional to
gross production because one molecule of oxygen is produced for each atom of carbon fixed.
Samples of water from different depths are placed in paired bottles. One of the paired bottles is
covered with black tape or aluminium foil to exclude light and other is kept clear to admit light
and allow photosynthesis. The oxygen concentration of the bottles is determined by Winkles
method. The bottles are suspended to the same depth from where samples were collected with
the help of string. After 24 hours the bottles are removed their oxygen concentration is
determined and compared with the concentration at the beginning. The decline of oxygen in the
dark bottle indicates the amount of respiration by producers and consumers where the oxygen
change in the light bottle reflects the net result of oxygen consumed by respiration and oxygen
produced. Adding respiration and production together or subtracting final oxygen concentration
in the dark bottle from that in the light bottles give an estimate of gross productivity for 24 hours.

This method has its problems. Some of the respiration attributed to phytoplankton may be
bacterial. The phytoplankton population may increase in the bottle during the experimental time
but not in dark bottle. Also the procedure is based on the assumption that respiration in the dark
is the same as in the light.

Harvest Analysis (Standing Crop Method):

Harvest method is widely used to estimate in terrestrial ecosystem. It is most useful for
estimating the production of cultivated land range and communities of annual plants were
production starts from zero at seedling or planting time becomes maximum at harvest and is
subject to minimal use by consumers.

The technique involves removing vegetation at periodic intervals and drying the samples to a
constant weight. To obtain n accurate estimate the production of plant biomass must be sampled
throughout the growing season and the contribution of each species must be determined.
Different species of plants reach their peak production at different times during the growing
season. The difference in standing crop biomass between harvests periods expressed as germs
per square meter per unit time provides an estimate of net primary productivity. Caloric value of
the material can be determined through use of a calorimeter and biomass can be converted to
calories. Net primary productivity is then expressed as kilocalories per square meter per year.

Harvest method provides information about above ground productivity usually because low
ground productivity requires the samples of root biomass which is difficult at best. Although the

14
roots of some annual and crops plant may be removed from the soil the task become more
difficult with grass and herbaceous species and even more so with forest trees.

Carbon Dioxide Flux

It is one of the most useful methods for estimating primary productivity in terrestrial ecosystems.
It helps measuring both gross and net primary production. It involves measurement of the uptake
of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis and its release in respiration. In this method a simple of
community which may be twig and its leaves a segment of a tree stem the ground cover and soil
surface or even a portion of the total community such as an on site sample of grassland is
enclosed in a clear plastic tent. Air is drawn through the enclosure and the carbon dioxide
concentration in incoming air and outgoing air is measured with an infrared gas analyzer or by
absorption on a KOH column. The assumption is that any carbon dioxide removed from the
incoming air during the day has been incorporated into organic matter. Therefore the quantity of
carbon dioxide in the enclosure is equivalent to photosynthesis minus respiration. A similar
sample may be enclosed in dark enclosure. The amount of carbon dioxide is produce in the dark
bag is a measure of respiration when photosynthesis stops. The quantity of carbon in the light
and dark enclosure added together estimates gross production.

Secondary production

Secondary production is the generation of biomass of heterotrophic (consumer) organisms in a

system. This is driven by the transfer of organic material between trophic levels, and represents
the quantity of new tissue created through the use of assimilated food. Secondary production is
sometimes defined to only include consumption of primary producers by herbivorous
consumers[2] (with tertiary production referring to carnivorous consumers),[3] but is more
commonly defined to include all biomass generation by heterotrophs.[1]

Organisms responsible for secondary production include animals, protists, fungi and many
bacteria.

Secondary production can be estimated through a number of different methods including

increment summation, removal summation, the instantaneous growth method and the Allen
curve method.[4] The choice between these methods will depend on the assumptions of each and
the ecosystem under study. For instance, whether cohorts should be distinguished, whether linear
mortality can be assumed and whether population growth is exponential.

Topic biomass

The biomass is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given
time. Biomass can refer to species biomass, which is the mass of one or more species, or to
community biomass, which is the mass of all species in the community. It can include
15
microorganisms, plants or animals.[4] The mass can be expressed as the average mass per unit
area, or as the total mass in the community.

How biomass is measured depends on why it is being measured. Sometimes, the biomass is
regarded as the natural mass of organisms in situ, just as they are. For example, in a salmon
fishery, the salmon biomass might be regarded as the total wet weight the salmon would have if
they were taken out of the water. In other contexts, biomass can be measured in terms of the
dried organic mass, so perhaps only 30% of the actual weight might count, the rest being water.
For other purposes, only biological tissues count, and teeth, bones and shells are excluded. In
some applications, biomass is measured as the mass of organically bound carbon (C) that is
present.

The total live biomass on Earth is about 550–560 billion tonnes C, [1][5] and the total annual
primary production of biomass is just over 100 billion tonnes C/yr.[6] The total live biomass of
bacteria may be as much as that of plants and animals [7] or may be much less.[1][8][9][10][11] The total
number of DNA base pairs on Earth, as a possible approximation of global biodiversity, is
estimated at (5.3±3.6)×1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[12][13] In comparison, the total mass of
the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4×1012 tonnes of carbon.[14]
Topic Ecological factors
An environmental factor, ecological factor or eco factor is any factor, abiotic or , that
influences living organisms.[1] Abiotic factors include ambient temperature, amount of sunlight,
and pH of the water and soil in which an organism lives. Biotic factors would include the
availability of food organisms and the presence of conspecifics, competitors, predators, and
parasites.

Topic Ecological Factor - Light

Light is an important ecological factor. Direct exposure of protoplasm to light causes death. Still,
without light, life would not exist, as it is the ultimate source of energy. Moreover, the evolution
of the biosphere has chiefly evolved from the taming of incoming solar radiation the useful
wavelengths exploited and the harmful ones shielded out.

Light, thus, is a kind of radiation, the visible wavelength of electromagnetic radiation. This part
of the spectrum runs from violet (shorter wavelength) to red (longer wavelength). Wavelengths
shorter than violet are ultraviolet radiation, visible to fishes and insects but invisible to man.

Wavelengths longer than red are infrared and microwave radiation. The energy of the solar
radiation reaching the earth’s surface consists of one half in the visible range and another half in
the near infrared. The ozone layer of the atmosphere prevents the ultraviolet rays, except a few,
to reach the earth’s surface. Ecologically, the important aspects of light are the quality
(wavelength), the intensity (energy), and the duration (length of day).

(i) Quality of Light:

16
Animals and plants both respond to different wavelengths. For example, the rate of
photosynthesis varies somewhat with different wavelengths. Among mammals, colour vision is
well-developed only in primates.

(ii) Intensity of Light:

The intensity of light controls the entire ecosystem through its influence on primary production.
Photosynthesis follows linear increase up to an optimum or light saturation level. Individual
plants and communities adopt to different light intensities by becoming shade adapted (i.e.
reaching saturation at low intensities) or sun adapted.

Phytoplanktons, other than diatoms, are shade adapted and photosynthesis in them are very much
inhibited by light intensities (peak production in the sea occurs below rather than at the surface).
Diatoms, on the other hand, are sun adapted and show maximum rate of photosynthesis when
light intensity is less than 5 percent of full sunlight.

(iii) Duration of Light:

The duration of light or photoperiodicity refers to the length of the light and dark portions of the
24-hour day. Change in day length provides organisms information about the advance of
seasons, so that they can schedule their life history events, breeding conditions and other
activities at the appropriate season.

In case of the plants, photoperiod may be responsible for the timing of many events including
flowering. Short-day plants requires lesser length days to come into flower (Examples: soybean,
chrysanthemum, violet etc.). Long-day plants need day lengths longer to come into flower
(Example: evening primrose, spinach, wheat grass etc.).

Light in relation to water:

Water layers affect light intensity. The intensity of light decreases gradually with increasing
depth. Light penetration in water depends upon the turbidity, solute content, motion of water,
plankton growth etc. Thus, submerged plants receive weaker illumination than the exposed
plants, floating on the surface of water.

Functions of Light in Plants:

Light affects plant life directly and indirectly.

Thus it serves the following functions:

1. Production of chlorophyll:

Most plants require sunlight for chlorophyll formation. Light is thus, essential for the production
of food and for the existence of life forms as a whole.

17
2. Transpiration:

Plants exposed to light, raise their temperature and the rate of transpiration increases. Water
absorption is thus, affected due to corresponding effect on transpiration rates. This may result in
formation of dry habitat.

3. Stomatal regulation:

Light regulates the opening and closing of stomata and is thus related to transpiration and
absorption.

4. Plant distribution:

The distribution of light intensity varies with the latitude and it is probably one of the reasons for
the varied vegetations at different parts of the world. In case of a water body the phytoplankton
get concentrated at areas where the radiation of the sun is strongest. It is one of the reasons for
the phytoplankton to get concentrated at the surface of the water during daytime.

5. Plant classification:

Plants can be classified based on the requirement of light:

(a) Heliophytes grow best in full sunlight.

(b) Sciophytes grow best at lower light intensity.

In comparison to the sciophytes, heliophytes show thicker stems, more frequent branching,
smaller chloroplasts, roots longer, high respiration rate, low water content, higher concentration
of salts and sugar, high osmotic pressure etc.

6. Photoperiodism:

Photoperiod — the total length of daylight period to which plants are exposed — plays an
important part in local distribution of plants by affecting stem elongation, flowering, fruit deve-
lopment etc. On the basis of photoperiod plants may be (i) short-day plants (Example: Salvia,
Datura, Cannabis, Cosmos etc.) and (ii) long-day plants (Example: Brassica, Secala, Sorghum
etc.).

7. Photosynthetic efficiency:

The photosynthetic efficiency varies with the diurnal light intensity. The peak efficiency is
attained at 2:00 pm, when light intensity is most pronounced.

Functions of Light on Animals:

Light plays an effective role on the activity of animals which are:

18
1. Metabolism:

The metabolic activities of animals are affected by light through its heating effect on tissues. It
results in an increase in enzymatic activity and in degree of solubility of salts and minerals.
Animals residing in caves show slow metabolic activities.

2. Locomotion:

Locomotion in some lower animals is regulated by light — a phenomena known as photo

kinesis. For example, blind larvae of mussel crab (Pinnotheres) moves at a faster rate when
exposed to an increased light intensity. Locusts stop their flight when the sun gets hidden by the
clouds.

The movement of animals in response to light is called photo taxis, and such movements are
called phototactic. Some animals like Euglena etc. are said to be positively phototactic as they
move towards the light source. Others like earthworm, slugs, copepods etc. move away from the
light source and are thus known as negatively phototactic. Some animals like the polyps of many
coelenterates show movement of only a part of their body in response to light and are thus
termed as phototropism.

3. Reproduction:

The gonads in some birds become active with increased light intensity. Thus, light initiates
breeding activities. Some animals (sheep, goat, deer etc.) are short-day animals and they can be
brought to sexual act by decreasing the length of exposure to daylight. Animals like starlings,
turkeys etc. are long-day animals, while, squirrels, guinea pigs etc. are indifferent towards the
length of light exposure.

4. Development:

The larva of Salmon undergoes normal development when exposed under sufficient light
conditions. However, rapid mortality takes place in the absence of light. Smolt transformation in
fishes is initiated by the rate of change of daily photo-period. The larva of Mytilus develops
better in darkness than in light.

5. Eyes:

In case of cave dwelling, Proteus anguinus, and deep sea fishes, the eyes are totally absent or
rudimentary. This occurs due to the absence of light in these habitats. Some deep sea fishes do
have larger eyes than the normal size to capture any ray of light that might be present. However,
there is total absence of cones in these eyes.

6. Vision:

Most animals can see objects and differentiate colours only in the presence of light. However,
vision is reduced in nocturnal animals when they are exposed to sufficient light conditions.
19
7. Synthesis of calcium:

Calcium synthesis in bones require sunlight. The bones of deep sea fishes are brittle as they are
unable to synthesise calcium due to the total absence of sunlight.

8. Pigmentation:

The process of pigmentation in animals are influenced by light. Colouration and mimicry are
best exemplified in the presence of light.

9. Photoperiodism:

Photoperiodism on the total light period has profound effect on animals through such processes
as gonadal activity, reproduction, metamorphosis, migration etc. Migration of birds and fishes
are known to be affected by photoperiodism. Early maturation in certain cat fishes seems to be
induced by longer period of day.

10. Vitamin D formation:

Ultraviolet radiation of the sun plays a role in vitamin D production in animals.

Topic Ecological Factor - Temperature:

Life on this earth exists within a narrow range of 300 degree Celsius (from -200°C to 100°C). In
fact, most species activities are restricted to an even narrower band of temperature. Some
organisms during the resting stage can survive through very low temperatures, while a few
microorganisms (bacteria) can tolerate and even reproduce in hot springs, where the temperature
is close to the boiling point (80°C for cyanobacteria). The range of temperature variation is less
in water than on land. Thus, aquatic organisms have narrower range of temperature tolerance
than land animals.

Temperature, thus, is a limiting factor. It affects organisms by controlling their morphological,

physiological and behavioural features through either heat gain or heat loss or both. When heat
gain is equal to heat loss then the body temperature of the animal or plant will remain same. If
heat gain is more than heat loss then body temperature will rise, while the reverse is true when
body temperature drops.

Poikilotherms and Homoiotherms:

On the relationship of body temperature to environmental temperature, organisms are of two

types — Poikilotherms and Homoiotherms.

(a) Poikilotherms:

Poikilotherms or cold blooded organisms are those whose body temperature tends to match
environmental temperature. As the environmental temperature goes up or down, the rates of their
20
body processes also goes up or down — as the case may be. Most lower organisms, particularly
those residing in water, are poikilotherms.

Poikilotherms have no internal physiological means to keep body temperature constant. These
animals do adjust their body temperature with that of the outer world. However, some animals
(lizards) use behavioural rather than physiological means to regulate their body temperature.

(b) Homoiotherms or homeiotherms:

Homeiotherms better known as warm blooded organisms, can keep their body temperature
constant even when the environmental temperature changes. Homoiotherms are mainly birds and
mammals, who have automatic physiological mechanisms for keeping their body temperature
constant despite the changes of the outside or surrounding temperature.

To keep their body temperature high at low environmental temperature, homoiotherms increase
their metabolic rate or increase insulation by adding fat or fluffing up feathers or fur. On the
other hand, to keep body temperatures low at high environmental temperatures, warm-blooded
animals lower their heat production and increase their heat loss by evaporating water from sweat
glands or by panting etc.

Poikilotherms and homoiotherms differ drastically in the relationship between the organism and
its environment, as can be seen in Fig. 4.17. For example, very low temperature is tolerated in
different ways. Poikilotherms gradually become inactive as temperature drops (Antarctic mites
are, however, active even at subzero temperature), and they may seek microhabitats (if
available).

Their further survival depends on tolerating the cold.

There may be two types of species:

(i) Freeze-tolerating species (survives ice-formation in their extracellular spaces) and freeze-
susceptible species (which do not survive on freezing).

21
  

Homoiotherms, on the other hand, can survive low temperatures by accumulating enough food in
their body to keep heat production high and so as to maintain normal body temperature. If a
homoiotherm fails to accumulate enough food, its body temperature will drop and it will die
quickly at a body temperature well above freezing.

Poikilotherms are energy conservatives with low power, while homoiotherms are extravagant but
powerful. In a powerful food rich habitat, homoiotherm wins but poikilotherms will not get along
quite well. When food or water or oxygen disappears for the season, poikilotherms can survive
by shutting themselves down.

While homoiotherms, even if they greatly restrict their activity, continue to use large amount of
energy. Poikilotherms can be very small and can restrict their energy requirement, while
homoiotherms simply require too much energy to exist at sizes much below 5 gram.

Hibernation:

Hibernation or winter sleep is seen in only a few mammals (thirteen-lined ground squirrels,
jumping mice etc.) and still fewer birds (woodchucks etc.) The warm-blooded animals that
hibernate in winter are termed heterotherms.

The hibernating homoilotherms search for a place to stay (hibernaculum), as winter approaches
and become poikilothermic, so that as the temperature in their hibernaculum decreases so also
does their body temperature.

In this way they save their energy which otherwise they would have spent in keeping their body
temperature constant and in moving about. They, however, differ from poikilotherm in terms that
when their hibernaculum gets close to freezing point, their heat production begins to increase.

22
If temperature falls further, these animals rouse and reverts back to homoiothermic again. If they
are lucky they may find a deeper hole and may again go back to winter sleep. Raccoons,
possums, foxes, squirrels, bears do not hibernate but spend the winter sleeping in burrows. Their
temperature however do not drop.

Eurythermal and stenothermal organisms:

Organisms such as man, lizards, amphibians etc. can tolerate wide range of temperature
fluctuations and are referred to as eurythermal organisms. On the other hand, corals, snails etc.
cannot tolerate wide ranges of temperature fluctuations as they have no adaptation to adjust
themselves to such temperature fluctuations. They are called stenothermal organisms.

Ectotherms and Endotherms:

A classification based on the relationships between organisms and environmental temperature

divides organisms into ectotherms and endotherms. Ectotherms are organisms who largely
depend on external sources of heat to raise their body temperature.

Examples: protista, plants, fishes, reptiles etc. Endotherms are organisms capable of generating
heat internally in order to raise their body temperature. Examples: birds and mammals.

As the temperature moves away from the thermo neutral zone, the endotherms expend more and
more energy to maintain body temperature. Endotherms produce heat at a rate controlled by the
brain. Heat loss is moderated by insulator material (fur, fat etc.) and by controlling blood flow
near the skin surface.

Functions of Temperature:

The effects of temperature on plants and animals are:

1. Effect on metabolism:

As temperature regulates the activity of enzymes, it regulates the metabolic processes of orga-
nisms. It affects the rate of transpiration, photosynthesis and seed germination in plants. It also
regulates the respiration rates and other metabolic activities in both plants and animals.

2. Effect on reproduction:

(a) Plants:

Temperature affects flowering in plants. It also plays an important role in the phenology (study
of periodic phenomena) of plants.

(b) Animals:

23
The maturation of gonads and liberation of gametes take place at a particular temperature that
varies from species to species. Breeding also is affected in some due to temperature. The number
of eggs laid by blowfly increases with increasing temperature up to 32.5°C and thereafter
decreases. The fecundity of animals is also affected by temperature.

3. Effect on growth and development:

(a) Plants:

Extremes of high and low temperature have adverse effect on the growth of plants. Low
temperatures bring about diseases like desiccation, chilling and freezing injury. Extremely high
temperature causes stunting and death of plants — called heat injury.

(b) Animals:

Growth and development of animals are affected by temperature. Corals do not flourish when the
temperature of water drops below 21°C. In blow-fly, the incubation period of eggs decreases
with increasing temperature.

4. Effect on crossing over:

Temperature is seen to affect the crossing over and somatic expression of genes in animals. If the
larva or pupa are kept at low or high temperature it affects the development of wings, eyes etc.

5. Effect on sex-ratio:

In rotifers and daphnids, temperature affects sex ratio. Under normal temperature, daphnids lay
parthenogenetic eggs that develop into females, while with the increase in temperature they give
fertilised eggs that develop into either males or females.

6. Effect on colouration:

Some species of mammals, birds and insects present in warm humid climates, bear darker
pigment than the races of species who resides in cool and dry climate. In Hyla (tree frog) and
Phrynosoma (horned toad), low temperature induces darkening of pigments.

7. Effect on morphology:

The absolute size of an organism is affected by temperature. Mammals and birds attain larger
body sizes in cold regions than in warmer areas. Whereas, poikilotherms are smaller in cold
regions. Snout, ear, legs etc. of mammals are relatively shorter in colder areas than in warmer
areas. The races of birds occurring in colder regions have relatively narrower and more
accuminate wings, while those in warmer areas tend to be broader.

Topic Ecological Factor- Rainfall/ Water

24
Nearly 97% of the earth’s available water is found in the ocean and the rest 3% on land.
Evaporation and transpiration of this water results in the formation of water vapour, which at any
one time amounts to only about 0.001%. If this entire water vapour were precipitated (rainfall) at
the same time over the whole earth’s surface, it would equal to 2.5 cm of rain.

The annual rainfall averaging over the entire earth’s surface is about 80 cm. Three-fourth of this
falls on the ocean. The ocean, however, contributes about five-sixth of the water evaporated in
the hydrological cycle The difference falls as rain on land which later joins the ocean through the
rivers. This asymmetry is essential; otherwise the land would have been a drier place.

Precipitation or rain falling on the earth’s surface returns back to the atmosphere by two
ways:

1. Some water is directly evaporated from the soil, from open waters of ponds, lakes, oceans etc.
and from the surfaces of objects (wet from recent rain).

2. Some water returns back via transpiration (process by which the leaves of plants evaporate
water taken up from the soil by their roots).

The combination of the above two ways is referred to as evapotranspiration, a process that is
dependent on temperature. Evapotranspiration is related to the availability of water in the soil,
the leaf area of the local vegetation and the temperature. Evapotranspiration nearly doubles with
each 10°C rise in temperature. It is also proportional to the rate of photosynthesis.

From the pathway of rain falling on the vegetated land (Fig. 4.18), much of the water is
intercepted by the vegetation and re-evaporated without reaching the ground. A small part of this
rain water is generally available for plant growth, of which only 1% is used in photosynthesis.

25
Rainfall is determined by geography and weather systems (pattern of large air movements). The
distribution of rainfall over the year is an important limiting factor for organisms. For example, a
35 inch rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year is quite different from that provided by the
same amount of rain falling during a restricted time of the year. In the latter, the flora and fauna
will have to survive long droughts or sudden floods.

The amount of rainfall (evenly distributed over the year) gives a rough approximation of the
biotic community that may be expected, which is listed below:

26
Functions of Rainfall:

1. Formation of biomes:

The annual amount of rainfall evenly distributed in temperate latitudes determines the climax
biotic communities (as given above).

2. Type of vegetation:

The annual rainfall determines the type of vegetation. For example, heavy rainfall throughout the
year in tropical regions results in evergreen forest. Countries having heavy rainfall in winter and
less rainfall in summer results in the formation of sclerophyllous forest—made of shrubs with
leathery, thick evergreen leaves. Conversely, areas with heavy rainfall during summer and less in
winter results in the formation of grassland.

3. Type of animals:

With the change of vegetation due to rain, the animal life also differs in different geographic
regions.

4. Flooding and reactions by animals:

Flooding by rainwater results in dam building by beavers. Beaver’s dam contains felled trees,
mud, stones and sticks. Terrestrial vegetation in that area dies and aquatic succession begins.
Finally the beavers leave, the dam deteriorates and breaks and the valley becomes a dry land
again, but with an altered soil consisting of the old lake bed.

5. Effects on metabolism:

Rainfall brings along with it a cooling effect which regulates the activity of various animals.

6. Effect on reproduction:

Rainfall is one of the physical factors that regulate the maturation and liberation of gonads. For
example, the croaking of the male frog can be heard at the time of rainfall which attracts the
female for mating.

7. Effect on growth:

In case of certain plants, the advent of rainfall witnesses the appearance of shoot and new leaves
and branches.

Topic Ecological effects of wind

27
1. Dispersal of seeds

Wind dispersal of seeds, or anemochory, is one of the more primitive means of dispersal. Wind
dispersal can take on one of two primary forms: seeds can float on the breeze or alternatively,
they can flutter to the ground.[118] The classic examples of these dispersal mechanisms include
dandelions (Taraxacum spp., Asteraceae), which have a feathery pappus attached to their seeds
and can be dispersed long distances, and maples (Acer (genus) spp., Sapindaceae), which have
winged seeds and flutter to the ground.

Growth and development

Wind also limits tree growth. On coasts and isolated mountains, the tree line is often much lower
than in corresponding altitudes inland and in larger, more complex mountain systems, because
strong winds reduce tree growth. High winds scour away thin soils through erosion, [121] as well as
damage limbs and twigs. When high winds knock down or uproot trees, the process is known as
windthrow. This is most likely on windward slopes of mountains, with severe cases generally
occurring to tree stands that are 75 years or older.[122] Plant varieties near the coast, such as the
Sitka spruce and sea grape,[123] are pruned back by wind and salt spray near the coastline.[124]

Damage and injury

Wind can also cause plants damage through sand abrasion. Strong winds will pick up loose sand
and topsoil and hurl it through the air at speeds ranging from 25 miles per hour (40 km/h) to 40
miles per hour (64 km/h). Such windblown sand causes extensive damage to plant seedlings
because it ruptures plant cells, making them vulnerable to evaporation and drought.

Effect on animals

Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by a combination of wind and cold temperatures,
when winds exceed 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph), rendering their hair and wool coverings
ineffective.[127]

Flying insects, a subset of arthropods, are swept along by the prevailing winds, [129] while birds
follow their own course taking advantage of wind conditions, in order to either fly or glide. [130]
As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are
dominated by insect returns.[131]

Bird migration, which tends to occur overnight within the lowest 7,000 feet (2,100 m) of the
Earth's atmosphere, contaminates wind profiles gathered by weather radar, particularly the WSR-
88D, by increasing the environmental wind returns by 15 knots (28 km/h) to 30 knots (56 km/h).
[132]

Pikas use a wall of pebbles to store dry plants and grasses for the winter in order to protect the
food from being blown away.[133]

28
Cockroaches use slight winds that precede the attacks of potential predators, such as toads, to
survive their encounters. Their cerci are very sensitive to the wind, and help them survive half of
their attacks.[134] Elk have a keen sense of smell that can detect potential upwind predators at a
distance of 0.5 miles (800 m).[135] Increases in wind above 15 kilometers per hour (9.3 mph)
signals glaucous gulls to increase their foraging and aerial attacks on thick-billed murres.[136]

Topic Fire as an Ecological Factor

Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with natural processes involving fire in an
ecosystem and the ecological effects, the interactions between fire and the abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem, and the role as an ecosystem process. Many ecosystems,
particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an
essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal.[1] Many plant species in fire-affected
environments require fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only
eliminates these species, but also the animals that depend upon them.[2]

Fire Components

A fire regime describes the characteristics of fire and how it interacts with a particular
ecosystem. Its "severity" is a term that ecologists use to refer to the impact that a fire has on an
ecosystem. Ecologists can define this in many ways, but one way is through an estimate of plant
mortality. Fire can burn at three levels. Ground fires will burn through soil that is rich in organic
matter. Surface fires will burn through dead plant material that is lying on the ground. Crown
fires will burn in the tops of shrubs and trees. Ecosystems generally experience a mix of all three.

Fires will often break out during a dry season, but in some areas wildfires may also commonly
occur during a time of year when lightning is prevalent. The frequency over a span of years at
which fire will occur at a particular location is a measure of how common wildfires are in a
given ecosystem. It is either defined as the average interval between fires at a given site, or the
average interval between fires in an equivalent specified area.[7]

Defined as the energy released per unit length of fireline (kW m −1), wildfire intensity can be
estimated either as

 the product of
o the linear spread rate (m s−1),

o the low heat of combustion (kJ kg−1),

o and the combusted fuel mass per unit area,

 or it can be estimated from the flame length.[8]

Abiotic responses

29
  Fires can affect soils through heating and combustion processes. Depending on the
temperatures of the soils caused by the combustion processes, different effects will
happen- from evaporation of water at the lower temperature ranges, to the combustion of
soil organic matter and formation of pyrogenic organic matter, otherwise known as
charcoal.
 Fires can cause changes in soil nutrients through a variety of mechanisms, which include
oxidation, volatilization, erosion, and leaching by water, but the event must usually be of
high temperatures in order of significant loss of nutrients to occur. However, quantity of
nutrients available in soils is usually increased due to the ash that is generated, and this is
made quickly available, as opposed to the slow release of nutrients by decomposition.
Rock spalling (or thermal exfoliation) accelerates weathering of rock and potentially the
release of some nutrients.

 Increase in the pH of the soil following a fire is commonly observed, most likely due to
the formation of calcium carbonate and the subsequent decomposition of this calcium
carbonate to calcium oxide when temperatures get even higher. [9] It could also be due to
the increased cation content in the soil due to the ash, which temporarily increases soil
pH. Microbial activity in the soil might also increase due to the heating of soil and
increased nutrient content in the soil, though studies have also found complete loss of
microbes on the top layer of soil after a fire.[10][11] Overall, soils become more basic
(higher pH) following fires because of acid combustion. By driving novel chemical
reactions at high temperatures, fire can even alter the texture and structure of soils by
affecting the clay content and the soil's porosity.

 Removal of vegetation following a fire can cause several effects on the soil, such as
increasing the temperatures of the soil during the day due to increased solar radiation on
the soil surface, and greater cooling due to loss of radiative heat at night. Fewer leaves to
intercept rain will also cause more rain to reach the soil surface, and with fewer plants to
absorb the water, the amount of water content in the soils might increase. However, it
might be seen that ash can be water repellent when dry, and therefore water content and
availability might not actually increase.

Biotic responses and adaptations

Plants

Plants have evolved many adaptations to cope with fire. Of these adaptations, one of the best-
known is likely pyriscence, where maturation and release of seeds is triggered, in whole or in
part, by fire or smoke; this behaviour is often erroneously called serotiny, although this term
truly denotes the much broader category of seed release activated by any stimulus. All pyriscent
plants are serotinous, but not all serotinous plants are pyriscent (some are necriscent, hygriscent,
xeriscent, soliscent, or some combination thereof). On the other hand, germination of seed
activated by trigger is not to be confused with pyriscence; it is known as physiological
dormancy.

30
Fire intolerance

Fire-intolerant plant species tend to be highly flammable and are destroyed completely by fire.
Some of these plants and their seeds may simply fade from the community after a fire and not
return; others have adapted to ensure that their offspring survives into the next generation.
"Obligate seeders" are plants with large, fire-activated seed banks that germinate, grow, and
mature rapidly following a fire, in order to reproduce and renew the seed bank before the next
fire. Seeds may contain the receptor protein KAI2, that is activated by the growth hormones
karrikin released by the fire.

Fire tolerance

Fire-tolerant species are able to withstand a degree of burning and continue growing despite
damage from fire. These plants are sometimes referred to as "resprouters." Ecologists have
shown that some species of resprouters store extra energy in their roots to aid recovery and re-
growth following a fire. For example, after an Australian bushfire, the Mountain Grey Gum tree
(Eucalyptus cypellocarpa) starts producing a mass of shoots of leaves from the base of the tree
all the way up the trunk towards the top, making it look like a black stick completely covered
with young, green leaves.

Fire resistance

Fire-resistant plants suffer little damage during a characteristic fire regime. These include large
trees whose flammable parts are high above surface fires. Mature ponderosa pine (Pinus
ponderosa) is an example of a tree species that suffers virtually no crown damage under a
naturally mild fire regime, because it sheds its lower, vulnerable branches as it matures.

Animals, birds and microbes

Like plants, animals display a range of abilities to cope with fire, but they differ from most plants
in that they must avoid the actual fire to survive. Although birds are vulnerable when nesting,
they are generally able to escape a fire; indeed they often profit from being able to take prey
fleeing from a fire and to recolonize burned areas quickly afterwards. Some anthropological and
ethno-ornithological evidence suggests that certain species of fire-foraging raptors may engage
in intentional fire propagation to flush out prey.Mammals are often capable of fleeing a fire, or
seeking cover if they can burrow. Amphibians and reptiles may avoid flames by burrowing into
the ground or using the burrows of other animals. Amphibians in particular are able to take
refuge in water or very wet mud.

Some arthropods also take shelter during a fire, although the heat and smoke may actually attract
some of them, to their peril.[22] Microbial organisms in the soil vary in their heat tolerance but are
more likely to be able to survive a fire the deeper they are in the soil. A low fire intensity, a
quick passing of the flames and a dry soil will also help. An increase in available nutrients after
the fire has passed may result in larger microbial communities than before the fire. [23] The
31
generally greater heat tolerance of bacteria relative to fungi makes it possible for soil microbial
population diversity to change following a fire, depending on the severity of the fire, the depth of
the microbes in the soil, and the presence of plant cover. [24] Certain species of fungi, such as
Cylindrocarpon destructans appear to be unaffected by combustion contaminants, which can
inhibit re-population of burnt soil by other microorganisms, and therefore have a higher chance
of surviving fire disturbance and then recolonizing and out-competing other fungal species
afterwards.[25]

Fire and ecological succession

Fire behavior is different in every ecosystem and the organisms in those ecosystems have
adapted accordingly. One sweeping generality is that in all ecosystems, fire creates a mosaic of
different habitat patches, with areas ranging from those having just been burned to those that
have been untouched by fire for many years. This is a form of ecological succession in which a
freshly burned site will progress through continuous and directional phases of colonization
following the destruction caused by the fire. Ecologists usually characterize succession through
the changes in vegetation that successively arise. After a fire, the first species to re-colonize will
be those with seeds are already present in the soil, or those with seeds are able to travel into the
burned area quickly. These are generally fast-growing herbaceous plants that require light and
are intolerant of shading. As time passes, more slowly growing, shade-tolerant woody species
will suppress some of the herbaceous plants. Conifers are often early succession species, while
broad leaf trees frequently replace them in the absence of fire. Hence, many conifer forests are
themselves dependent upon recurring fire.

Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting different stages in this
process of succession, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater
number of species to exist within a landscape. Soil characteristics will be a factor in determining
the specific nature of a fire-adapted ecosystem, as will climate and topography.

Topic Soil: Least Renewable Resource of the Environment

Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support
life. Earth's body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions:

 as a medium for plant growth

 as a means of water storage, supply and purification
 as a modifier of Earth's atmosphere
 as a habitat for organisms

All of these functions, in their turn, modify the soil.

Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-
reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming
to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth's carbon cycle, soil is an
important carbon reservoir, and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance[16]
32
and climate change.[17] As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils will add carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher temperatures, a positive
feedback (amplification).[18] This prediction has, however, been questioned on consideration of
more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover.[19]

Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains most of the Earth's
genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of
species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored.[21][22]

Organic carbon held in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of
respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in
the form of soil organic matter; tillage usually increases the rate of soil respiration, leading to the
depletion of soil organic matter.[25] Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important
characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil
pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for uptake by plants.
Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most regions receive sporadic
rainfall, the water-holding capacity of soils is vital for plant survival.[26]

Soils can effectively remove impurities,[27] kill disease agents,[28] and degrade contaminants, this
latter property being called natural attenuation. [29] Typically, soils maintain a net absorption of
oxygen and methane and undergo a net release of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.[30]

Soils offer plants physical support, air, water, temperature moderation, nutrients, and protection
from toxins.[31] Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead
organic matter into various nutrient forms.[32]

Topic biotic interaction

In ecology, a biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a
community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific
interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term,
like pollination and predation, or long-term; both often strongly influence the evolution of the
species involved. A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis. Symbioses range from
mutualism, beneficial to both partners, to competition, harmful to both partners. Interactions can
be indirect, through intermediaries such as shared resources or common enemies.

Short-term interactions

Predation is a short-term interaction, in which the predator, here an osprey, kills and eats its prey.

Short-term interactions, including predation and pollination, are extremely important in ecology
and evolution. These are short-lived in terms of the duration of a single interaction: a predator
kills and eats a prey; a pollinator transfers pollen from one flower to another; but they are

33
extremely durable in terms of their influence on the evolution of both partners. As a result, the
partners coevolve.

Predation

In predation, one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. Predators are
adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision, hearing, or
smell. Many predatory animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have sharp claws or jaws to
grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and aggressive mimicry that
improve hunting efficiency. Predation has a powerful selective effect on prey, causing them to
develop antipredator adaptations such as warning coloration, alarm calls and other signals,
camouflage and defensive spines and chemicals.[8][9][10] Predation has been a major driver of
evolution since at least the Cambrian period.[6]

Pollination

Pollination has driven the coevolution of flowering plants and their animal pollinators for over
100 million years.

In pollination, pollinators including insects (entomophily), some birds (ornithophily), and some
bats, transfer pollen from a male flower part to a female flower part, enabling fertilisation, in
return for a reward of pollen or nectar. [11] The partners have coevolved through geological time;
in the case of insects and flowering plants, the coevolution has continued for over 100 million
years. Insect-pollinated flowers are adapted with shaped structures, bright colours, patterns,
scent, nectar, and sticky pollen to attract insects, guide them to pick up and deposit pollen, and
reward them for the service.

Symbiosis: long-term interactions

34
The six possible types of symbiotic relationship, from mutual benefit to mutual harm

The six possible types of symbiosis are mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, neutralism,
amensalism, and competition. These are distinguished by the degree of benefit or harm they
cause to each partner.

Mutualism

Mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where species derive a mutual benefit,
for example an increased carrying capacity. Similar interactions within a species are known as
co-operation. Mutualism may be classified in terms of the closeness of association, the closest
being symbiosis, which is often confused with mutualism. One or both species involved in the
interaction may be obligate, meaning they cannot survive in the short or long term without the
other species. Though mutualism has historically received less attention than other interactions
such as predation,[15] it is an important subject in ecology. Examples include cleaning symbiosis,
gut flora, Müllerian mimicry, and nitrogen fixation by bacteria in the root nodules of legumes.

Commensalism

Commensalism benefits one organism and the other organism is neither benefited nor harmed. It
occurs when one organism takes benefits by interacting with another organism by which the host
organism is not affected. A good example is a remora living with a shark. Remoras eat leftover
food from the shark. The shark is not affected in the process, as remoras eat only leftover food of
the shark, which does not deplete the shark's resources.

Parasitism

Parasitism is a relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or in
another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of

35
life.The parasite either feeds on the host, or, in the case of intestinal parasites, consumes some of
its food.

Neutralism

Neutralism (a term introduced by Eugene Odum describes the relationship between two species
that interact but do not affect each other. Examples of true neutralism are virtually impossible to
prove; the term is in practice used to describe situations where interactions are negligible or
insignificant.

Amensalism

Amensalism (a term introduced by Haskell) [21] is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm
to another organism without any costs or benefits received by itself. [22] A clear case of
amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass. Whilst the presence of the grass causes
negligible detrimental effects to the animal's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed.
Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as has
been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the
same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food
availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they
consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.

Competition

Competition can be defined as an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness
of one is lowered by the presence of another. Competition is often for a resource such as food,
water, or territory in limited supply, or for access to females for reproduction. [15] Competition
among members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition, while competition
between individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition. According to the
competitive exclusion principle, species less suited to compete for resources should either adapt
or die out.[24][25] According to evolutionary theory, this competition within and between species
for resources plays a critical role in natural selection.[26]

Topic Competition, Tolerance and Forest Tree Stand Structure:

Competition occurs by various mechanisms, which can generally be divided into direct and
indirect. These apply equally to intraspecific and interspecific competition.

Biologists typically recognize two types of competition: interference and exploitative

competition. During interference competition, organisms interact directly by fighting for scarce
resources. For example, large aphids defend feeding sites on cottonwood leaves by ejecting
smaller aphids from better sites.

Interference

36
Interference competition occurs directly between individuals via aggression etc. when the
individuals interfere with foraging, survival, reproduction of others, or by directly preventing
their physical establishment in a portion of the habitat. An example of this can be seen between
the ant Novomessor cockerelli and red harvester ants, where the former interferes with the ability
of the latter to forage by plugging the entrances to their colonies with small rocks.[4]

Exploitative

In contrast, during exploitative competition, organisms interact indirectly by consuming scarce

resources. For example, plants consume nitrogen by absorbing it into their roots, making
nitrogen unavailable to nearby plants. Plants that produce many roots typically reduce soil
nitrogen to very low levels, eventually killing neighboring plants.

Exploitation competition occurs indirectly through a common limiting resource which acts as an
intermediate. For example, use of resources depletes the amount available to others, or they
compete for space.[5]

Apparent

Apparent competition occurs indirectly between two species which are both preyed upon by the
same predator.[6] For example, species A and species B are both prey of predator C. The increase
of species A may cause the decrease of species B, because the increase of As may aid in the
survival of predator Cs, which will increase the number of predator Cs, which in turn will hunt
more of species B.[7]

By size asymmetry

Competition varies from :

I. complete symmetric (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of
their size)
II. perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit
biomass)

III. Absolutely size-asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource).
The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of
ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size-asymmetric competition for light
has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources.[citation needed]

By taxonomic relationship

Competition can occur between individuals of the same species, called intraspecific competition,
or between different species, called interspecific competition. Studies show that intraspecific
competition can regulate population dynamics (changes in population size over time). This
occurs because individuals become crowded as a population grows. Since individuals within a
population require the same resources, crowding causes resources to become more limited. Some
37
individuals (typically small juveniles) eventually do not acquire enough resources and die or do
not reproduce. This reduces population size and slows population growth.[citation needed]

Species also interact with other species that require the same resources. Consequently,
interspecific competition can alter the sizes of many species' populations at the same time.
Experiments demonstrate that when species compete for a limited resource, one species
eventually drives the populations of other species extinct. These experiments suggest that
competing species cannot coexist (they cannot live together in the same area) because the best
competitor will exclude all other competing species.

Ecological community

A community is a group or association of populations of two or more different species

occupying the same geographical area and in a particular time, also known as a biocoenosis. The
term community has a variety of uses. In its simplest form it refers to groups of organisms in a
specific place or time, for example, "the fish community of Lake Ontario before
industrialization".

Topic Ecological succession

It is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. The
time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years after a mass
extinction.

The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals and develops through
increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as a climax community. The
"engine" of succession, the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species upon
their own environments. A consequence of living is the sometimes subtle and sometimes overt
alteration of one's own environment.

It is a phenomenon or process by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly

and predictable changes following a disturbance or the initial colonization of a new habitat.
Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat, such as from a lava
flow or a severe landslide, or by some form of disturbance of a community, such as from a fire,
severe wind throw, or logging. .

Types of Succession

Primary succession - is the establishment of plants on land that has not been previously
vegetated - Mount Saint Helens. Begins with colonization and establishment of pioneer
species.

Secondary succession - is the invasion of a habitat by plants on land that was previously
vegetated. Removal of past vegetation may be caused by natural or human disturbances such as
fire, logging, cultivation, or hurricanes.

38
Allogenic succession - is caused by a change in environmental conditions which in turn
influences the composition of the plant community. In Cornwall England, observations on the
estuary of the Fal river suggest that the deposition of silt may be causing an allogenic succession
from salt marsh to woodland.  Measurements indicate sedimentation rates of about 1 cm per year
on the mud flats that are found 15 kilometers (9 miles) into the estuary. Over the last 100 years,
this salt marsh has increased its elevation and has extended itself seaward by 800 meters (2600
feet). The adjacent woodland has followed the salt marsh by invading its landward limit.

Autogenic succession - is a succession where both the plant community and environment
change, and this change is caused by the activities of the plants over time. Mt. St. Helens after
the last volcanic eruption.

Progressive succession - is a succession where the community becomes complex and contains
more species and biomass over time.

Retrogressive succession - is a succession where the community becomes simplistic and

contains fewer species and less biomass over time. Some retrogressive successions are allogenic
in nature. For example, the introduction of grazing animals result in degenerated rangeland.

Causes of plant succession

Autogenic succession can be brought by changes in the soil caused by the organisms there. These
changes include accumulation of organic matter in litter or humic layer, alteration of soil
nutrients, or change in the pH of soil due to the plants growing there. The structure of the plants
themselves can also alter the community. For example, when larger species like trees mature,
they produce shade on to the developing forest floor that tends to exclude light-requiring species.
Shade-tolerant species will invade the area.

Allogenic succession is caused by external environmental influences and not by the vegetation.
For example, soil changes due to erosion, leaching or the deposition of silt and clays can alter the
nutrient content and water relationships in the ecosystems. Animals also play an important role
in allogenic changes as they are pollinators, seed dispersers and herbivores. They can also
increase nutrient content of the soil in certain areas, or shift soil about (as termites, ants, and
moles do) creating patches in the habitat. This may create regeneration sites that favor certain
species.

Climatic factors may be very important, but on a much longer time-scale than any other.
Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will promote changes in communities. As the
climate warmed at the end of each ice age, great successional changes took place. The tundra
vegetation and bare glacial till deposits underwent succession to mixed deciduous forest. The
greenhouse effect resulting in increase in temperature is likely to bring profound Allogenic
changes in the next century. Geological and climatic catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, avalanches, meteors, floods, fires, and high wind also bring allogenic changes.

Process of succession

39
In 1916, Frederic Clements published a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a
general ecological concept.[8] His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological
thought. Clements' concept is usually termed classical ecological theory. According to Clements,
succession is a process involving several phases

1. Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation
(disturbance).
2. Migration: It refers to arrival of propagules.
3. Ecesis: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
4. Competition: As vegetation becomes well established, grow, and spread, various species
begin to compete for space, light and nutrients.
5. Reaction: During this phase autogenic changes such as the buildup of humus affect the
habitat, and one plant community replaces another.
6. Stabilization: A supposedly stable climax community forms.

Seral communities

A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax
community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are
attained.[15] A prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-
vegetated surfaces to a climax community. Depending on the substratum and climate, different
seres are found.

Changes in animal life

Succession theory was developed primarily by botanists. The study of succession applied to
whole ecosystems initiated in the writings of Ramon Margalef, while Eugene Odum’s
publication of The Strategy of Ecosystem Development is considered its formal starting point.[16]

Animal life also exhibit changes with changing communities. In lichen stage the fauna is sparse.
It comprises few mites, ants and spiders living in the cracks and crevices. The fauna undergoes a
qualitative increase during herb grass stage. The animals found during this stage include
nematodes, insects larvae, ants, spiders, mites, etc. The animal population increases and
diversifies with the development of forest climax community. The fauna consists of invertebrates
like slugs, snails, worms, millipedes, centipedes, ants, bugs; and vertebrates such as squirrels,
foxes, mice, moles, snakes, various birds, salamanders and frogs.

Micro succession

Succession of micro-organisms including fungi and bacteria occurring within a microhabitat is

known as microsuccession or serule. Like in plants, microbial succession can occur in newly
available habitats (primary succession) such as surfaces of plant leaves, recently exposed rock
surfaces (i.e., glacial till) or animal infant guts [13], and also on disturbed communities (secondary
40
succession) like those growing in recently dead trees or animal droppings. Microbial
communities may also change due to products secreted by the bacteria present. Changes of pH in
a habitat could provide ideal conditions for a new species to inhabit the area. In some cases the
new species may outcompete the present ones for nutrients leading to the primary species
demise. Changes can also occur by microbial succession with variations in water availability and
temperature. Theories of macroecology have only recently been applied to microbiology and so
much remains to be understood about this growing field. A recent study of microbial succession
evaluated the balances between stochastic and deterministic processes in the bacterial
colonization of a salt marsh chronosequence. The results of this study show that, much like in
macro succession, early colonization (primary succession) is mostly influenced by stochasticity
while secondary succession of these bacterial communities was more strongly influenced by
deterministic factors.[17]

Climax concept

According to classical ecological theory, succession stops when the sere has arrived at an
equilibrium or steady state with the physical and biotic environment. Barring major disturbances,
it will persist indefinitely. This end point of succession is called climax.

Climax community

The final or stable community in a sere is the climax community or climatic vegetation. It is self-
perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual accumulation of
organic matter in a climax community. The annual production and use of energy is balanced in
such a community.

Characteristics

 The vegetation is tolerant of environmental conditions.

 It has a wide diversity of species, a well-drained spatial structure, and complex food
chains.
 The climax ecosystem is balanced. There is equilibrium between gross primary
production and total respiration, between energy used from sunlight and energy released
by decomposition, between uptake of nutrients from the soil and the return of nutrient by
litter fall to the soil.
 Individuals in the climax stage are replaced by others of the same kind. Thus the species
composition maintains equilibrium.
 It is an index of the climate of the area. The life or growth forms indicate the climatic
type.

Types of climax

Climatic Climax

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 If there is only a single climax and the development of climax community is controlled
by the climate of the region, it is termed as climatic climax. For example, development of
Maple-beech climax community over moist soil. Climatic climax is theoretical and
develops where physical conditions of the substrate are not so extreme as to modify the
effects of the prevailing regional climate.
Edaphic Climax
When there are more than one climax communities in the region, modified by local
conditions of the substrate such as soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope
exposure, fire, and animal activity, it is called edaphic climax. Succession ends in an
edaphic climax where topography, soil, water, fire, or other disturbances are such that a
climatic climax cannot develop.
Catastrophic Climax
Climax vegetation vulnerable to a catastrophic event such as a wildfire. For example, in
California, chaparral vegetation is the final vegetation. The wildfire removes the mature
vegetation and decomposers. A rapid development of herbaceous vegetation follows until
the shrub dominance is re-established. This is known as catastrophic climax.
Disclimax
When a stable community, which is not the climatic or edaphic climax for the given site,
is maintained by man or his domestic animals, it is designated as Disclimax (disturbance
climax) or anthropogenic subclimax (man-generated). For example, overgrazing by stock
may produce a desert community of bushes and cacti where the local climate actually
would allow grassland to maintain itself.
Subclimax
The prolonged stage in succession just preceding the climatic climax is subclimax.
Preclimax and Postclimax
In certain areas different climax communities develop under similar climatic conditions.
If the community has life forms lower than those in the expected climatic climax, it is
called preclimax; a community that has life forms higher than those in the expected
climatic climax is postclimax. Preclimax strips develop in less moist and hotter areas,
whereas Postclimax strands develop in more moist and cooler areas than that of
surrounding climate.

Theories

There are three schools of interpretations explaining the climax concept:

 Monoclimax or Climatic Climax Theory was advanced by Clements (1916) and

recognizes only one climax whose characteristics are determined solely by climate
(climatic climax). The processes of succession and modification of environment
overcome the effects of differences in topography, parent material of the soil, and other
factors. The whole area would be covered with uniform plant community. Communities
other than the climax are related to it, and are recognized as subclimax, postclimax and
disclimax.
 Polyclimax Theory was advanced by Tansley (1935). It proposes that the climax
vegetation of a region consists of more than one vegetation climaxes controlled by soil
moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal activity.
42
  Climax Pattern Theory was proposed by Whittaker (1953). The climax pattern theory
recognizes a variety of climaxes governed by responses of species populations to biotic
and abiotic conditions. According to this theory the total environment of the ecosystem
determines the composition, species structure, and balance of a climax community. The
environment includes the species responses to moisture, temperature, and nutrients, their
biotic relationships, availability of flora and fauna to colonize the area, chance dispersal
of seeds and animals, soils, climate, and disturbance such as fire and wind. The nature of
climax vegetation will change as the environment changes. The climax community
represents a pattern of populations that corresponds to and changes with the pattern of
environment. The central and most widespread community is the climatic climax.

The theory of alternative stable states suggests there is not one end point but many which
transition between each other over ecological time.

Forest succession

The forests, being an ecological system, are subject to the species succession process. [18] There
are "opportunistic" or "pioneer" species that produce great quantities of seed that are
disseminated by the wind, and therefore can colonize big empty extensions. They are capable of
germinating and growing in direct sunlight. Once they have produced a closed canopy, the lack
of direct sun radiation at soil makes it difficult for their own seedlings to develop. It is then the
opportunity for shade-tolerant species to become established under the protection of the pioneers.
When the pioneers die, the shade-tolerant species replace them. These species are capable of
growing beneath the canopy, and therefore, in the absence of catastrophes, will stay. For this
reason it is then said the stand has reached its climax. When a catastrophe occurs, the opportunity
for the pioneers opens up again, provided they are present or within a reasonable range.

An example of pioneer species, in forests of northeastern North America are Betula papyrifera
(White birch) and Prunus serotina (Black cherry), that are particularly well-adapted to exploit
large gaps in forest canopies, but are intolerant of shade and are eventually replaced by other
shade-tolerant species in the absence of disturbances that create such gaps.

Things in nature are not black and white, and there are intermediate stages. It is therefore normal
that between the two extremes of light and shade there is a gradient, and there are species that
may act as pioneer or tolerant, depending on the circumstances. It is of paramount importance to
know the tolerance of species in order to practice an effective silviculture.

43
Topic Biogeochemical Cycle

In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of

substances is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through biotic (biosphere) and
abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. There are
biogeochemical cycles for the chemical elements calcium, carbon, hydrogen, mercury, nitrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus, selenium, and sulfur; molecular cycles for water and silica; macroscopic
cycles such as the rock cycle; as well as human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance remains
for a long period of time (such as an ocean or lake for water).

The carbon cycle

It is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon is the main component of
biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone. It
describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well
as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks.

Human influence

Since the industrial revolution, human activity has modified the carbon cycle by changing its
components' functions and directly adding carbon to the atmosphere.[3]

The largest human impact on the carbon cycle is through direct emissions from burning fossil
fuels, which transfers carbon from the geosphere into the atmosphere. The rest of this increase is
caused mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation.

Another direct human impact on the carbon cycle is the chemical process of calcination of
limestone for clinker production, which releases CO2.[45] Clinker is an industrial precursor of
cement.

Humans also influence the carbon cycle indirectly by changing the terrestrial and oceanic
biosphere.[46] Over the past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused land use and land
cover change (LUCC) has led to the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to
environmental stresses and decreases their ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More

44
directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere.
Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and
replaces them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover
types store comparatively small amounts of carbon so that the net product of the process is that
more carbon stays in the atmosphere.

Other human-caused changes to the environment change ecosystems' productivity and their
ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. Air pollution, for example, damages plants and
soils, while many agricultural and land use practices lead to higher erosion rates, washing carbon
out of soils and decreasing plant productivity.

Humans also affect the oceanic carbon cycle. [46] Current trends in climate change lead to higher
ocean temperatures, thus modifying ecosystems.[47][48][49] Also, acid rain and polluted runoff from
agriculture and industry change the ocean's chemical composition. Such changes can have
dramatic effects on highly sensitive ecosystems such as coral reefs, [50][51][52] thus limiting the
ocean's ability to absorb carbon from the atmosphere on a regional scale and reducing oceanic
biodiversity globally.

The Nitrogen Cycle

It is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it
circulates among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can
be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the
nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of
Earth's atmosphere (78%) is atmosphere nitrogen,[20] making it the largest source of nitrogen.
However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of
usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.

The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect
the rate of key ecosystem processes, including primary production and decomposition. Human
activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of
nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.Human modification
of global nitrogen cycle can negatively affect the natural environment system and also human
health.

Processes

Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic
nitrogen, ammonium (NH+4), nitrite (NO−2), nitrate (NO−3), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO)
or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism, humus
or in the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes in the nitrogen
cycle are to transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are carried
out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a form
needed for their growth. For example, the nitrogenous wastes in animal urine are broken down
by nitrifying bacteria in the soil to be used by plants. The diagram alongside shows how these
processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
45
Nitrogen fixation

The conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into nitrates and nitrites through atmospheric, industrial
and biological processes is called nitrogen fixation.

Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", into a usable form to be taken up by plants.
Between 5 and 10 billion kg per year are fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by
free-living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs. These bacteria have the nitrogenase
enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted
by the bacteria into other organic compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the
activity of Mo-nitrogenase, found in a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-
nitrogenase is a complex two-component enzyme that has multiple metal-containing prosthetic
groups.[26] An example of free-living bacteria is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria
such as Rhizobium usually live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust
trees). Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange
for carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content
of nitrogen-poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses.

Assimilation

Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil by their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it
is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids,
nucleic acids, and chlorophyll.

In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is assimilated in the
form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a more complex
cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides amino acids
to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the bacteroids pass amino acids
(with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an interdependent relationship. [29]
While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by ingestion of
amino acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs (including many
bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N sources.
Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.

Ammonification

When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic.
Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH+
4), a process called ammonification or mineralization.

Nitrification

46
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other
nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH +4) is
performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to
nitrites(NO−2). Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter, are responsible for the oxidation of
the nitrites (NO−2) into nitrates (NO−3). It is important for the ammonia (NH
3) to be converted to nitrates or nitrites because ammonia gas is toxic to plants.

Denitrification

Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N 2), completing the nitrogen
cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Paracoccus,
under anaerobic conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen
during respiration. These facultatively (meaning optionally) anaerobic bacteria can also live in
aerobic conditions. Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The
denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce
nitrogen gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants.

Human influences on the nitrogen cycle

As a result of extensive cultivation of legumes (particularly soy, alfalfa, and clover), growing use
of the Haber–Bosch process in the creation of chemical fertilizers, and pollution emitted by
vehicles and industrial plants, human beings have more than doubled the annual transfer of
nitrogen into biologically available forms.[28] In addition, humans have significantly contributed
to the transfer of nitrogen trace gases from Earth to the atmosphere and from the land to aquatic
systems. Human alterations to the global nitrogen cycle are most intense in developed countries
and in Asia, where vehicle emissions and industrial agriculture are highest.[41]
Generation of Nr, reactive nitrogen, has increased over 10 fold in the past century due to global
industrialisation.[2][42] This form of nitrogen follows a cascade through the biosphere via a variety
of mechanisms, and is accumulating as the rate of its generation is greater than the rate of
denitrification.[43]
Nitrous oxide (N2O) has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass
burning, cattle and feedlots, and industrial sources.[44] N2O has deleterious effects in the
stratosphere, where it breaks down and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone.
Nitrous oxide is also a greenhouse gas and is currently the third largest contributor to global
warming, after carbon dioxide and methane. While not as abundant in the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide, it is, for an equivalent mass, nearly 300 times more potent in its ability to warm the
planet.[45]
Ammonia (NH3) in the atmosphere has tripled as the result of human activities. It is a reactant in
the atmosphere, where it acts as an aerosol, decreasing air quality and clinging to water droplets,
eventually resulting in nitric acid (HNO3) that produces acid rain. Atmospheric ammonia and
nitric acid also damage respiratory systems.
The very high temperature of lightning naturally produces small amounts of NO x, NH3, and
HNO3, but high-temperature combustion has contributed to a 6- or 7-fold increase in the flux of
47
NOx to the atmosphere. Its production is a function of combustion temperature - the higher the
temperature, the more NOx is produced. Fossil fuel combustion is a primary contributor, but so
are biofuels and even the burning of hydrogen. However, the rate that hydrogen is directly
injected into the combustion chambers of internal combustion engines can be controlled to
prevent the higher combustion temperatures that produce NOx.
Ammonia and nitrous oxides actively alter atmospheric chemistry. They are precursors of
tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone production, which contributes to smog and acid rain,
damages plants and increases nitrogen inputs to ecosystems. Ecosystem processes can increase
with nitrogen fertilization, but anthropogenic input can also result in nitrogen saturation, which
weakens productivity and can damage the health of plants, animals, fish, and humans.[28]
Decreases in biodiversity can also result if higher nitrogen availability increases nitrogen-
demanding grasses, causing a degradation of nitrogen-poor, species-diverse heathlands.[4

The sulfur cycle

It is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves between rocks, waterways and living
systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are important in geology because they affect many
minerals. Biochemical cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an essential element,
being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors, and sulfur compounds can be used as
oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration.[1] The global sulfur cycle involves the
transformations of sulfur species through different oxidation states, which play an important role
in both geological and biological processes.

48
 The Sulfur cycle (in general)

Steps of the sulfur cycle are:

 Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
 Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate (SO42−).
 Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
 Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing
derivatives).

Human impact

Human activities have a major effect on the global sulfur cycle. The burning of coal, natural gas,
and other fossil fuels has greatly increased the amount of S in the atmosphere and ocean and
depleted the sedimentary rock sink. Without human impact sulfur would stay tied up in rocks for
millions of years until it was uplifted through tectonic events and then released through erosion
and weathering processes. Instead it is being drilled, pumped and burned at a steadily increasing
rate. Over the most polluted areas there has been a 30-fold increase in sulfate deposition.[26]

The phosphorus cycle

It is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the
atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus
and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and
pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local
conditions. Therefore, the phosphorus cycle should be viewed from whole Earth system and then
specifically focused on the cycle in terrestrial and aquatic systems.

On the land, phosphorus gradually becomes less available to plants over thousands of years,
since it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of phosphorus in soils reduces plant growth,
and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil
microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available phosphorus in the biogeochemical
cycle.[1] Locally, transformations of phosphorus are chemical, biological and microbiological: the
major long-term transfers in the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in
geologic time.[2]

49
Humans have caused major changes to the global phosphorus cycle through shipping of
phosphorus minerals, and use of phosphorus fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms
to cities, where it is lost as effluent.

Human influences

Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential
for development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the
phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and
products around the globe.

Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects
on soil phosphorus status. Also, application of biosolids may increase available phosphorus in
soil.[25] In poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodic waterlogging,
reducing conditions can be attained in 7–10 days. This causes a sharp increase in phosphorus
concentration in solution and phosphorus can be leached

Human interference in the phosphorus cycle occurs by overuse or careless use of phosphorus
fertilizers. This results in increased amounts of phosphorus as pollutants in bodies of water
resulting in eutrophication. Eutrophication devastates water ecosystems by inducing anoxic
conditions.[21]

Potassium Cycle

Potassium is a macronutrient taken up by plants in large quantities. Unlike N, P and S, K is

present in the soil solution only as a positively charged cation (K +). Its behaviour in the soil is
impacted by soil cation exchange and mineral weathering, rather than microbial activity. K,
similarly to P, does not form gases that could be lost to the atmosphere, and it causes no off-site
environmental problems when it leaves soil system.

50
Sources

Primary Minerals

The original sources of potassium are the primary minerals, such as:

 Feldspars - Orthoclase and microcline - KAlSi3O8

 Mica - Biotite - KAl(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

 Mica - Muscovite - K(Mg, Fe)(AlSiO10)(OH)2

Potassium in the crystalline structure of primary minerals is not available to plants and it
accounts for 90-98% of the total soil K.

51
Potassium Fertilizers

Practically all of the potassium fertilizers are water soluble (i.e., they dissolve in water). They
consist essentially of potassium in combination with chloride, sulfate, nitrate or polyphosphate,
and include the following:

 Potassium chloride (KCl)

 Potassium sulfate (K2SO4)

 Potassium nitrate (KNO3)

 Potassium phosphates (KPO3, K4P2O7, KH2PO4, K2HPO4)

Animals

Animals consume plants and in turn add various residues (excrement and remains) to the soil that
then serve as a source of soil organic matter or humus.

Humans

Humans consume plants and in turn add various residues to the soil that then serve as a source of
soil organic matter or humus.

Losses

Erosion

Erosion is one of the main pathways through which K is lost from the soil.

Runoff

Runoff is one of the main pathways through which K is lost from the soil.

Leaching

Annual leaching loss of K from the soils in a humid region under agricultural production
(receiving only a moderate rate of K fertilizer) is usually about 25 to 50 kg K/ha.

Harvesting

Plants take up very large amounts of K. When most or all of aboveground biomass is removed in
a harvest, the soil loss of K can be substantial. Annual losses of K through harvesting can be as
great as 400 kg K/ha and are common if the plant is a legume and is cut several times for hay.
52
Forms of K

Non-exchangeable Potassium

Non-exchangeable K refers to K+ ions adsorbed in the interlayer spacing of clay minerals, such
as illite, vermiculite, and chlorite. This form of K accounts for 1-10% of total soil potassium.

Exchangeable Potassium

Exchangeable K includes those K+ ions adsorbed (by electrostatic forces) and released on clay
and organic colloids. The exchangeable K accounts for 1-2% of total soil K.

Potassium in Soil Solution

Potassium cations (K+) dissolved in the soil solution account for 0.1-0.2% of total soil potassium.
Plant roots take up K as the K+ ion from the soil solution. Potassium is taken up by plants in
large quantities.

Topic Sources of Variation in Plant

Genetic variation describes the difference in DNA among individuals[2]. There are multiple
sources of genetic variation, including Mutation and Genetic recombination.

Among individuals within a population

Genetic variation can be identified at a many levels. It is possible to identify genetic variation
from observations of phenotypic variation in either quantitative traits (traits that vary
continuously and are coded for by many genes (e.g., leg length in dogs)) or discrete traits (traits
that fall into discrete categories and are coded for by one or a few genes (e.g., white, pink, red
petal color in certain flowers)

Between populations

Geographic variation means genetic differences in populations from different locations. This is
caused by natural selection or genetic drift.

Sources of vaiation

1. Mutation. Random mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation.

Mutations are likely to be rare and most mutations are neutral or deleterious, but
in some instances, the new alleles can be favored by natural selection.
2. Polyploidy. Polyploidy is an example of chromosomal mutation. Polyploidy is a
condition wherein organisms have three or more sets of genetic variation (3n or
more).
53
 3. Crossing over. Crossing over (genetic recombination) and random segregation
during meiosis can result in the production of new alleles or new combinations of
alleles. Furthermore, random fertilization also contributes to variation.

Topic Natural selection

It is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is

a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population
over generations. Charles Darwin popularised the term "natural selection", contrasting it with
artificial selection, which in his view is intentional, whereas natural selection is not.

Variation exists within all populations of organisms. This occurs partly because random
mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism, and offspring can inherit such
mutations. Throughout the lives of the individuals, their genomes interact with their
environments to cause variations in traits. The environment of a genome includes the molecular
biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic
environment. Because individuals with certain variants of the trait tend to survive and reproduce
more than individuals with other, less successful variants, the population evolves. Other factors
affecting reproductive success include sexual selection (now often included in natural selection)
and fecundity selection.

Natural selection acts on the phenotype, the characteristics of the organism which actually
interact with the environment, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype that gives that
phenotype a reproductive advantage may become more common in a population. Over time, this
process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches (microevolution)
and may eventually result in speciation (the emergence of new species, macroevolution). In other
words, natural selection is a key process in the evolution of a population.

Topic Genetic drift

(also known as allelic drift or the Sewall Wright effect)[1] is the change in the frequency of an
existing gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling of organisms. [2] The alleles
in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has a role in determining
whether a given individual survives and reproduces. A population's allele frequency is the
fraction of the copies of one gene that share a particular form. [3] Genetic drift may cause gene
variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation.[4] It can also cause initially
rare alleles to become much more frequent and even fixed.

Topic Genotypic Variation

Genotype is the part of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of any individual, which
determines one of its characteristics (phenotype).

54
Genotype is one of three factors that determine phenotype, along with inherited epigenetic
factors and non-inherited environmental factors. Not all organisms with the same genotype look
or act the same way because appearance and behavior are modified by environmental and
growing conditions. Likewise, not all organisms that look alike necessarily have the same
genotype.

Topic Phenotypic Variation

Any given gene will usually cause an observable change in an organism, known as the
phenotype. The terms genotype and phenotype are distinct for at least two reasons:

 To distinguish the source of an observer's knowledge (one can know about genotype by
observing DNA; one can know about phenotype by observing outward appearance of an
organism).
 Genotype and phenotype are not always directly correlated. Some genes only express a
given phenotype in certain environmental conditions. Conversely, some phenotypes
could be the result of multiple genotypes. The genotype is commonly mixed up with the
phenotype which describes the end result of both the genetic and the environmental
factors giving the observed expression (e.g. blue eyes, hair color, or various hereditary
diseases).

A simple example to illustrate genotype as distinct from phenotype is the flower colour in pea
plants (see Gregor Mendel). There are three available genotypes, PP (homozygous dominant), Pp
(heterozygous), and pp (homozygous recessive). All three have different genotypes but the first
two have the same phenotype (purple) as distinct from the third (white).

Topic Phenotypic Plasticity

It refers to some of the changes in an organism's behavior, morphology and physiology in

response to a unique environment.[1] Fundamental to the way in which organisms cope with
environmental variation, phenotypic plasticity encompasses all types of environmentally induced
changes (e.g. morphological, physiological, behavioural, phenological) that may or may not be
permanent throughout an individual's lifespan. The term was originally used to describe
developmental effects on morphological characters, but is now more broadly used to describe all
phenotypic responses to environmental change, such as acclimation (acclimatization), as well as
learning.[2] The special case when differences in environment induce discrete phenotypes is
termed polyphenism.

Generally, phenotypic plasticity is more important for immobile organisms (e.g. plants) than
mobile organisms (e.g. most animals), as mobile organisms can often move away from
unfavourable environments.[3] Nevertheless, mobile organisms also have at least some degree of
plasticity in at least some aspects of the phenotype. One mobile organism with substantial
phenotypic plasticity is Acyrthosiphon pisum of the aphid family, which exhibits the ability to
interchange between asexual and sexual reproduction, as well as growing wings between
generations when plants become too populated

55
Phenotypic plasticity in plants includes the timing of transition from vegetative to reproductive
growth stage, the allocation of more resources to the roots in soils that contain low
concentrations of nutrients, the size of the seeds an individual produces depending on the
environment,[5] and the alteration of leaf shape, size, and thickness.[6] Leaves are particularly
plastic, and their growth may be altered by light levels. Leaves grown in the light tend to be
thicker, which maximizes photosynthesis in direct light; and have a smaller area, which cools the
leaf more rapidly (due to a thinner boundary layer). Conversely, leaves grown in the shade tend
to be thinner, with a greater surface area to capture more of the limited light. [7][8] Dandelion are
well known for exhibiting considerable plasticity in form when growing in sunny versus shaded
environments. The transport proteins present in roots also change depending on the concentration
of the nutrient and the salinity of the soil.[9] Some plants, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum for
example, are able to alter their photosynthetic pathways to use less water when they become
water- or salt-stressed.[10]

Topic Genetics and Evolutionary Sequence

Evolutionary ecology lies at the intersection of ecology and evolutionary biology. It approaches
the study of ecology in a way that explicitly considers the evolutionary histories of species and
the interactions between them.

Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive

generations.[1][2] These characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passed on from parent
to offspring during reproduction. Different characteristics tend to exist within any given
population as a result of mutation, genetic recombination and other sources of genetic variation.
[3]
Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual
selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming
more common or rare within a population. [4] It is this process of evolution that has given rise to
biodiversity at every level of biological organisation, including the levels of species, individual
organisms and molecules.[5

An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence from the
environment it has lived in. A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is
caused by genotypic variation.[70] The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the
change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will become
more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears when a new
allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the
ancestral allele entirely.[78]

Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population.
Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics, one common hypothesis was blending inheritance.
But with blending inheritance, genetic variance would be rapidly lost, making evolution by
natural selection implausible. The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides the solution to how
variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance. The frequencies of alleles
(variations in a gene) will remain constant in the absence of selection, mutation, migration and
genetic drift.[79]
56
Variation comes from mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction
and migration between populations (gene flow). Despite the constant introduction of new
variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all
individuals of that species.[80] However, even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to
dramatic differences in phenotype: for example, chimpanzees and humans differ in only about
5% of their genomes.[81]

Speciation

There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species." The choice of definition is dependent
on the particularities of the species concerned. [236] For example, some species concepts apply
more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward
asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can
be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and
phylogenetic.[237] The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the interbreeding
approach. Defined by evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that "species are
groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively
isolated from other such groups."[238] Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is
not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes,
[239]
and this is called the species problem.[236] Some researchers have attempted a unifying
monistic definition of species, while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there
may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species.[236][237]

Types

Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions (see
laboratory experiments of speciation) and in nature. [244] In sexually reproducing organisms,
speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are
four primary geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is allopatric
speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat
fragmentation or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in
the appearance and behaviour of organisms.[245][246] As selection and drift act independently on
populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms
that cannot interbreed.[247]

The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of
organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that
the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the
founder effect causes rapid speciation after an increase in inbreeding increases selection on
homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change.[248]

The third mode is parapatric speciation. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small
population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these
two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene
flow between the two populations.[235] Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change
in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is the grass Anthoxanthum
57
odoratum, which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from
mines.[249] Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection
against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in
the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete
reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause
reinforcement, which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as
character displacement, which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.[250]

Finally, in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in

habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic
differences between parts of a population.[251] Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires
the evolution of both genetic differences and nonrandom mating, to allow reproductive isolation
to evolve.[252]

One type of sympatric speciation involves crossbreeding of two related species to produce a new
hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is
because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from different
species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often
double their number of chromosomes, to form polyploids.[253] This allows the chromosomes from
each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes
are represented by a pair already.[254] An example of such a speciation event is when the plant
species Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis arenosa crossbred to give the new species
Arabidopsis suecica.[255] This happened about 20,000 years ago,[256] and the speciation process
has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved
in this process.[257] Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of
reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with
undoubled organisms.[258]

Topic Concept of Ecotype

In evolutionary ecology, an ecotype,[note 1] sometimes called ecospecies, describes a genetically

distinct geographic variety, population or race within a species, which is genotypically adapted
to specific environmental conditions.

Typically, though ecotypes exhibit phenotypic differences (such as in morphology or

physiology) stemming from environmental heterogeneity, they are capable of interbreeding with
other geographically adjacent ecotypes without loss of fertility or vigor

Ecotype is a variant in which the phenotypic differences are too few or too subtle to warrant
being classified as a subspecies. These can occur in the same geographic region where distinct
habitats such as meadow, forest, swamp, and sand dunes provide ecological niches. Where
similar ecological conditions occur in widely separated places it is possible for a similar ecotype
to occur. This is different than a subspecies, which may exist across a number of different
habitats. In animals, ecotypes can be regarded as micro-subspecies that owe their differing

58
characteristics to the effects of a very local environment.[6] Therefore, ecotypes have no
taxonomic rank.

Ecotypes are closely related to morphs. In the context of evolutionary biology, genetic
polymorphism is the occurrence in the equilibrium of two or more distinctly different phenotypes
within a population of a species, in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or
morph. The frequency of these discontinuous forms (even that of the rarest) is too high to be
explained by mutation. In order to be classified as such, morphs must occupy the same habitat at
the same time and belong to a panmictic population (whose all members can potentially
interbreed). Polymorphism is actively and steadily maintained in populations of species by
natural selection (most famously sexual dimorphism in humans) in contrast to transient
polymorphisms where conditions in a habitat change in such a way that a "form" is being
replaced completely by another.

Examples

 Earthworms fall into four different ecotypes. Compost earthworms prefer warm and
moist environments with a ready supply of fresh compost material. Epigeic earthworms
live on the surface of the soil in leaf litter and tend not to make burrows but live in and
feed on the leaf litter. Endogeic earthworms live in and feed on the soil, making
horizontal burrows through the soil to move around and to feed and they will reuse these
burrows to a certain extent. Anecic earthworms make permanent vertical burrows in soil,
feeding on leaves on the soil surface that they drag into their burrows.[8]
 Tundra reindeer and woodland reindeer are two ecotypes of reindeer. The first migrate
(travelling 5,000 km) annually between the two environments in large numbers whereas
the other (who are much fewer) remain in the forest for the summer.[9] In North America,
 Arabis fecunda, a herb endemic to some calcareous soils of Montana, United States, can
be divided into two ecotypes. The one "low elevation" group lives near the ground in an
arid, warm environment and has thus developed a significantly greater tolerance against
drought than the "high elevation" group. The two ecotypes are separated by a horizontal
distance of about 100 km.[1]
 It is commonly accepted that the Tucuxi dolphin has two ecotypes – the riverine ecotype
found in some South American rivers and the pelagic ecotype found in the South Atlantic
Ocean.[17] Similarly, it is accepted that the common bottlenose dolphin has two ecotypes
in the western North Atlantic.[18]
 The warbler finch and the Cocos Island finch are viewed as separate ecotypes.[19][verification
needed][clarification needed]

 The Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) has 20 different ecotypes in an area from Scotland to
Siberia, all capable of interbreeding.[20]
 A very subtle case of ecotype is the following: It has been observed that two populations
of the same Helix snail species separated by only a few hundred kilometers prefer not to

59
 cross-mate, i.e. they reject one another as mates. This event probably occurs during the
process of courtship, which may last for hours.

Ecads (also called as ecophenes)

Plants of same species which differ in appearance such as size, prostrate or erect nature,
reproductive vigour etc. in differing environmental conditions. These variations are not
genetically fixed, and when transplanted to neutral conditions the variation disappears.

Topic Role of Plants and Animal in Forest Ecosystem

Topic Site Quality and Ecosystem Evaluation

1. Topic Site Index

Site index is a term used in forestry to describe the potential for forest trees to grow at a
particular location or "site". Site is defined as "The average age of dominate and/or codominate
trees of an even-aged, undisturbed site of intolerant trees at a base age"; [1] furthermore, the word
site is used in forestry to refer to a distinct area where trees are found. [2] Site index is used to
measure the productivity of the site and the management options for that site and reports the
height of dominant and co-dominant trees in a stand at a base age such as 25, 50 and 100 years.
[2]
 For example, a red oak with an age of 50 years and a height of 70 feet (21 m) will have a site
index of 70. Site index is species specific. Common methods used to determine site index are
based on tree height, plant composition and the use of soil maps.

1.Tree Height As A Measure Of Site

The most common of the methods used to determine site index is tree height. Determining site
index is achieved by measuring and averaging the total height and age of trees found on that site.
Height is obtained from dominant or co-dominant trees (referred to as canopy position) in a stand
and is estimated using an instrument called a clinometer, or measured using a laser or releskop.
Age is calculated using an instrument called an increment borer or from planting records for
even aged stands. These values are then used on a graph or an equation called a site index curve.
Determining site index from plant composition is often referred to as the indicator-
plant approach. Site index is determined from plant composition by the presence, abundance, and
size of understory plants. Understory plants are especially useful if they are only found in
specific areas.

Example
A tree is measured to be 60 feet (18 m) in overall height, and the stand age is determined to be 50
years old. To find site index from a site index curve, one would find age 50 along the x-axis and
then find 60 feet (18 m) along the y-axis. Where these two points intersect one would find the
nearest line, which represents the site index for that stand.
An example of a site index equation is: lnS=lnHd-b1(A−1-Ai−1)

60
Where S is site index, Ai is index age, Hd is height of dominants and co-dominants and A is stand
age. This will estimate height at index age (site index).[2]
Example:

2. Environmental Factors as a Measure of Site

Climatic factors

The climatic factors are abiotic or non-living components of the environmental factors (outside
of genetic factors) that affect plant growth and development. They are elements of climate. There
are other abiotic environmental factors, that is, topography and soil, which are treated in a
separate page. 

61
Under favorable conditions, gene expression is maximized. Ultimately, enhanced growth and
development translates into high crop yields. Three properties of this climatic factor that affect
plant growth and development are light quality, light intensity, and daylength or
photoperiod. Light quality refers to the specific wavelengths of light; light intensity is the
degree of brightness that a plant receives; and daylength is the duration of the day with respect
to the night period.

Physiographic land classification

Physiographic means of defining the Earth's landforms into distinct regions, based upon the
classic three-tiered approach by Nevin M. Fenneman in 1916, that separates landforms into
physiographic divisions, physiographic provinces, and physiographic sections.[1] The model
became the basis for similar classifications of other continents, and is still considered valid.[2]
Ecological land classification is a cartographical delineation or regionalisation of distinct
ecological areas, identified by their geology, topography, soils, vegetation, climate conditions,
living species, habitats, water resources, and sometimes also anthropic factors.[1] These factors
control and influence biotic composition and ecological processes.

Physiographic and soil factors: soil –site studies

Soil Properties

1. Soil physical properties

a. horizonation
b. soil color
c. soil texture
d. soil structure
e. soil consistence
f. bulk density

2. Soil chemical properties

a. Cation Exchange Capacity

b. Soil Reaction (pH)

Soil survey
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 Soil mapping, is the process of classifying soil types and other soil properties in a given area
and geo-encoding such information. It applies the principles of soil science, and draws heavily
from geomorphology, theories of soil formation, physical geography, and analysis of vegetation
and land use patterns. The information in a soil survey can be used by farmers and ranchers to
help determine whether a particular soil type is suited for crops or livestock and what type of soil
management might be required. A forester might use the properties of a soil to determine whther
it is suitable for a certain type of tree species. A homeowner may even use the information for
maintaining or constructing their garden, yard, or home.

3. Multiple -Factor Methods of Site Classification

Topic Measurement of Biodiversity/ Ecological Assessment

Level of measurement:

Ecological diversity: Ecosystem diversity is a type of biodiversity. It is the variation in the

ecosystems found in a region or the variation in ecosystems over the whole planet. Biodiversity
is important because it clears out our water, changes out climate, and provides us with food.
Ecological diversity includes the variation in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Ecological
diversity can also take into account the variation in the complexity of a biological community,
including the number of different niches, the number of trophic levels and other ecological
processes. An example of ecological diversity on a global scale would be the variation in
ecosystems, such as deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands and oceans. Ecological diversity is the
largest scale of biodiversity, and within each ecosystem, there is a great deal of both species and
genetic diversity.

Species diversity is the number of different species that are represented in a given community (a
dataset). The effective number of species refers to the number of equally abundant species
needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of
interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Species diversity consists of three
components: species richness, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity and species evenness. Species
richness is a simple count of species, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity is the genetic
relationship between different groups of species, whereas species evenness quantifies how equal
the abundances of the species are.

Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a
species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristics to vary.

Morphological diversity: Differences in shape, size, and structure of organisms ,and in both their
outer appearance, and their internal structures like bones, organs, vessels, etc.

63
Phylogenetic diversityIt measures, include information on phylogenetic relationships among
species. it is a measure of biodiversity which incorporates phylogenetic difference between
species.

Functional diversity measures, include information on functional traits among species . which is
a measure of the number of functionally disparate species within a population (e.g. different
feeding mechanism, different motility, predator vs prey, etc.) [54]) This multilevel construct is
consistent with Datman and Lovejoy.

Diversity measures indices

o species density, take into account the number of species in an area

o species richness, take into account the number of species per individuals (usually
[species]/[individuals x area])
o diversity indices, take into account the number of species (the richness) and their
relative contribution (the evenness); e.g.:
 Simpson index
 Shannon-Wiener index


Diversity may be measured at different scales. These are three indices used by ecologists:

1.Alpha diversity refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem, and is
measured by counting the number of taxa within the ecosystem (usually species)[5]

2.Beta diversity is species diversity between ecosystems; this involves comparing the number of
taxa that are unique to each of the ecosystems.

3.Gamma diversity is a measurement of the overall diversity for different ecosystems within a
region.

Topic Ecosystem Services

There are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment
and from properly-functioning ecosystems. Such ecosystems include, for
example, agroecosystems, forest ecosystems, grassland ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems.
These ecosystems functioning properly provides such things like agricultural produce, timber,
and aquatic organisms such as fishes and crabs. Collectively, these benefits are becoming known
as 'ecosystem services', and are often integral to the provisioning of clean drinking water,
the decomposition of wastes, and the natural pollination of crops and other Plants.

64
While scientists and environmentalists have discussed ecosystem services implicitly for decades,
the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in the early 2000s popularized this concept.
[1]
 There, ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories: provisioning, such as the
production of food and water; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting,
such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational
benefits. To help inform decision-makers, many ecosystem services are being assigned economic
values.

Definition
Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are "the benefits
people obtain from ecosystems". The MA also delineated the four categories of ecosystem
services—supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural—discussed below.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as
benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services,
where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other
three categories.[1]
Supporting services
These include services such as:
 nutrient cycling, 
primary production,
soil formation, 
habitat provision and
 pollination.
These services make it possible for the ecosystems to continue providing services such as food
supply, flood regulation, and water purification.
Provisioning services

 food (including seafood and game), crops, wild foods, and spices

 raw materials (including lumber, skins, fuel wood, organic matter, fodder, and fertilizer)
 genetic resources (including crop improvement genes, and health care)
 water
 biogenic minerals
 medicinal resources (including pharmaceuticals, chemical models, and test and assay
organisms)
 energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)
 ornamental resources (including fashion, handicraft, jewelry, pets, worship, decoration
and souvenirs like furs, feathers, ivory, orchids, butterflies, aquarium fish, shells, etc.)
65
Regulating services

 Carbon sequestration and climate regulation

 Predation regulates prey populations
 Waste decomposition and detoxification
 Purification of water and air
 pest and disease control

Cultural services

 cultural (including use of nature as motif in books, film, painting, folklore, national
symbols, architect, advertising, etc.)
 spiritual and historical (including use of nature for religious or heritage value or natural)
 recreational experiences (including ecotourism, outdoor sports, and recreation)
 science and education (including use of natural systems for school excursions,
and scientific discovery)
 Therapeutic (including Ecotherapy, social forestry and animal assisted therapy)

Topic Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES)

It also known as payments for environmental services (or benefits), are incentives offered to

farmers or landowners in exchange for managing their land to provide some sort of ecological
service. They have been defined as "a transparent system for the additional provision of
environmental services through conditional payments to voluntary providers". [1] These
programmes promote the conservation of natural resources in the marketplace.
Ecosystem services have no standardized definition but might broadly be called "the benefits of
nature to households, communities, and economies"[2] or, more simply, "the good things nature
does".[3] Twenty-four specific ecosystem services were identified and assessed by the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, a 2005 UN-sponsored report designed to assess the state of the world's
ecosystems. Notably, however, there is a "big three" among these 24 services which are currently
receiving the most money and interest worldwide. These are climate change mitigation,
watershed services and biodiversity conservation, and demand for these services in particular is
predicted to continue to grow as time goes on.[5] One seminal 1997 Nature magazine article
estimated the annual value of global ecological benefits at $33 trillion, a number nearly twice the
gross global product at the time.
PES in Nepal: Some Examples
Nepal has a very recent history of PES implementation. PES piloting first started nearly a decade
ago (2006) by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Nepal at Shivapuri
66
National Park focusing on investigating delivery of ecosystem economic benefits for upland
livelihoods and downstream water resources. Afterwards, it started gaining momentum in Nepal
as an efforts of conservation partners and international agencies.
Most popular PES scheme is at Kulekhani watershed area, which focused on promoting
sustainable natural resource management and alleviating poverty among poor upland
communities through transfer payment on use of environment services.
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is working in Phewa watershed for establishing PES mechanism.

Multi-Stakeholder Forestry Programme (MSFP) of government intends bring management of

100% of community managed forests, 50% of government managed forests and 50% of private
managed forests under the PES mechanism (MSFP, 2011). MSFP is also supportingfor
implementing PES at the local level. This shows high growth prospects of PES in Nepal.
Apart from above, a few schemes are at preparatory stage or in process of implementation,
focusing on watershed services at Shivapuri National Park and Sardu watershed with support
from International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). Nearly a dozen of
PES schemes are being piloted or implemented in Nepal, focusing on watershed services,
especially on drinking water.

Model Questions

Long questions-10

1. 1define ecosystem. Describe structure and function of ecosystem with reference to forest
ecosystem.

2. 2. What is ecological productivity? What are the methods of measuring productivity?

Describe any two of them.

3. Describe carbon cycle. What are the human impact on carbon cycle

4. Define ecological succession. Describe the causes and process of succession.

5. Describe solar radiation as an ecological factors

6. What is biotic interaction? Describe different types of interactions.

Short questions -5

1) What is ecological pyramid? Describe pyramid of number

1) Describe different types of food chain and their significance

2) What is site index? Describe environmental factors as a measure of site

67
 3) What is phenotypic variation? Describe phenotypic plasticity

4) Write short note on

5) PES

6) Ecotypes and ecads

Practical no…4 .study of litter accumulation

Litterfall, plant litter, leaf litter, tree litter, soil litter, or duff, is dead plant material (such as
leaves, bark, needles, twigs, and cladodes) that have fallen to the ground. This detritus or dead
organic material and its constituent nutrients are added to the top layer of soil, commonly known
as the litter layer or O horizon ("O" for "organic"). Litter has occupied the attention of ecologists
at length for the reasons that it is an instrumental factor in ecosystem dynamics, it is indicative of
ecological productivity, and may be useful in predicting regional nutrient cycling and soil
fertility.[1]

Collection and analysis

The main objectives of litterfall sampling and analysis are to quantify litterfall production and
chemical composition over time in order to assess the variation in litterfall quantities, and hence
its role in nutrient cycling across an environmental gradient of climate (moisture and
temperature) and soil conditions.[18]
Ecologists employ a simple approach to the collection of litterfall, most of which centers around
one piece of equipment, known as a litterbag. A litterbag is simply any type of container that
can be set out in any given area for a specified amount of time to collect the plant litter that falls
from the canopy above.

Litterfall and throughfall collectors at beech stand in Thetford, East Anglia[19]

Litterbags are generally set in random locations within a given area and marked with GPS or
local coordinates, and then monitored on a specific time interval. Once the samples have been
68
collected, they are usually classified on type, size and species (if possible) and recorded on a
spreadsheet.[20] When measuring bulk litterfall for an area, ecologists will weigh the dry contents
of the litterbag. By this method litterfall flux can be defined as:
litterfall (kg m−2 yr−1) = total litter mass (kg) / litterbag area (m2)[21]
The litterbag may also be used to study decomposition of the litter layer. By confining fresh
litter in the mesh bags and placing them on the ground, an ecologist can monitor and collect
the decay measurements of that litter. [7] An exponential decay pattern has been produced by

this type of experiment: , where is the initial leaf litter and is a constant
fraction of detrital mass.[3]
The mass-balance approach is also utilized in these experiments and suggests that the
decomposition for a given amount of time should equal the input of litterfall for that same
amount of time.
litterfall = k(detrital mass)[3]
For study various groups from edaphic fauna you need a different mesh sizes in the
litterbags [22]
Practical 5

To study ecosystem services provided by…………………

A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is inundated by water, either permanently or seasonally,

where oxygen-free processes prevail.[1] The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other
land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants,[2][3] adapted to the
unique hydric soil. Wetlands play a number of functions, including water purification, water
storage, processing of carbon and other nutrients, stabilization of shorelines, and support of
plants and animals.[4] Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all
ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Whether any individual
wetland performs these functions, and the degree to which it performs them, depends on
characteristics of that wetland and the lands and waters near it. [5] Methods for rapidly assessing
these functions, wetland ecological health, and general wetland condition have been developed in
many regions and have contributed to wetland conservation partly by raising public awareness of
the functions and the ecosystem services some wetlands provide.

Services provided by wetland

Depending partly on a wetland's geographic and topographic location, [46] the functions it
performs can support multiple ecosystem services, values, or benefits. United Nations
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Ramsar Convention described wetlands as a whole to be
of biosphere significance and societal importance in the following areas, for example:[citation needed]

 Water storage (flood control)

 Groundwater replenishment
69
 Shoreline stabilisation and storm protection
 Water purification
 Reservoirs of biodiversity
 Pollination
 Wetland products
 Cultural values
 Recreation and tourism
 Climate change mitigation and adaptation

Betana wetland

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Flora……………………………………………

Fauna…………………….

Visitors………………………………….

Conclusion

Practical 6

To Study Impact of Human on Plant Diversity

Introduction

…………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………

Deforestation
There are many causes of deforestation. The WWF& reports that half of the trees illegally
removed from forests are used as fuel.
Some other common reasons are:

70
 To make more land available for housing and urbanization
 To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper, furniture and homes 
 To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items, such as the oil from palm
trees
 To create room for cattle ranching 
Common methods of deforestation are burning trees and clear cutting. These tactics leave the
land completely barren and are controversial practices. 

Clear cutting is when large swaths of land are cut down all at once. A forestry expert quoted by
the Natural Resources Defense Council describes clear cutting as "an ecological trauma that has
no precedent in nature except for a major volcanic eruption."

Burning can be done quickly, in vast swaths of land, or more slowly with the slash-and-burn
technique. Slash and burn agriculture entails cutting down a patch of trees, burning them and
growing crops on the land. The ash from the burned trees provides some nourishment for the
plants and the land is weed-free from the burning. When the soil becomes less nourishing and
weeds begin to reappear over years of use, the farmers move on to a new patch of land and begin
the process again.

Deforestation in Nepal has always been a serious issue, which has a severe effect on the lives of poor people. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
In the past, Nepal was a widely forested nation. However now with the requirement for the
extension of rural areas, migration of hills people to the plains, the developing regional interest
for timber, and the local residents dependence on firewood as the essential source of energy, less
than 30% of the nation's forest cover remains. Due to the continuous deforestation in Nepal,
many people and creatures are dying. Around 70 percent of the people in Nepal work in
agriculture, even if it is difficult to farm in the prevailing unfavourable weather conditions.

Between 1990 and 2000, Nepal lost an average of 91,700 hectares of forest per year. This
amounts to an average annual deforestation rate of 1.90%. However, between 2000 and 2005, the
rate of deforestation decreased by 28.9% to 1.35% per year. In total, between 1990 and 2005,
Nepal lost 24.5% of its forest cover, or around 1,181,000 hectares. 42,000 hectares of its primary
forest cover was last during that time. Deforestation rates of primary cover have decreased
10.7% since the close of the 1990s. Measuring the total rate of habitat conversion (defined as
change in forest area plus change in woodland area minus net plantation expansion) for the 1990-
2005 interval, Nepal lost 7.9% of its forest and woodland habitat.

Causes of deforestations

……………………………..

………………………………..

conclusion
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72