Topic 1

Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and
atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting.

Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines

of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of
hydrometeorology. The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a
coupled ocean-atmosphere system.

Climate science is the scientific study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions
averaged over a period of time. [1] This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the
atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography, which is one of the Earth sciences

Climate is the statistics of weather over long periods of time. [1][2] It is measured by assessing the
patterns of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation,
atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods
of time.

Weather is the state of the atmosphere, describing for example the degree to which it is hot or
cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.

Agricultural meteorology

Meteorologists, soil scientists, agricultural hydrologists, and agronomists are persons concerned
with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, crop yield, water-use
efficiency, phenology of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and
natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and
weather.

Topic 2 and 3

# Important metrological processes to agriculture/ importance of microenvironment on

growth and development of plant / meteorological parameters affecting agriculture

The climatic factors affecting agriculture have been generally groped into three categories:

a. Thermal agro meteorological indices: radiation, temperature of both air and soil

b. Moisture agro meteorological indices: different forms of precipitation, evaporation and evapo-
traspiration , and humidity

c. Aerodynamics agro meteorological indices: wind, hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes and

other turbulent motions
 The principal climatic factors affecting crop production are:

 Temperature
 Length of growing season

 Moisture condition

 Sunlight

 Wind

Note: Explanation of aforementioned points are attached herewith

Topic 4: Solar radiation and energy Balance over Agricultural surface

Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared,
visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through Earth's atmosphere, and is
obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When the direct solar radiation is not
blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat.
When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The
World Meteorological Organization uses the term "sunshine duration" to mean the cumulative
time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square
meter.[1] Other sources indicate an "Average over the entire earth" of "164 Watts per square
meter over a 24 hour day".[2]

The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic
radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance
of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to Earth). The "solar
constant" includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light. Its average value was
thought to be approximately 1366 W/m²,[18] varying slightly with solar activity, but recent
recalibrations of the relevant satellite observations indicate a value closer to 1361 W/m² is more
realistic.[19]

Solar spectrum: The spectrum of the Sun's solar radiation is close to that of a black body[9][10]
with a temperature of about 5,800 K.[

This band of significant radiation power can be divided into five regions in increasing order of
wavelengths:[14]

Ultraviolet C or (UVC) range, which spans a range of 100 to 280 nm. The term
ultraviolet refers to the fact that the radiation is at higher frequency than violet light (and,
hence, also invisible to the human eye). Due to absorption by the atmosphere very little
reaches Earth's surface. This spectrum of radiation has germicidal properties, as used in
germicidal lamps.

Ultraviolet B or (UVB) range spans 280 to 315 nm. It is also greatly absorbed by the
Earth's atmosphere, and along with UVC causes the photochemical reaction leading to
 the production of the ozone layer. It directly damages DNA and causes sunburn, but is
also required for vitamin D synthesis in the skin and fur of mammals.[15]

Ultraviolet A or (UVA) spans 315 to 400 nm. This band was once[when?] held to be less
damaging to DNA, and hence is used in cosmetic artificial sun tanning (tanning booths
and tanning beds) and PUVA therapy for psoriasis. However, UVA is now known to
cause significant damage to DNA via indirect routes (formation of free radicals and
reactive oxygen species), and can cause cancer.[16]

Visible range or light spans 380 to 780 nm. As the name suggests, this range is visible to
the naked eye. It is also the strongest output range of the Sun's total irradiance spectrum.



Infrared range that spans 700 nm to 1,000,000 nm (1 mm). It comprises an important
part of the electromagnetic radiation that reaches Earth. Scientists divide the infrared
range into three types on the basis of wavelength:
o Infrared-A: 700 nm to 1,400 nm

o Infrared-B: 1,400 nm to 3,000 nm

o Infrared-C: 3,000 nm to 1 mm.

VIBGYOR

Sub- topic: Atmospheric Depletion of Soar radiation:

Three atmospheric processes modify the solar radiation passing through our atmosphere destined
to the Earth's surface. These processes act on the radiation when it interacts with gases and
suspended particles found in the atmosphere.

scattering : The process of scattering occurs when small particles and gas molecules diffuse
part of the incoming solar radiation in random directions without any alteration to the
wavelength of the electromagnetic energy. Scattering does, however, reduce the amount of
incoming radiation reaching the Earth's surface. A significant proportion of scattered shortwave
solar radiation is redirected back to space. The amount of scattering that takes place is dependent
on two factors: wavelength of the incoming radiation and the size of the scattering particle or gas
molecule. In the Earth's atmosphere, the presence of a large number of particles with a size of
about 0.5 microns results in shorter wavelengths being preferentially scattered.
Absorption :If intercepted, some gases and particles in the atmosphere have the ability to
absorb incoming insulation. Absorption is defined as a process in which solar radiation is
retained by a substance and converted into heat energy. The creation of heat energy also causes
the substance to emit its own radiation. In general, the absorption of solar radiation by substances
in the Earth's atmosphere results in temperatures that gets no higher than 1800° Celsius.
According to Wien's Law, bodies with temperatures at this level or lower would emit their
radiation in the longwave band. Further, this emission of radiation is in all directions so a sizable
proportion of this energy is lost to space.

Reflection:The final process in the atmosphere that modifies incoming solar radiation is
reflection. Reflection is a process where sunlight is redirect by 180° after it strikes an
atmospheric particle. This redirection causes a 100% loss of the insolation. Most of the reflection
in our atmosphere occurs in clouds when light is intercepted by particles of liquid and frozen
water. The reflectivity of a cloud can range from 40 to 90%.

The reflectivity or albedo of the Earth's surface varies with the type of material that covers it.
For example, fresh snow can reflect up to 95% of the insolation that reaches it surface. Some
other surface type reflectivities are:

 Dry sand 35 to 45%

 Broadleaf deciduous forest 5 to 10%
 Needleleaf confierous forest 10 to 20%
 Grass type vegetation 15 to 25%

Reflectivity of the surface is often described by the term surface albedo. The Earth's average
albedo, reflectance from both the atmosphere and the surface, is about 30%.

Topic 7: Radiation in the atmosphere; physical and physiological processes to radiation

Plants, are experts at capturing light energy and using it to make sugars through a process called
photosynthesis. This process begins with the absorption of light by specialized organic
molecules, called pigments that are found in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Here, we’ll consider
light as a form of energy, and we'll also see how pigments – such as the chlorophylls that make
plants green – absorb that energy.
What is light energy?
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, a type of energy that travels in waves. Other kinds
of electromagnetic radiation that we encounter in our daily lives include radio waves,
microwaves, and X-rays. Together, all the types of electromagnetic radiation make up the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Every electromagnetic wave has a particular wavelength, or distance from one crest to the next,
and different types of radiation have different characteristic ranges of wavelengths (as shown in
the diagram above). Types of radiation with long wavelengths, such as radio waves, carry less
energy than types of radiation with short wavelengths, such as X-rays.

The visible spectrum is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the
human eye. It includes electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is between about 400 nm
and 700 nm. Visible light from the sun appears white, but it’s actually made up of multiple
wavelengths (colors) of light.

Although light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation act as waves under many conditions,
they can behave as particles under others. Each particle of electromagnetic radiation, called a
photon, has certain amount of energy. Types of radiation with short wavelengths have high-
energy photons, whereas types of radiation with long wavelengths have low-energy photons.

Pigments absorb light used in photosynthesis

In photosynthesis, the sun’s energy is converted to chemical energy by photosynthetic
organisms. However, the various wavelengths in sunlight are not all used equally in
photosynthesis. Instead, photosynthetic organisms contain light-absorbing molecules called
pigments that absorb only specific wavelengths of visible light, while reflecting others.

The set of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment is its absorption spectrum.

Most photosynthetic organisms have a variety of different pigments, so they can absorb energy
from a wide range of wavelengths. Here, we'll look at two groups of pigments that are important
in plants: chlorophylls and carotenoids.

Chlorophylls: There are five main types of chlorophylls: chlorophylls a, b, c and d, plus a
related molecule found in prokaryotes called bacteriochlorophyll. In plants, chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b are the main photosynthetic pigments. Chlorophyll molecules absorb blue and
red wavelengths.

Carotenoids are another key group of pigments that absorb violet and blue-green light (see
spectrum graph above). The brightly colored carotenoids found in fruit—such as the red of
tomato (lycopene), the yellow of corn seeds (zeaxanthin), or the orange of an orange peel (β-
carotene)—are often used as advertisements to attract animals, which can help disperse the
plant's seeds.

In photosynthesis, carotenoids help capture light, but they also have an important role in getting
rid of excess light energy. When a leaf is exposed to full sun, it receives a huge amount of
energy; if that energy is not handled properly, it can damage the photosynthetic machinery.
Carotenoids in chloroplasts help absorb the excess energy and dissipate it as heat.

Solar radiation and crop growth

1. Solar energy provides light required for seed germination, leaf expansion, growth of stem
and shoot, and flowering, fruiting and thermal conditions necessary for the physiological
functions of the plant.
2. Solar radiation plays an important role as regulator and controller of growth and
development.
3. Solar radiation also influences assimilation of nutrient and dry matter distribution.

The basic principle for increasing yield is harvesting more solar energy.
All the management practices like
1. Optimum time of sowing
2. Optimum plant population
3. Timely application of fertilizers
4. Irrigation management etc. are aimed at increasing the interception of solar radiation by
the foliage so as to get more yield.

Topic 5: Net radiation profile and light distribution within crop

Earth's net radiation, sometimes called net flux, is the balance between incoming and outgoing
energy at the top of the atmosphere. It is the total energy that is available to influence the
climate.

It is defined as the difference between the radiant energy absorbed and that emitted by the
underlying surface, by the atmosphere, or by the system earth-atmopshere. The net radiation R of
the ground surface consists of the direct and diffuse radiation and also of the atmospheric
emission absorbed and retained by the underlying surface after heat losses because of the thermal
emission of the underlying surface.

The radiation distribution within the plant canopy is affected by the following factors:

1. Plant leaf area 2.plant density 3.plant height 4. Leaf arrangement and 5. The sun angle
and 6.The inclination and transmissivity of leaves

The light distributing in the canopy may be expressed according to the Beer’s Law:
 I=I0e-KF

Where I= light intensity at a given height within the canopy

Io= light intensity at the top of the canopy

e= base of natural logarithm

i.e. =2.71828

F= Leaf area index which is defined as the leaf area subtended per unit area of land

K=coefficient determined primarily by leaf inclination and arrangement and secondarily

by leaf transmissivity

Another equation dealing with light distribution within canopy is given by Montenth:

I= [S+ (1-S) ι F IO ]

Where, S= Fraction of light passing through a unit leaf layer)

ι= leaf transmission coefficient

Both equations indicate that leaf area is an important factors but also secondary important is the
tranmissivity of leaf while leaf arrangement play an important role in light interception.

Topic 6: Radiation utilization during successive stages of development and its effect

Plants require light for optimum growth and development, but the three different aspects of light,
quantity, quality and duration, also have a significant influence on growth.

A plant under natural conditions receives light from the sun; the amount, quality and duration
greatly depend on the season of the year, hour of the day, geographical location and weather.

 Quantity of light: Plants use light as a source of energy for photosynthesis. The term
photosynthesis refers to the reaction between carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light to
produce carbohydrates and oxygen. The rate of this process is highly dependent on the light
quantity; the photosynthesis rate is higher as the Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR)
increases. The carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis are stored and used by the plant as
a food source. Each plant species starts the process of photosynthesis at different light energy
levels, which is called the light compensation point. This point starts when light energy is
sufficient for photosynthetic activity to produce more oxygen than is required by the plant for
respiration.  Likewise, the release of carbon dioxide through respiration by the plant must be less
than the total carbon dioxide used by the plant for photosynthesis. In other words, the net
photosynthesis (Eq. 1) is zero:
Net Photosynthesis = Photosynthesis – Respiration (1)

Light saturation point. More light generally equates to higher levels of photosynthesis.
However as the light intensity increases, the photosynthetic rate eventually reaches a maximum
point. This point where the light intensity does not increase the photosynthesis rate is called the
light saturation point. When this point is reached, the photosynthesis rate curve becomes flat

(Figure 1

Light quality:

Light quality refers to the color or wavelength. The sun emits wavelengths between 280 and
2800 nm (97% of total spectral distribution). They are divided into three regions: Ultraviolet
(100-380 nm), visible light (380-780 nm) and infrared (700-3000 nm). The highest energy
corresponds to the lowest wavelengths; ultraviolet has higher energy than red. We as humans see
wavelengths between 380-770 nm; this range is called visible light. Visible light is divided into:
violet (380-430 nm), blue (430-500 nm), green (500-570 nm), yellow (570-590 nm), orange
(590-630 nm) and red (630-770). On the other hand, plants photosynthesize between 400-700
nm; this range is known as Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR). Chlorophyll, the green
pigment in leaves responsible for absorbing the PAR, has two peaks of absorption: blue and red
light. Leaves absorb little green and reflect it back; this is why we see the green color of the
leaves.

In general, different colors have different effects on plants:

 Ultraviolet Light: Ultraviolet light causes DNA damage, reduces photosynthesis rate,
flowering and pollination decrease, and seed development is affected. Ultraviolet A (a
subcategory of ultraviolet light) can cause plant elongation.

 Blue Light: It corresponds to one of the absorption peaks; therefore, the photosynthetic
process is more efficient when there is blue light. Blue light is responsible for vegetative
and leaf growth and is important for seedlings and young plants because it helps reduce
plant stretching.
 Red Light: This is the other peak of light absorption by the leaves. Phytochrome (a
photoreceptor) within the leaves is more sensitive to and responds to red light. This light
is important in the regulation of flowering and fruiting. It also helps increase stem
diameter and promotes branching.
  Far Red Light: This light can cause plant elongation and trigger flowering in long-day
plants.
 Red: Far Red Ratio: Plant elongation results when this ratio is low. In other words, plants
are more exposed to far red than red. In nature, we see this phenomenon when plants are
shaded by neighbouring plants; the shaded plants receive a higher ratio of far red light
and tend to grow taller to reach more light. This can become a problem with greenhouse
crops that are shaded by overhead baskets or are planted too close together.

 Light Duration or Photoperiod:

The number of hours of day light per day directly impacts flowering.  Plants can be divided into
three categories based on the required day length needed to trigger flowering:

 Short-day plants:  These plants flower only when the day length is shorter than the
night.  They bloom in early spring or fall. When the day length exceeds a critical time,
plants stop flowering and go into vegetative growth. Examples include: chrysanthemum,
cosmos, kalanchoe, poinsettia, zinnia, etc.

 Long-day plants: These plants flower when the day length is longer than the night. They
flower in late spring to early summer. When the day length is shorter than a critical time,
plants stop flowering and go into vegetative growth. Examples include: carnation, dill,
foxglove, petunia, snapdragon, etc.
 Day-neutral plants: These plants flower regardless of the day length.  Instead, they
usually flower after reaching certain stages of development. Examples include: celery,
cucumber, hydrangea, pansy, pepper, tomato, etc.

If we want to know the strictly meaning utilization efficiency of solar energy by crop plants, it is
necessary to make clear absorption rates of photosynthetically active radiation (PhAR), because
they can never convert any radiation except PhAR to the energy for their growth. Results are
summarized as follows:
1. Rate of energy absorption increased with leaf area index (LAI).

2. Combustion energy per unit dry weight of whole plant was little changed throughout growing
season.

3. Utilizational efficiencies of radiation (Eueff), which were obtained from dividing the fixed
energy into stand by incident solar energy onto canopy, were low at early growing stage.
SPROUT

Each seed contains a small parcel of nutrients that is all they need to germinate and begin
growing their first pair of leaves.

SEEDLING
As plants' roots develop and spread, a boost of quickly absorbed, well-balanced nutrients fuels
the rapid growth from spindly seedling to healthy plant. Light used during this stage is Blue
Light

VEGETATIVE

Nitrogen is a key component of chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, so it's the critical
nutrient when their energy is focused on growing stalks and foliage. Light used during this stage
is Blue Light

BUDDING

Phosphorus is in extra high demand at the start of a plant's' reproductive cycle, the transition
from growing leaves to forming buds. Light used during this stage is Blue Light

FLOWERING

Potassium plays a primary role in producing and transporting the sugars and starches plants use
up as they develop healthy flowers and fruit. Light used during this stage is Red Light

RIPENING

When flowers and fruit are verging on full maturity, they need a week or two of just water
without nutrients, a process known as "flushing," so they can use up all of the nutrients they have
already absorbed. Light used during this stage is Red Light
Topic 9: Heat Balance of the Atmosphere

Figure describes the modification of solar radiation by atmospheric and surface processes for the
whole Earth over a period of one year. Of all the sunlight that passes through the atmosphere
annually, only 51% is available at the Earth's surface to do work. This energy is used to heat the
Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, melt and evaporate water, and run photosynthesis in
plants. Of the other 49%, 4% is reflected back to space by the Earth's surface, 26% is scattered
or reflected to space by clouds and atmospheric particles, and 19% is absorbed by atmospheric
gases, particles, and clouds.
TOPIC 8: Law of Radiation and green house effect

Laws of Radiation

a. Plank’s Law:

The electromagnetic radiation consists of a stream or flow of particles or quanta. Each

quantum having energy content.
E=hϑ
where, h = plank’s constant (6.625 × 10-27 ergs sec-1)
ϑ = frequency of electro-magnetic length. (f = 1 / λ)
The greater the frequency (i.e. shorter the wavelength) the more the energy content.

b. Stefan Boltzmann’s Law:

The intensity of radiation emitted by a radiating body is proportional to the fourth power
of its absolute temperature.
E = σT4
Where, E = emissivity of the black body
T = absolute temperature
σ = Stefan Boltzmann’s constant

c. Wien’s displacement law:

The wavelength of maximum intensity of emission is inversely proportional to the

absolute temperature of that body, i.e. wavelength of maximum intensity of emission
(λmax α 1/T), in which λmax = 2897 T-1

d. Kirchoff’s law:

Any object (other than perfect black body) receive radiation will absorb, reflect, and
transmit a fraction of total radiation depending upon its traditional properties. This law
states that absorptivity of an object for radiation of a specific wavelength is equal to its
emissivity for the same wavelength (λ).
i.e. a(λ) = e(λ)
Where, a = absortivity (nil for white body, one for black body)
e = emissivity.
Total incident radiation (I) = absorptivity (Ia) + transmissivity (It) + reflectivity (Ir)
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the
planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.[1][2]

If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) they will radiate
energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. [3] The
intensity of the downward radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend
on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere
contains.

Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life. Human activities, mainly the
burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have strengthened the greenhouse effect and
caused global warming.[4]

The term "greenhouse effect" arose from a faulty analogy with the effect of sunlight passing
through glass and warming a greenhouse. The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally
different, as a greenhouse works mostly by reducing airflow so that warm air is kept inside.

TOPIC10: TERREARIAL RADIATION ABSORPTION BY OZONE, WATER VAPOUR,

AND CLOUD
Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation.
About 26% of the incoming solar energy is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds, and
19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the
surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths
that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is
absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it. The atmosphere also gains heat by sensible and latent
heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the
part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium
temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared
range. Increasing greenhouse gas emissions cause the greenhouse effect.[1] The primary
greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about
−18 °C (0 °F),[2] rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F).[3][4][5] The atmospheres of
Venus, Mars and Titan also contain greenhouse gases.

Atmospheric gases only absorb some wavelengths of energy but are transparent to others. The
absorption patterns of water vapor (blue peaks) and carbon dioxide (pink peaks) overlap in some
wavelengths. Carbon dioxide is not as strong a greenhouse gas as water vapor, but it absorbs
energy in longer wavelengths (12–15 micrometers) that water vapor does not, partially closing
the "window" through which heat radiated by the surface would normally escape to space.
(Illustration NASA, Robert Rohde)[19]

By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are:

Water vapor, 36–70%: Water vapor is the most potent greenhouse gas owing to the presence of
the hydroxyl bond which strongly absorbs in the infra-red region of the light spectrum. Water
vapour has a profound infrared absorption spectrum with more and broader absorption bands
than CO2, and also absorbs non-zero amounts of radiation in its low absorbing spectral regions.

Carbon dioxide, 9–26%: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing and emitting infrared
radiation .Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because it exerts a larger overall warming
influence than all of these other gases combined and because it has a long atmospheric lifetime
(hundreds to thousands of years).

Methane, 4–9%: Methane is an important greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 34
compared to CO2 over a 100-year period, and 72 over a 20-year period.[

Ozone, 3–7%: Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas, absorbing some of the infrared energy emitted
by the earth.

It is not possible to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission
bands of the gases overlap (hence the ranges given above).

Clouds: The complexity and diversity of clouds is a major reason for difficulty in quantifying
the effects of clouds on climate and climate change. On the one hand, white cloud tops promote
cooling of Earth's surface by reflecting shortwave radiation (visible and near infrared) from the
sun, diminishing the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed at the surface, enhancing the
Earth's albedo. Most of the sunlight that reaches the ground is absorbed, warming the surface,
which emits radiation upward at longer, infrared, wavelengths. At these wavelengths, however,
water in the clouds acts as an efficient absorber. The water reacts by radiating, also in the
infrared, both upward and downward, and the downward longwave radiation results in increased
warming at the surface. This is analogous to the greenhouse effect of greenhouse gases and water
vapor.[118]

Global warming potential (GWP) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas
traps in the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in
question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide.

Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation (sunlight) absorbed by
the Earth and energy radiated back to space. Positive forcing (incoming energy exceeding
outgoing energy) warms the system, while negative forcing (outgoing energy exceeding
incoming energy) cools it

Sub-topic: process of heat energy transfer

Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via conduction, convection,
and radiation.

Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through contact with neighboring
molecules.

Some solids, such as metals, are good conductors of heat while others, such as wood, are poor
conductors. Air and water are relatively poor conductors.

Since air is a poor conductor, most energy transfer by conduction occurs right at the earth's
surface. At night, the ground cools and the cold ground conducts heat away from the adjacent air.
During the day, solar radiation heats the ground, which heats the air next to it by conduction.

Convection transmits heat by transporting groups of molecules from place to place within a
substance. Convection occurs in fluids such as water and air, which move freely.

In the atmosphere, convection includes large- and small-scale rising and sinking of air masses
and smaller air parcels. These vertical motions effectively distribute heat and moisture
throughout the atmospheric column and contribute to cloud and storm development (where rising
motion occurs) and dissipation (where sinking motion occurs).

To understand the convection cells that distribute heat over the whole earth, let's consider a
simplified, smooth earth with no land/sea interactions and a slow rotation. Under these
conditions, the equator is warmed by the sun more than the poles. The warm, light air at the
equator rises and spreads northward and southward, and the cool dense air at the poles sinks and
spreads toward the equator. As a result, two convection cells are formed.

Meanwhile, the slow rotation of the earth toward the east causes the air to be deflected toward
the right in the northern hemisphere and toward the left in the southern hemisphere. This
deflection of the wind by the earth's rotation is known as the Coriolis effect.
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy without the involvement of a physical substance in the
transmission. Radiation can transmit heat through a vacuum.

Energy travels from the sun to the earth by means of electromagnetic waves. The shorter the
wavelength, the higher the energy associated with it.

Topic 20: Meteorological condition in green house/ glass house/animal house/ poultry
house/storage barn

The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy to greenhouses which become
warmer in sunlight. However, a greenhouse is not primarily warmed by the "greenhouse effect".
[31]
"Greenhouse effect" is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the
reduction of convection,[32] while the "greenhouse effect" works by preventing absorbed heat
from leaving the structure through radiative transfer.

A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse) is a structure with walls and roof made mainly of
transparent material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are
grown.[1] A more scientific definition is “a covered structure that protects the plants from
extensive external climate conditions and diseases, creates optimal growth microenvironment,
and offers a flexible solution for sustainable and efficient year-round cultivation.” [2] A modern
greenhouse operates as a system; therefore it is also referred to as controlled environment
agriculture (CEA), controlled environment plant production system (CEPPS), or phytomation
system.[2]

Theory of operation

The warmer temperature in a greenhouse occurs because incident solar radiation passes through
the transparent roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become
warmer. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, the warmed air cannot escape via
convection, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. This differs from the earth-oriented
theory known as the "greenhouse effect".

Ventilation Ventilation is one of the most important components in a successful greenhouse,

especially in hot and humid tropical climate condition.[17][18] If there is no proper ventilation,
greenhouses and their growing plants can become prone to problems. The main purposes of
ventilation are to regulate the temperature, humidity and vapor pressure deficit [19] to the optimal
level,[20] and to ensure movement of air and thus prevent build-up of plant pathogens (such as
Botrytis cinerea) that prefer still air conditions. Ventilation also ensures a supply of fresh air for
photosynthesis and plant respiration, and may enable important pollinators to access the
greenhouse crop.

Ventilation can be achieved via use of vents - often controlled automatically via a computer - and
recirculation fans.

Heating and cooling

Heating or electricity is one of the most considerable costs in the operation of greenhouses across
the globe, especially in colder climates when supplemental heat is needed use natural gas or
electric furnaces.

Cooling is typically done by opening windows in the greenhouse when it gets too warm for the
plants inside it. This can be done manually, or in an automated manner..

Lighting

During the day, light enters the greenhouse via the windows and is used by the plants. Some
greenhouses are also equipped with grow lights (often LED lights) which are switched on at
night to increase the amount of light the plants get, hereby increasing the yield with certain
crops.[23]

In agriculture and gardening, a cold frame is a transparent-roofed enclosure, built low to the
ground, used to protect plants from adverse weather, primarily excessive cold or wet. The
transparent top admits sunlight and prevents heat escape via convection that would otherwise
occur, particularly at night. Essentially, a cold frame functions as a miniature greenhouse to
extend the growing season.[1] Cold frames can be used to extend the growing season for many
food and ornamental crops, primarily by providing increased warmth in early spring.

Animal house: A stable is a building in which livestock, especially horses, are kept. It most
commonly means a building that is divided into separate stalls for individual animals. There are
many different types of stables in use today; the American-style barn, for instance, is a large barn
with a door at each end and individual stalls inside or free-standing stables with top and bottom-
opening doors. The term "stable" is also used to describe a group of animals kept by one owner,
regardless of housing or location.

Proper housing which is conducive to good health, comfort and protection from inclement
weather and which would enable the animals to utilize their genetic ability and feed for optimal
production.

 Well ventilated environment

 Moisture removal from the house is usually accompanied by a combination of drainage
and ventilation.
 Good ventilation also removes the products such as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, carbon
dioxide and methane.
 The cubic air capacity per animal is important in all calf housing designs because it
dilutes the intensity of disease producing organism in a building thus reducing the danger
of cross infection.

Poulty house: A typical rearing house (also called a shed or barn) .Meat chickens, commonly
called broilers, are floor-raised on litter such as wood shavings, peanut shells, and rice hulls,
indoors in climate-controlled housing. Broilers are not raised in cages. They are raised in large,
open structures known as grow out houses. These houses are equipped with mechanical systems
to deliver feed and water to the birds. They have ventilation systems and heaters that function as
needed. In intensive broiler sheds, the air can become highly polluted with ammonia from the
droppings. In this case, a farmer must run more fans to bring in more clean fresh air.

Ventilation management All poultry houses need some form of ventilation to ensure an
adequate supply of oxygen, while removing carbon dioxide, other waste gases and dust. In
commercial operations, minimum ventilation is often practised in colder climates, but not
generally in tropical ones (Glatz and Bolla, 2004). In large-scale automated operations, correct
air distribution can be achieved using a negative pressure ventilation system. When chicks are
very young, or in colder climates, the air from the inlets should be directed towards the roof, to
mix with the warm air there and circulate throughout the shed. With older birds and in warmer
temperatures, the incoming air is directed down towards the birds, and helps to keep them cool.
Evaporative cooling pads can be placed in the air inlets to keep birds cool in hot weather. Tunnel
ventilation is the most effective ventilation system for large houses in hot weather. Tunnel
ventilation: These systems are popular in hot climates. Exhaust fans are placed at one end of the
house or in the middle of the shed, and air is drawn through the length of the house, removing
heat, moisture and dust. Evaporative cooling pads are located at the air inlets. The energy
released during evaporation reduces the air temperature, and the resulting airflow creates a
cooling effect, which can reduce the shed temperature by 10 °C or more, depending on humidity.
Maximum evaporation is achieved when water pumps are set to

Temperature effects

Farmers need to compensate for undesirable climatic conditions by manipulating control systems
or modifying the house to ensure that the welfare and environmental needs of the birds are
satisfied. Environmental extremes (heat and cold stress, excessive or inadequate ventilation, poor
air quality) can be managed if the design of the poultry house is appropriate for the conditions.

Light intensity during the breeder bird’s life have an important role in development of the
reproductive system. The difference in day lengths and light intensities between the rearing and
the laying phases is the principal factor responsible for controlling and stimulating ovarian and
testicular development (Lewis and Morris, 2006). The response to increases in day length and
lighting intensity depends on the body weight profile during rearing, which in turn depend on the
nutritional regime. The effects of light are predominantly on the rate of sexual maturation and
egg production. The two types of artificial lighting commonly provided are incandescent and
fluorescent. Incandescent globes are cheaper to install, but have lower light efficiency and a
shorter life. Fluorescent lights are three to four times as efficient and last about ten times as long,
but have variable performance in cold weather. The colour of the light rays has an effect on
chickens’ productivity. For example, green and blue lights improve growth, and lower age at
sexual maturity, while red, orange and yellow lights increase age at sexual maturity, and red and
orange lights stimulate egg production. Birds are calmer in blue light, so blue lights are
recommended for use during depopulation in commercial operations.

A barn is an agricultural building usually on farms and used for various purposes. In the North
American area, a barn refers to structures that house livestock, including cattle and horses, as
well as equipment and fodder, and often grain.

A granary is a storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed. Ancient or
primitive granaries are most often made out of pottery. Granaries are often built above the
ground to keep the stored food away from mice and other animals.

Grain must be kept away from moisture for as long as possible to preserve it in good condition
and prevent mold growth. Newly harvested grain brought into a granary tends to contain excess
moisture, which encourages mold growth leading to fermentation and heating, both of which are
undesirable and affect quality. Fermentation generally spoils grain and may cause chemical
changes that create poisonous mycotoxins.

One traditional remedy is to spread the grain in thin layers on a floor, where it is turned to aerate
it thoroughly. Once the grain is sufficiently dry it can be transferred to a granary for storage. A
modern variation on this is to use a grain auger to move grain stored in one granary to another.

Topic11 and 12: Evaporation and evapo-transpiration

Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the
gas phase before reaching its boiling point.[1] The surrounding gas must not be saturated with the
evaporating substance. When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each
other based on how they collide. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to
overcome the vapor pressure, it will "escape" and enter the surrounding air as a gas. [2] When
evaporation occurs, the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the temperature of
the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.[3]

Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial
parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers.

Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land
and ocean surface to the atmosphere

Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the amount of water that would be evaporated and
transpired by a specific crop or ecosystem if there were sufficient water available. This demand
incorporates the energy available for evaporation and the ability of the lower atmosphere to
transport evaporated moisture away from the land surface Potential evapotranspiration is
expressed in terms of a depth of water, and can be graphed during the year.

Actual evapotranspiration or AE is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a

surface due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration.

Theory of evaporation: For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the
surface, they have to be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces.[4] When only a small proportion of the molecules
meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is
proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As
the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy,
and the temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling.
This is why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more
quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher
vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on
a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure
(determines the percent humidity), and air movement.

On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state.
Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a
few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen.

Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at
room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern
sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However,
these liquids are evaporating. It is just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less
visible.

Evaporative equilibrium

If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor
above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming
more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and
return reaches an equilibrium,[4] the vapor is said to be "saturated", and no further change in
either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur.

Meterological factors affecting evapo-tranpiration:

Radiation

Temperature
Wind

Atmospheric pressure

Note: for the explanation to these points refer to photocopy papers attached herewith

Soil factors: Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited application of fertilizers,
the presence of hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests
and poor soil management may limit the crop development and reduce the evapotranspiration.
Other factors to be considered when assessing ET are ground cover, plant density and the soil
water content. The effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned primarily by the magnitude
of the water deficit and the type of soil. On the other hand, too much water will result in
waterlogging which might damage the root and limit root water uptake by inhibiting respiration.

Plant factors:

Plants regulate the rate of transpiration by controlling the size of the stomatal apertures. The rate
of transpiration is also influenced by the evaporative demand of the atmosphere surrounding the
leaf such as boundary layer conductance, humidity, temperature, wind and incident sunlight. Soil
water supply and soil temperature can influence stomatal opening, and thus transpiration rate.
The amount of water lost by a plant also depends on its size and the amount of water absorbed at
the roots. Transpiration accounts for most of the water loss by a plant by the leaves and young
stems. Transpiration serves to evaporatively cool plants, as the evaporating water carries away
heat energy due to its large latent heat of vaporization of 2260 kJ per litre.

Feature Effect on transpiration

More leaves (or spines, or other photosynthesizing organs) mean a bigger

Number of
surface area and more stomata for gaseous exchange. This will result in greater
leaves
water loss.

Number of
More stomata will provide more pores for transpiration.
stomata

A leaf with a bigger surface area will transpire faster than a leaf with a smaller
Size of the leaf
surface area.

A waxy cuticle is relatively impermeable to water and water vapour and reduces
evaporation from the plant surface except via the stomata. A reflective cuticle
will reduce solar heating and temperature rise of the leaf, helping to reduce the
Presence of
rate of evaporation. Tiny hair-like structures called trichomes on the surface of
plant cuticle
leaves also can inhibit water loss by creating a high humidity environment at the
surface of leaves.[citation needed] These are some examples of the adaptations of
plants for conservation of water that may be found on many xerophytes.

Light supply The rate of transpiration is controlled by stomatal aperture, and these small
 pores open especially for photosynthesis. While there are exceptions to this
(such as night or "CAM photosynthesis"), in general a light supply will
encourage open stomata.

Temperature affects the rate in two ways:

Temperature 1) An increased rate of evaporation due to a temperature rise will hasten the loss
of water.
2) Decreased relative humidity outside the leaf will increase the water potential
gradient.
Relative Drier surroundings gives a steeper water potential gradient, and so increases the
humidity rate of transpiration.

In still air, water lost due to transpiration can accumulate in the form of vapor
close to the leaf surface. This will reduce the rate of water loss, as the water
potential gradient from inside to outside of the leaf is then slightly less. Wind
blows away much of this water vapor near the leaf surface, making the potential
Wind gradient steeper and speeding up the diffusion of water molecules into the
surrounding air. Even in wind, though, there may be some accumulation of
water vapor in a thin boundary layer of slower moving air next to the leaf
surface. The stronger the wind, the thinner this layer will tend to be, and the
steeper the water potential gradient.

Water stress caused by restricted water supply from the soil may result in
stomatal closure and reduce the rates of transpiration.
Water supply

TOPIC 17: Various Approaches to Evaluate Evaporation and Sensible Heat Fluxes

A.Energy balance methods

Evaporation of water requires relatively large amounts of energy, either in the form of sensible
heat or radiant energy. Therefore the evapotranspiration process is governed by energy exchange
at the vegetation surface and is limited by the amount of energy available. Because of this
limitation, it is possible to predict the evapotranspiration rate by applying the principle of energy
conservation. The energy arriving at the surface must equal the energy leaving the surface for the
same time period.

All fluxes of energy should be considered when deriving an energy balance equation. The
equation for an evaporating surface can be written as:
Rn - G -  ET - H = 0 (1)

where Rn is the net radiation, H the sensible heat, G the soil heat flux and  ET the latent heat
flux. The various terms can be either positive or negative. Positive Rn supplies energy to the
surface and positive G,  ET and H remove energy from the surface (Figure 5).

In Equation 1 only vertical fluxes are considered and the net rate at which energy is being
transferred horizontally, by advection, is ignored. Therefore the equation is to be applied to large,
extensive surfaces of homogeneous vegetation only. The equation is restricted to the four
components: Rn,  ET, H and G. Other energy terms, such as heat stored or released in the plant,
or the energy used in metabolic activities, are not considered. These terms account for only a
small fraction of the daily net radiation and can be considered negligible when compared with
the other four components.

The latent heat flux ( ET) representing the evapotranspiration fraction can be derived from the
energy balance equation if all other components are known. Net radiation (R n) and soil heat
fluxes (G) can be measured or estimated from climatic parameters. Measurements of the sensible
heat (H) are however complex and cannot be easily obtained. H requires accurate measurement
of temperature gradients above the surface.

B. ET computed from meteorological data

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, ET is commonly computed

from weather data. A large number of empirical or semi-empirical equations have been
developed for assessing crop or reference crop evapotranspiration from meteorological data.
Some of the methods are only valid under specific climatic and agronomic conditions and cannot
be applied under conditions different from those under which they were originally developed.

1.The Penman equation describes evaporation (E) from an open water surface, and was
developed by Howard Penman in 1948. Penman's equation requires daily mean temperature,
wind speed, air pressure, and solar radiation to predict E. Simpler Hydrometeorological
equations continue to be used where obtaining such data is impractical, to give comparable
results within specific contexts, e.g. humid vs arid climates.

Numerous variations of the Penman equation are used to estimate evaporation from water, and
land. Specifically the Penman-Monteith equation refines weather based potential
evapotranspiration (PET) estimates of vegetated land areas.[1] It is widely regarded as one of the
most accurate models, in terms of estimates.[citation needed]

The original equation was developed by Howard Penman at the Rothamsted Experimental
Station, Harpenden, UK.

The equation for evaporation given by Penman is:

where:

m = Slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve (Pa K−1)

Rn = Net irradiance (W m−2)

ρa = density of air (kg m−3)

cp = heat capacity of air (J kg−1 K−1)

ga = momentum surface aerodynamic conductance (m s−1)

δe = vapor pressure deficit (Pa)

λv = latent heat of vaporization (J kg−1)

γ = psychrometric constant (Pa K−1)

which (if the SI units in parentheses are used) will give the evaporation Emass in units of
kg/(m²·s), kilograms of water evaporated every second for each square meter of area.

Remove λ to obviate that this is fundamentally an energy balance. Replace λv with L to get
familiar precipitation units ETvol, where Lv=λvρwater. This has units of m/s, or more commonly
mm/day, because it is flux m3/s per m2=m/s.

This equation assumes a daily time step so that net heat exchange with the ground is
insignificant, and a unit area surrounded by similar open water or vegetation so that net heat &
vapor exchange with the surrounding area cancels out. Some times people replace Rn with and A
for total net available energy when a situation warrants account of additional heat fluxes.

temperature, wind speed, relative humidity impact the values of m, g, cp, ρ, and δe.

In 1993, W.Jim Shuttleworth modified and adapted the Penman equation to use SI, which made
calculating evaporation simpler.[2] The resultant equation is:

where:

Emass = Evaporation rate (mm day−1)

m = Slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve (kPa K−1)

Rn = Net irradiance (MJ m−2 day−1)

 γ = psychrometric constant = (kPa K−1)

U2 = wind speed (m s−1)

δe = vapor pressure deficit (kPa)

λv = latent heat of vaporization (MJ kg−1)

Note: this formula implicitly includes the division of the numerator by the density of water (1000
kg m−3) to obtain evaporation in units of mm d−1

Some useful relationships

δe = (es - ea) = (1-relative humidity)es

es = saturated vapor pressure of air, as is found inside plant stoma.

ea = vapor pressure of free flowing air.

es, mmHg = exp(21.07-5336/Ta), approximation by Merva, 1975[3]

Therefore , mmHg/K

Ta = air temperature in kelvins

2. The Blaney–Criddle equation (named after H. F. Blaney and W. D. Criddle) is a method

for estimating reference crop evapotranspiration.

The equation calculates evapotranspiration for a 'reference crop', which is taken as actively
growing green grass of 8–15 cm height [2].

Equation

ETo = p ·(0.457·Tmean + 8.128)

Where:

ETo is the reference evapotranspiration [mm day−1] (monthly)

Tmean is the mean daily temperature [°C] given as Tmean = (Tmax + Tmin )/ 2

p is the mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours.[1]

3. Thornthwaite equation (1948)

Where

is the estimated potential evapotranspiration (mm/month)

is the average daily temperature (degrees Celsius; if this is negative, use ) of the month
being calculated

is the number of days in the month being calculated

is the average day length (hours) of the month being calculated

is a heat index which depends on the 12 monthly mean temperatures .[1]

Somewhat modified forms of this equation appear in later publications (1955 and 1957) by
Thornthwaite and

C.ET estimated from pan evaporation

Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of the integrated effect of radiation,
air temperature, air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However, differences in the water
and cropped surface produce significant differences in the water loss from an open water surface
and the crop. The pan has proved its practical value and has been used successfully to estimate
reference evapotranspiration by observing the evaporation loss from a water surface and
applying empirical coefficients to relate pan evaporation to ETo.

TOPIC 16: LATENT HEAT AND SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER IN AIR:

[Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body or thermodynamic system in which the exchange of
heat changes the temperature of the body or system, and some macroscopic variables of the body
or system, but leaves unchanged certain other macroscopic variables of the body or system, such
as volume or pressure].
Latent heat is thermal energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system,
during a constant-temperature process — usually a first-order phase transition.

The terms ″sensible heat″ and ″latent heat″ refer to types of heat transfer between a body and its
surroundings; they depend on the properties of the body. ″Sensible heat″ is ″sensed″ or felt in a
process as a change in the body's temperature. ″Latent heat″ is heat transferred in a process
without change of the body's temperature, for example, in a phase change ( solid / liquid / gas ).

Both sensible and latent heats are observed in many processes of transfer of energy in nature.
Latent heat is associated with the change of phase of atmospheric or ocean water, vaporization,
condensation, freezing or melting, whereas sensible heat is energy transferred that is evident in
change of the temperature of the atmosphere or ocean, or ice, without those phase changes,
though it is associated with changes of pressure and volume.

In meteorology, latent heat flux is the flux of heat from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere that
is associated with evaporation or transpiration of water at the surface and subsequent
condensation of water vapor in the troposphere. It is an important component of Earth's surface
energy budget. Latent heat flux has been commonly measured with the Bowen ratio technique, or
more recently since the mid-1900s by the Jonathan Beaver method.

In meteorology and hydrology, the Bowen ratio is used to describe the type of heat transfer for a
surface that has moisture. Heat transfer can either occur as sensible heat (differences in
temperature without evapotranspiration) or latent heat (the energy required during a change of
state, without a change in temperature). The Bowen ratio is the mathematical method generally
used to calculate heat lost (or gained) in a substance; it is the ratio of energy fluxes from one
state to another by sensible heat and latent heating respectively. It is calculated by the equation:

where is sensible heating and is latent heating. The quantity was named by Harald
Sverdrup after Ira Sprague Bowen (1898–1973), an astrophysicist whose theoretical work on
evaporation to air from water bodies made first use of it, and it is used most commonly in

meteorology and hydrology. In this context, when the magnitude of is less than one, a
greater proportion of the available energy at the surface is passed to the atmosphere as latent heat

than as sensible heat, and the converse is true for values of greater than one. As ,

however, becomes unbounded making the Bowen ratio a poor choice of variable for use in
formulae, especially for arid surfaces. For this reason the evaporative fraction is sometimes a
more appropriate choice of variable representing the relative contributions of the turbulent
energy fluxes to the surface energy budget.

The Bowen ratio is related to the evaporative fraction, , through the equation,
Topic 13 n 14: Cardinal Temperature, thermal effect of environment on crop:
Are the minimum, maximum and optimum growth temperatures for an organism (plant, animal,
and microbe).
Minimum and maximum temperatures that define limits of growth and development of an
organism, and an optimum temperature at which growth proceeds with greatest rapidity.
Cardinal temperatures may vary with the stage of development.

Effect of Temperature on Plant Growth

Temperature and crop production

1. Important for growth and development

2. Optimum temperature is required for maximum dry matter accumulation.
3. High night temperature – growth of shoot

Cardinal temperature points

All plants have maximum, optimum and minimum temperature limits. The limits are cardinal
temperature points. Optimum temperature range is very important.

3 – 4°C  minimum
Wheat 25° optimum
30° - 32°C  maximum
10-12°C  minimum
Rice 30-32°C  optimum
36-38°C  maximum

(1) Low temperature injury

(2) High temperature injury

1) Low temperature:  

Low temperature affects several aspects of crop growth viz., survival, cell division,
photosynthesis, water transport, growth and finally yield.

Chilling injury If the plants grown in hot temperature are exposed to low
 temperature, they will be killed (or) severely injured. When
the night temperature is below 15°C field crops may show
yellowing symptoms (eg) Tropical annuals.
When the plants are exposed to low temperature, water
freezes into ice crystals in the intercellular spaces.
Freezing injury
(eg) Cell dehydration
Temperate crops (potato, tea etc.,)
Formation of thick cover of ice/snow on the soil surface
presents the entry of oxygen and crop suffers. This prevents
Suffocation
the respiration and lead to accumulation of harmful
substances.
Lifting of plants along with soil from its actual position by
Heaving
ice, crystals. This is a mechanical lifting.

Frost damage:

Low temperature near the canopy due to earth’s re-radiation. If the cell size is large the
probability of frost damage is high.

(1) Advective frosts

Advective frosts are due to incursion of large masses of cold air over a region from the colder
areas.

(2) Radiation frost:

Occur on clear calm nights when heat is freely radiated from all exposed objects.

(i) Hoar frost (or) white frost:

This is caused due to sublimation of ice crystals on objects like tree branches.

(ii) Black frost:

The vegetation is frozen because of reduction of air temperature.

Plant management against frost damage:

1. Frost free growing season
2. Adjusting the sowing time
3. Selection of  resistant varieties
4. Sprinkler irrigation
HIGH TEMPERATURE INJURIES        
High temperature adversely affects mineral nutrition, shoot growth and pollen development
resulting in low yield.
1. The critical temperature above which plants gets killed is called thermal ‘death point’.
2. The temperature above 50°C may kill many annual crops. –
3. The limit varies with plants; shade loving plants are killed at lower temperature.

Mineral Nutrition

1. High temperature stress causes reduction in absorption and subsequent assimilation of

nutrients.
2. Absorption of calcium is reduced at temperature of 28º C in Maize.
3. Nutrient uptake is affected by both soil and air temperature in rice.
4. Nitrate reductase activity decrease under high temperature.

Shoot growth

1. High temperature, even for short period, affects crop growth especially in temperate
crops like wheat.
2. High air temperature reduces the growth of shoots and in turn reduces root growth.
3. High soil temperature is more crucial as damage to the roots is severe resulting in
substantial reduction in shoot growth.
4. High temperature at 38º C in rice reduces plant height, root elongation and smaller roots.

Pollen development

1. High temperature during booting stage results in pollen abortion.

2. In wheat, temperature higher than 27º C caused under-development of anthers and loss of
viability of pollen.
3. A temperature of 30º C for two days at reduction division stage decreased grain yield by
drastic reduction in grain set.

Scorching:

High temperature lead to dehydration and leaves are scorched.

Physiological activities:

High temperature disturbs the photosynthesis and respiration.

Injury due to scorching sun:

High temperature causes injury on the exposed area of the plant (eg) Barcks it is know as ‘Sun
sclad’

Burning off:

The symptoms are noticed on young seedlings due to high soil temperature. The seedlings are
killed.

Stem gridle:

High soil temperature causes stem scorches at the ground level (eg) cotton.

heat stress

Heat stress often is defined as where temperatures are hot enough for sufficient time that they
cause irreversible damage to plant function or development. In addition, high temperatures can
increase the rate of reproductive development, which shortens the time for photosynthesis to
contribute to fruit or seed production.

Heat tolerance is broadly defined as the ability of the plant tolerates heat – means that grow and
produce economic yield under high temperatures.

The extent to which heat stress occurs in specific climatic zones is a complex issue. Plants can be
damaged in different ways by either high day or high night temperatures and by either high air or
high soil temperatures. Also, crop species and cultivars differ in their sensitivity to high
temperatures. Cool-season annual species are more sensitive to hot weather than warm-season
annuals. In Table 1 there are several examples of cool-season and warm-season annual crop
species.

Table 1. Annual crop species adapted to cool and warm seasons (Hall 2001). 

Cool-season annuals Warm-season annuals

Barley, brassicas, canola, fava bean, flax, common bean, cotton, cowpea, cucurbits ,
garbanzo bean, Irish potato, lentil, finger millet, grain amaranth, lima bean,
lettuce, lupine, mustard, oat, pea, radish, maize, mung bean, pearl millet, pepper,
rye, spinach, triticale, turnip, vetch, pigeon pea, rice sesame, sorghum, soybean,
wheat sunflower, sweet potato, tobacco, tomato

Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and how these are
influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors (such as
elevation). Examples include the date of emergence of leaves and flowers, the first flight of
butterflies and the first appearance of migratory birds, the date of leaf colouring and fall in
deciduous trees, the dates of egg-laying of birds and amphibia, or the timing of the
developmental cycles of temperate-zone honey bee colonies. In the scientific literature on
ecology, the term is used more generally to indicate the time frame for any seasonal biological
phenomena, including the dates of last appearance (e.g., the seasonal phenology of a species may
be from April through September).

Because many such phenomena are very sensitive to small variations in climate, especially to
temperature, phenological records can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical
climatology, especially in the study of climate change and global warming. For example,
viticultural records of grape harvests in Europe have been used to reconstruct a record of summer
growing season temperatures going back more than 500 years.[5][6] In addition to providing a
longer historical baseline than instrumental measurements, phenological observations provide
high temporal resolution of ongoing changes related to global warming.[7][8]

Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night. It

occurs in plants and animals. Photoperiodism can also be defined as the developmental responses
of plants to the relative lengths of light and dark periods.

Many flowering plants (angiosperms) use a photoreceptor protein, such as phytochrome or

cryptochrome,[1] to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take as
signals to flower. In a further subdivision, obligate photoperiodic plants absolutely require a long
or short enough night before flowering, whereas facultative photoperiodic plants are more likely
to flower under one condition.

Long-day plants

Long-day plants flower when the night length falls below their critical photoperiod. [13] These
plants typically flower in the northern hemisphere during late spring or early summer as days are
getting longer. In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year (summer solstice) is on or
about 21 June.[14] After that date, days grow shorter (i.e. nights grow longer) until 21 December
(the winter solstice). This situation is reversed in the southern hemisphere (i.e., longest day is 21
December and shortest day is 21 June).[1][8]

Some long-day obligate plants are:

 Carnation (Dianthus)
 Henbane (Hyoscyamus)
 Oat (Avena)

Some long-day facultative plants are:

 Pea (Pisum sativum)

  Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
 Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
 Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Short-day plants

Short-day plants flower when the night lengths exceed their critical photoperiod. [15] They cannot
flower under short nights or if a pulse of artificial light is shone on the plant for several minutes
during the night; they require a continuous period of darkness before floral development can
begin. Natural nighttime light, such as moonlight or lightning, is not of sufficient brightness or
duration to interrupt flowering.[1][8]

In general, short-day (i.e.long-night) plants flower as days grow shorter (and nights grow longer)
after 21 June in the northern hemisphere, which is during summer or fall. The length of the dark
period required to induce flowering differs among species and varieties of a species.

Photoperiodism affects flowering by inducing the shoot to produce floral buds instead of leaves
and lateral buds.

Some short-day facultative plants are:[16]

 Kenaf ( Hibiscus cannabinus)

 Marijuana (Cannabis)
 Cotton (Gossypium)
 Rice (Oryza)
 Jowar (Sorghum bicolor)
 Green Gram (Mung bean, Vigna radiata)
 Soybeans[17] (Glycine max)

Day-neutral plants

Day-neutral plants, such as cucumbers, roses, and tomatoes, do not initiate flowering based on
photoperiodism.[18] Instead, they may initiate flowering after attaining a certain overall
developmental stage or age, or in response to alternative environmental stimuli, such as
vernalisation (a period of low temperature).[1][8]

Thermoperiod:The daily period during which a plant is subjected to warmth. the period of
exposure of a plant to a particular temperature; specifically : the period characteristic of the
diurnal alternation of day and night temperature when both period and temperature are at or near
the optimum for the induction of various activities (as growth or flowering) — compare
photoperiod.
Growing degree days (GDD), also called growing degree units (GDUs), are a heuristic tool in
phenology. GDD are a measure of heat accumulation used by horticulturists, gardeners, and
farmers to predict plant and animal development rates such as the date that a flower will bloom,
an insect will emerge from dormancy, or a crop will reach maturity.

In the absence of extreme conditions such as unseasonal drought or disease, plants grow in a
cumulative stepwise manner which is strongly influenced by the ambient temperature. Growing
degree days take aspects of local weather into account and allow gardeners to predict (or, in
greenhouses, even to control) the plants’ pace toward maturity.

Unless stressed by other environmental factors like moisture, the development rate from
emergence to maturity for many plants depends upon the daily air temperature. Because many
developmental events of plants and insects depend on the accumulation of specific quantities of
heat, it is possible to predict when these events should occur during a growing season regardless
of differences in temperatures from year to year. Growing degrees (GDs) is defined as the
number of temperature degrees above a certain threshold base temperature, which varies among
crop species. The base temperature is that temperature below which plant growth is zero. GDs
are calculated each day as maximum temperature plus the minimum temperature divided by 2 (or
the mean temperature), minus the base temperature. GDUs are accumulated by adding each
day’s GDs contribution as the season progresses.

GDUs can be used to: assess the suitability of a region for production of a particular crop;
estimate the growth-stages of crops, weeds or even life stages of insects; predict maturity and
cutting dates of forage crops; predict best timing of fertilizer or pesticide application; estimate
the heat stress on crops; plan spacing of planting dates to produce separate harvest dates. Crop
specific indices that employ separate equations for the influence of the daily minimum
(nighttime) and the maximum (daytime) temperatures on growth are called crop heat units
(CHUs).

GDD calculation

GDD are calculated by taking the integral of warmth above a base temperature,[1] Tbase (usually
10 °C):

A simpler, approximately equivalent formulation uses the average of the daily maximum and
minimum temperatures compared to a Tbase. As an equation:

If the mean daily temperature is lower than the base temperature then GDD=0.
GDDs are typically measured from the winter low. Any temperature below Tbase is set to Tbase
before calculating the average. Likewise, the maximum temperature is usually capped at 30 °C
because most plants and insects do not grow any faster above that temperature. However, some
warm temperate and tropical plants do have significant requirements for days above 30 °C to
mature fruit or seeds.

For example, a day with a high of 23 °C and a low of 12 °C (and a base of 10 °C) would
contribute 7.5 GDDs.

A day with a high of 13 °C and a low of 5 °C (and a base of 10 °C) would contribute 1.5 GDDs.
Note that the low temperature of 5 °C is clipped to the Tbase before calculating the average.

Topic 16: Leaf Temperature, heat transfer between leaf and adjoining air:

A plant’s leaf surface temperature (LST) is determined by a variety of factors such as plant type,
light spectrum, humidity, and air temperature. In order for a plant to produce and yield an ample
crop, its leaf temperature must be kept at ideal.

Almost all types of plants use their leaves to control their metabolism. If a plant’s leaves are at
their optimal temperature, the plant will reach its full growth potential, produce ideal pigments,
create flavor-enhancing compounds, vitamins, resins, large buds, abundant flowers, and a
superior crop.

The ambient temperature around the plant has a direct bearing on its leaf surface temperature;
however, other factors also influence its temperature such as artificial or natural lighting.

Maximum Yield explains Leaf Surface Temperature (LST)

All plants are different and each one has adapted its leaf surface temperature requirements to
meet the demands of the region of the world it grows within.

Most plants require a leaf surface temperature of 15 to 30 degrees Celsius (59 to 86 degrees
Fahrenheit) to successfully photosynthesis. However, pine and arctic plants have cooler
temperature requirements and desert plants need warmer conditions to photosynthesis. CO2
availability also determines a plant’s leaf surface temperature.

Leaf and air temperatures

Foliage exposed to the Sun is rarely at a temperature equal to that of the air around, because
evaporation cools the leaves and sunshine heats them. The drier the air, the cooler the leaf of a
well-watered plant is, compared to the surrounding air. A comparison of reported temperatures
of the leaves of numerous well-watered plants in various parts of the world around midday, and
of the adjacent air (T), indicated that the temperature difference between the leaf (T) the ambient
air (Ts), (T - Ts), decreases as T rises (1). The difference tends to be positive at low air
temperatures but negative in hot conditions

Many plants species have the ability to cool their leaf surface temperature by relying on
evaporation. An elevated humidity level also helps warm the leaves and relieves the plant from
using its natural evaporation techniques to reduce its temperature.

What is the Ideal Leaf Surface Temperature?

So, what is the ideal leaf surface temperature for plants? This is unfortunately a question without
a simple answer as many factors influence the ideal.

Multiple types of metabolic reactions exist within every plant, and each has a different optimal
temperature range. Primary metabolism (photosynthesis) is obviously the most important;
without it the plant will not survive. Optimal temperatures for desirable secondary metabolites
must be considered as well, especially if the plant is grown specifically for the secondary
metabolites.

The optimal leaf temperature range for photosynthesis depends on the type of plant and
concentrations of CO2. Arctic- and alpine-adapted plants typically require cooler temperatures,
while desert-adapted and plants using C4 photosynthesis prefer it warmer. (There are two
slightly different chemical reactions for photosynthesis, called C3 and C4; the variant a plant
uses is determined genetically.)

Most growers also know they can turn up the temperature when running CO 2, since CO2
supplementation will generally raise the optimal photosynthesis temperature. Thus, the ideal LST
for photosynthesis is dependent on environmental conditions as well as the type of plant.

Secondary metabolic reactions can have a huge range of optimal temperatures; many plants have
even evolved responses specifically triggered by exposure to cold or hot temperatures to better
adapt to their surroundings. For example, some plants produce proteins with anti-freeze
properties when exposed to cold.

In short, the ideal leaf surface temperature depends on the species/variety of the plant, overall
environmental conditions, as well as what the plant is being grown for. Only experimentation can
determine an ideal range for LST for a specific plant variety in a specific set of conditions.
What Affects Leaf Surface Temperature?

Ambient air temperature, relative humidity, leaf physiology and pigmentation, genetic/metabolic
differences, and light spectrum all affect LST. Air temperature sets a baseline for leaf
temperature, providing warmth to leaves cooler than the air, and cooling leaves warmer than it.

Many leaves can cool themselves through evaporation of water through stomata; higher relative
humidity typically increases leaf surface temperature by reducing this evaporative cooling. The
spectrum (colors) of light the leaf is receiving also affect leaf surface temperature.

Many studies have shown that chlorophyll, the primary driver of photosynthesis, most efficiently
uses light in the blue and red areas of the light spectrum. This does not mean that plants cannot
use green or yellow light for photosynthesis, just that it is less efficiently used.

Artificial Grow Lights

Various artificial grow light technologies create different light spectrums. LED grow lights differ
significantly from other forms of artificial plant lights in that the spectrum can be tailored to any
specification, eliminating unwanted excesses of light wavelengths (colors) while providing light
plants can use most efficiently.

Topic 18:
Soil temperature is the factor that drives germination, blooming, composting, and a variety of
other processes. Learning how to check soil temperature will help the home gardener know when
to start sowing seeds. Knowledge of what is soil temperature also helps define when to transplant
and how to begin a compost bin. Determining current soil temperatures is easy and will help you
grow a more bountiful and beautiful garden.

So what is soil temperature? Soil temperature is simply the measurement of the warmth in the
soil. Ideal soil temperatures for planting most plants are 65 to 75 F. (18 to 24 C.). Nighttime and
daytime soil temperatures are both important. When are soil temperatures taken? Soil
temperatures are measured once soils are workable. The exact time will depend upon your
USDA plant hardiness zone. In zones with higher numbers, the soil temperature will warm up
quickly and earlier in the season. In zones that are lower, the soil temperature may take months
to warm up as winter chill wears off.

The perfect temperature for planting varies dependent upon the variety of vegetable or fruit.
Planting before it is time can reduce fruit set, stunt plant growth and prevent or reduce seed
germination. Plants such as tomatoes, cucumbers and snap peas benefit from soils at least 60 F
(16 C.). Sweet corn, lima beans and some greens need 65 degrees F. (18 C.) Warmer
temperatures into the 70s (20s C.) are required for watermelon, peppers, squash, and at the
higher end, okra, cantaloupe and sweet potatoes.

The thermal properties of soil are a component of soil physics that has found important uses in
engineering, climatology and agriculture. These properties influence how energy is partitioned in
the soil profile. While related to soil temperature, it is more accurately associated with the
transfer of heat throughout the soil, by radiation, conduction and convection.

The main soil thermal properties are:

Volumetric heat capacity, SI Units: J∙m−3∙K−1

Volumetric heat capacity (VHC), also termed volume-specific heat capacity, describes the
ability of a given volume of a substance to store internal energy while undergoing a given
temperature change, but without undergoing a phase transition. It is different from specific heat
capacity in that the VHC is a 'per unit volume' measure of the relationship between thermal
energy and temperature of a material, while the specific heat is a 'per unit mass' measure (or
occasionally per molar quantity of the material). If given a specific heat value of a substance, one
can convert it to the VHC by multiplying the specific heat by the density of the substance.[1]

Thermal conductivity, SI Units: W∙m−1∙K−1

Thermal conductivity (often denoted k, λ, or κ) is the property of a material to conduct heat. It

is evaluated primarily in terms of the Fourier's Law for heat conduction. In general, thermal
conductivity is a tensor property, expressing the anisotropy of the property.

Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of
high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely
used in heat sink applications and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal
insulation. The thermal conductivity of a material may depend on temperature. The reciprocal of
thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity.

The general equation for thermal conductivity is , where is the heat flux, is

the thermal conductivity and is the temperature gradient.

Thermal diffusivity, SI Units: m2∙s−1

In heat transfer analysis, thermal diffusivity is the thermal conductivity divided by density and
specific heat capacity at constant pressure.[1] It measures the rate of transfer of heat of a material
from the hot side to the cold side. It has the SI derived unit of m²/s. Thermal diffusivity is usually
denoted α but a, κ,[2] K,[3] and D are also used. The formula is:
 [4]

where

 is thermal conductivity (W/(m·K))

 is specific heat capacity (J/(kg·K))

 is density (kg/m³)

Together, can be considered the volumetric heat capacity (J/(m³·K)).

As seen in the heat equation,[5]

One way to view thermal diffusivity is as the ratio of the time derivative of temperature to its
curvature, quantifying the rate at which temperature concavity is "smoothed out". In a sense,
thermal diffusivity is the measure of thermal inertia.[6] In a substance with high thermal
diffusivity, heat moves rapidly through it because the substance conducts heat quickly relative to
its volumetric heat capacity or 'thermal bulk'.

Thermal diffusivity is often measured with the flash method.[7][8] It involves heating a strip or
cylindrical sample with a short energy pulse at one end and analyzing the temperature change
(reduction in amplitude and phase shift of the pulse) a short distance away.[9]

Conductance of heat:There is a strong dependence of thermal conductivity and diffusivity on

soil wetness and other soil properties (van Bavel and Hillel, 1976). The flow of water and heat is
an interactive process, where temperature gradients affect the moisture potential and both liquid
and vapor movement in soil (McInnes, 2002). Heat flow in soil can be described by the
following equation:

Q=Kt A dT/dX

where Q is heat flux per unit area, Kt is the soil thermal conductivity of soil (W m−3 K−1), TA is
the surface area (m2), and X is the soil distance (m).
 Factors Affecting the Soil Temperature And Its Control

1. Solar radiation:

The amount of heat from the Sun that reaches the earth is 2.0 cal/cm2 min -1 the amount of
radiation received by the soil depends on angles with which the soil faces the Sun.

2. Condensation:

Whenever water vapour from soil depths or atmosphere condenses in the soil, its heat increases
noticeably.

3. Evaporation:

The greater the rate of evaporation, the more the soil is cooled.

4. Rainfall:

Rainfall cools down the soil.

5. Vegetation:

A bare soil quickly absorbs heat and becomes very hot during the summer and become very cold
during the winter.  Vegetation acts as a insulating agent.  It does not allow the soil to become
either too hot during the summer and two cold during the winter.

6. Colour of the soil:

Black colored soils absorbs more heat than light closured soils Hence black color soils are
warmer than light colored soils.

7. Moisture content: 

A soil with higher moisture content is cooler than dry soil.

8. Tillage:

The cultivated soil has greater temperature amplitude as compared to the uncultivated soil.

9. Soil texture:

Soil textures affect the thermal conductivity of soil. Thermal conductivity decreases with
reduction in particle size.

10. Organic matter content:

Organic matter reduces the heat capacity and thermal conductivity of soil,  increases its water
holding capacity and has a dark color, which increases its heat absorbability.

11. Slope of land:

Solar radiation that reaches the land surface at an angle is scattered over a wider area than the
same amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the land at right angles.  Therefore, the
amount of solar radiation reaching per unit area of the land surface decreases as the slope of the
land is increases.

Soil temperature can be controlled by:

1. Regulating soil moisture.

2. Proper soil management practices so a to have good drainage.
3. Application /use of mulching.
4. Sufficient addition of organic matter.

  Soil Temperature:

Soil is heated through:

-Geothermal process -Atmospheric process -Radiative process

Different biophysical, biochemical and microbiological processes are controlled by soil

heat/temperature. Temperature of soil depends on soil thermal properties and heat content of soil
mass.

Thermal properties of soil are:

a. Specific Heat

It is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g soil by 1 degree C. For clay, it is generally
0.8 cal / g degree C. It is affected by moisture content. Specific heat at field capacity (FC) is
more than at wilting point.

b. Heat Capacity

It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1cm3 soils by 1 degree C. Soil with
high heat capacity warms up slowly. It depends upon soil moisture content, density of soil,
texture, soil characteristics, organic matter content and coverage. It is denoted by C v .
Mathematically, Cv= ρC where ρ= bulk density and C=specific heat At FC, the C v of most soils
lie between 0.3-0.6 cal/cm3/degree C
c. Thermal conductivity

It is the quantity of heat transfer across a unit area in unit time under a unit temperature gradient.
It shows the easiness of heat transfer. It varies with porosity, moisture content, texture and
organic matter of soil. The thermal conductivity of dry sandy soil is about 0.00046
cal/cm/sec/degree C, while that of soil with OM and rich in humus is about 0.00027 cal/cm-
1/sec-1/degree C.

Diurnal Variation of Soil temperature

When solar radiation falls on the soil surface, it heats the soil causing a difference of temperature
between surface soil and sub-soil. At day time, heat flows from surface soil to sub-soil and
viceversa at night. So, the profile goes through different temperature variations called diurnal
variation of soil temperature. Amplitude of diurnal wave of soil temperature decreases rapidly
with depth and is smaller at higher depth. Greater diurnal variation occurs on sandy soil than in
clayey soil. The temperature fluctuation is not as rapid on a cloudy day as compared to that on a
clear day.

Annual Change in Soil Temperature

In January, the upper portion of the soil profile is at minimum temperature and thesoil is
progressively warmer at lower depths. Therefore, the net flow of heat is upwards. In February-
March, lower layer is still cool, surface soil warms up the rate star accelerate. The flow of heat is
now downwards. The whole soil profile attains maximum temperature at the last of May or June.
Monsoon prevails in June and the soil temperature decreases, but the net flow heat is still
downwards. The variation temperature is maximum at June-September due to heavy rain and
high water table condition. After the commencement of October, movement of heat takes place
from subsoil to surface soil, and the cycle continues.

Measurement

Soil thermometers are used to measure the soil temperature. Soil thermometers are of two types:

a. Contact type : Mercury thermometer, Bimetallic strip, Constant pressure or volume

thermometer, Electric resistant thermometer, Thermocouple.

b. Non-contact type: Optical Pyrometer, Total intensity radiometer

Soil temperature is essential in

1. seed germination
2. functional activity of roots
3. physiology and metabolic activity of plant
4. several physical, chemical biological processes occurred in the soil
 5. incidence of plant diseases and effects on plant growth
6. High soil temperature increases the rate of respiration that increases the consumption of
carbohydrates. This decreases the size of potato tubers.
7. Nitrogen fixation is favoured in the temperature range of 5-27 degree C. High
temperature leads to de-nitrification.
8. Microbial activities are directly influenced by soil temperature. Soil bacteria become
inactive below 5 degree C and death of bacteria occurs usually above 30 degree C.

Soil moisture content

Several terms are used to describe the water held between these different water contents.
Gravitational water refers to the amount of water held by the soil between saturation and field
capacity. Water holding capacity refers to the amount of water held between field capacity and
wilting point. Plant available water is that portion of the water holding capacity that can be
absorbed by a plant. As a general rule, plant available water is considered to be 50 percent of the
water holding capacity.

The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil.

It is commonly expressed as the amount of water (in mm of water depth) present in a depth of
one metre of soil. For example: when an amount of water (in mm of water depth) of 150 mm is
present in a depth of one metre of soil, the soil moisture content is 150 mm/m (see Fig. 36).

The soil moisture content can also be expressed in percent of volume. In the example above, 1
m3 of soil (e.g. with a depth of 1 m, and a surface area of 1 m2) contains 0.150 m3 of water (e.g.
with a depth of 150 mm = 0.150 m and a surface area of 1 m 2). This results in a soil moisture
content in volume percent of:

Thus, a moisture content of 100 mm/m corresponds to a moisture content of 10 volume percent.

Note: The amount of water stored in the soil is not constant with time, but may vary.

Saturation

During a rain shower or irrigation application, the soil pores will fill with water. If all soil pores
are filled with water the soil is said to be saturated. There is no air left in the soil (see Fig. 37a).
It is easy to determine in the field if a soil is saturated. If a handful of saturated soil is squeezed,
some (muddy) water will run between the fingers.
Plants need air and water in the soil. At saturation, no air is present and the plant will suffer.
Many crops cannot withstand saturated soil conditions for a period of more than 2-5 days. Rice is
one of the exceptions to this rule. The period of saturation of the topsoil usually does not last
long. After the rain or the irrigation has stopped, part of the water present in the larger pores will
move downward. This process is called drainage or percolation.

The water drained from the pores is replaced by air. In coarse textured (sandy) soils, drainage is
completed within a period of a few hours. In fine textured (clayey) soils, drainage may take some
(2-3) days.

Field capacity

After the drainage has stopped, the large soil pores are filled with both air and water while the
smaller pores are still full of water. At this stage, the soil is said to be at field capacity. At field
capacity, the water and air contents of the soil are considered to be ideal for crop growth (see
Fig. 37b).

Permanent wilting point

Little by little, the water stored in the soil is taken up by the plant roots or evaporated from the
topsoil into the atmosphere. If no additional water is supplied to the soil, it gradually dries out.

The dryer the soil becomes, the more tightly the remaining water is retained and the more
difficult it is for the plant roots to extract it. At a certain stage, the uptake of water is not
sufficient to meet the plant's needs. The plant looses freshness and wilts; the leaves change
colour from green to yellow. Finally the plant dies.

The soil water content at the stage where the plant dies, is called permanent wilting point. The
soil still contains some water, but it is too difficult for the roots to suck it from the soil (see Fig.
37c).

Available water content

The soil can be compared to a water reservoir for the plants. When the soil is saturated, the
reservoir is full. However, some water drains rapidly below the rootzone before the plant can use
it (see Fig. 38a).

Saturation

When this water has drained away, the soil is at field capacity. The plant roots draw water from
what remains in the reservoir (see Fig. 38b).

Field capacity

When the soil reaches permanent wilting point, the remaining water is no longer available to the
plant (see Fig. 3
Permanent wilting point

The amount of water actually available to the plant is the amount of water stored in the soil at
field capacity minus the water that will remain in the soil at permanent wilting point. This is
illustrated in Fig. 39.

The available soil moisture or water content

Available water content = water content at field capacity - water content at permanent wilting
point

The available water content depends greatly on the soil texture and structure. A range of values
for different types of soil is given in the following table.

Soil Available water content in mm water depth per m soil depth (mm/m)

sand 25 to 100

loam 100 to 175

clay 175 to 250

The field capacity, permanent wilting point (PWP) and available water content are called the soil
moisture characteristics. They are constant for a given soil, but vary widely from one type of soil
to another.

A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged

shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought
can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. [1] It can have a
substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region[2] and harm to the local
economy.[3] Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought
developing and subsequent bush fires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought
conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour
Types of drought

As a drought persists, the conditions surrounding it gradually worsen and its impact on the local
population gradually increases. People tend to define droughts in three main ways: [36]

1. Meteorological drought is brought about when there is a prolonged time with less than
average precipitation. Meteorological drought usually precedes the other kinds of
drought.[37]
2. Agricultural droughts affect crop production or the ecology of the range. This condition
can also arise independently from any change in precipitation levels when soil conditions
and erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall in water
available to the crops. However, in a traditional drought, it is caused by an extended
period of below average precipitation.[38]
3. Hydrological drought is brought about when the water reserves available in sources such
as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below the statistical average. Hydrological drought
tends to show up more slowly because it involves stored water that is used but not
replenished. Like an agricultural drought, this can be triggered by more than just a loss of
rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by
the World Bank to restore water that had been diverted to other nations from the Aral Sea
under Soviet rule.[39] Similar circumstances also place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk
of completely drying out.[40]

PRACTICAL NO 1: ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES BEHIND MEASUREMENT OF

METEOLOLOGICAL PARAMETES

Temperature measurement using modern scientific thermometers and temperature scales goes
back at least as far as the early 18th century, when Gabriel Fahrenheit adapted a thermometer
(switching to mercury) and a scale both developed by Ole Christensen Rømer.

Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be calibrated to a variety of temperature

scales. In most of the world (except for Belize, Myanmar, Liberia and the United States), the
Celsius scale is used for most temperature measuring purposes. Most scientists measure
temperature using the Celsius scale and thermodynamic temperature using the Kelvin scale,
which is the Celsius scale offset so that its null point is 0K = −273.15°C, or absolute zero.

A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer

has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a mercury-in-glass
thermometer or the digital sensor in an infrared thermometer) in which some change occurs with
a change in temperature, and (2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value
(e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital readout on
an infrared model).

Units The basic unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI) is the kelvin. It has
the symbol K. For everyday applications, it is often convenient to use the Celsius scale, in which
0°C corresponds very closely to the freezing point of water and 100°C is its boiling point at sea
level. Because liquid droplets commonly exist in clouds at sub-zero temperatures, 0°C is better
defined as the melting point of ice. In this scale a temperature difference of 1 degree Celsius is
the same as a 1kelvin increment, but the scale is offset by the temperature at which ice melts
(273.15 K).

Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure within the
atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet). In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is
closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the
measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that
atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Pressure measures force per unit area,
with SI units of Pascals (1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre, 1 N/m2). On average, a column of
air with a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimetre (cm2), measured from mean (average) sea
level to the top of Earth's atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilogram and exerts a force or
"weight" of about 10.1 newtons or 2.37 lbf, resulting in a pressure at sea level of about 10.1
N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2 (101 kilopascals, kPa). A column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 in2
(6.45 cm2) would have a mass of about 6.65 kg and a weight of about 65.4 N or 14.7 lbf,
resulting in a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 14.7 lbf/in2.

Humidity is a term used to describe the amount of water vapor present in air. Water vapor, the
gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. [1] Humidity indicates the
likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. The amount of water vapor needed to
achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases. As the temperature of a parcel of air
decreases it will eventually reach the saturation point without adding or losing water mass. The
amount of water vapor contained within in a parcel of air can vary significantly. For example, a
parcel of air near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 30 °C, but
only 8 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 8 °C.

Three primary measurements of humidity are widely employed: absolute, relative and specific.
Absolute humidity describes the water content of air and is expressed in either grams per cubic
meter[2] or grams per kilogram[3]. Relative humidity, expressed as a percentage, indicates a
present state of absolute humidity relative to a maximum humidity given the same temperature.
Specific humidity is the ratio of water vapor mass to total moist air parcel mass.

A device used to measure humidity is called a psychrometer or hygrometer. A humidistat is a

humidity-triggered switch, often used to control a dehumidifier.

There are various devices used to measure and regulate humidity. Calibration standards for the
most accurate measurement include the gravimetric hygrometer, chilled mirror hygrometer, and
electrolytic hygrometer. The gravimetric method, while the most accurate, is very cumbersome.
For fast and very accurate measurement the chilled mirror method is effective. [14] For process on-
line measurements, the most commonly used sensors nowadays are based on capacitance
measurements to measure relative humidity[15], frequently with internal conversions to display
absolute humidity as well. These are cheap, simple, generally accurate and relatively robust. All
humidity sensors face problems in measuring dust-laden gas, such as exhaust streams from
dryers.

Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed satellites. These satellites are
able to detect the concentration of water in the troposphere at altitudes between 4 and 12
kilometers. Satellites that can measure water vapor have sensors that are sensitive to infrared
radiation. Water vapor specifically absorbs and re-radiates radiation in this spectral band.
Satellite water vapor imagery plays an important role in monitoring climate conditions (like the
formation of thunderstorms) and in the development of weather forecast

Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk
movement of air

Wind direction is usually expressed in terms of the direction from which it originates. For
example, a northerly wind blows from the north to the south. [7] Weather vanes pivot to indicate
the direction of the wind.[8] At airports, windsocks indicate wind direction, and can also be used
to estimate wind speed by the angle of hang.[9] Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most
commonly using rotating cups or propellers. When a high measurement frequency is needed
(such as in research applications), wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound
signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire. [10] Another type of
anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner
tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is
then used to compute the wind speed.[11]

Precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under
gravity.[2] The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail.

The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be
found in 100 mm (4 in) plastic and 200 mm (8 in) metal varieties.[75] The inner cylinder is filled
by 25 mm (1 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have
markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.01 in) resolution, while metal gauges require
use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.01 in) markings. After the inner cylinder
is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer
cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer
cylinder is empty. These gauges are used in the winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder
and allowing snow and freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to
their gauge so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge. [76] Once the
snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as 300 mm (12 in) is approached, one can either bring it
inside to melt, or use lukewarm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen
precipitation in the outer cylinder, keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently
subtracted from the overall total once all the ice/snow is melted.

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 Teacher’s Signature……………………

PRACTICAL NO 2: STUDY ON METEOROLOGICAL STATION AND

INSTRUMENTS

A weather station is a facility, either on land or sea, with instruments and equipment for
measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the
weather and climate. The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure,
humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken
with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are
kept free from direct solar radiation, or insolation. Manual observations are taken at least once
daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at
sea are taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such
as sea surface temperature (SST), wave height, and wave period. Drifting weather buoys
outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount.

Typical weather stations have the following instruments:

 Thermometer for measuring air and sea surface temperature

 Barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure
 Hygrometer for measuring humidity
 Anemometer for measuring wind speed
 Pyranometer for measuring solar radiation
 Rain gauge for measuring liquid precipitation over a set period of time.

In addition, at certain automated airport weather stations, additional instruments may be

employed, including:

 Present Weather/Precipitation Identification Sensor for identifying falling precipitation

 Disdrometer for measuring drop size distribution
  Transmissometer for measuring visibility
 Ceilometer for measuring cloud ceiling

More sophisticated stations may also measure the ultraviolet index, leaf wetness, soil moisture,
soil temperature, water temperature in ponds, lakes, creeks, or rivers, and occasionally other data

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Teacher’s Signature……………………

PRACTICAL NO 3: STUDY ON METEOLOGICAL INSRUMENTS/ DEVICES

A Stevenson screen (also known as an instrument shelter) is a meteorological screen to shield

instruments against precipitation and direct heat radiation from outside sources, while still
allowing air to circulate freely around them. It forms part of a standard weather station. The
screen creates, as near possible, a uniform environment in relation to the air outside, and is used
to shelter various types of temperature and humidity measuring instruments. The smallest
screens contain a dry bulb thermometer and a wet bulb thermometer. Larger screens also include
minimum and maximum thermometers. Still-larger screens can contain recording instruments: a
thermograph and/or a hygrograph, or a thermohygrograph which combines the functions of those
two instruments.

Actinometers are instruments used to measure the heating power of radiation. They are used in
meteorology to measure solar radiation as pyranometers, pyrheliometers and net radiometers.

An actinometer is a chemical system or physical device which determines the number of photons
in a beam integrally or per unit time. This name is commonly applied to devices used in the
ultraviolet and visible wavelength ranges. For example, solutions of iron(III) oxalate can be used
as a chemical actinometer, while bolometers, thermopiles, and photodiodes are physical devices
giving a reading that can be correlated to the number of photons detected.

A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used for measuring solar irradiance on a planar surface
and it is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density (W/m 2) from the hemisphere above
within a wavelength range 0.3 μm to 3 μm. The name pyranometer stems from the Greek words
πῦρ (pyr), meaning "fire", and ἄνω (ano), meaning "above, sky".

A typical pyranometer does not require any power to operate. However, recent technical
development includes use of electronics in pyranometers, which do require (low) external power.
A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure.
Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air
pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, high pressure
systems and frontal boundaries.

Barometers and pressure altimeters (the most basic and common type of altimeter) are essentially
the same instrument, but used for different purposes. An altimeter is intended to be transported
from place to place matching the atmospheric pressure to the corresponding altitude, while a
barometer is kept stationary and measures subtle pressure changes caused by weather. The main
exception to this is ships at sea, which can use a barometer because their elevation does not
change.

A rain gauge (also known as an udometer, pluviometer, or an ombrometer) is an instrument

used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation
over a set period of time.

Types of rain gauges include graduated cylinders, weighing gauges, tipping bucket gauges, and
simple buried pit collectors. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages for collecting rain
data.

1. Non-Recording Type Rain-Gauge:

It gives only total rainfall occurred during particular time period. Recording type rain- gauge
gives hourly rainfall. Under non-recording type rain-gauges, one most commonly used in
Symon’s rain-gauge. This type is mentioned below. It is the simplest in principle, construction
and working.

Principle:

From the definition of unit rainfall it is clear that the definition is independent of extent of area.
So far as only measurement of rainfall is concerned area under consideration may be large or
small.

2. Recording Type Rain-Gauge:

The recording gauge consists of a funnel 127 mm in diameter fixed on one side of a rectangular
box. It is called receiver also. In the rectangular box a float is adjusted. The float is connected by
means of a float rod to a pin point (or a recording pen). The pin point touches a graph paper
mounted on a rotating drum.

The drum is mounted on the top of the receiver on the other side. A clockwork arrangement
revolves the drum once in 24 hours. At the bottom the box is connected to a siphon. The siphon
comes into action and releases the water as soon as box is filled to a certain level. Figure 2.5
shows complete arrangement, it is called natural siphon type recording rain-gauge.
An anemometer is a device used for measuring the speed of wind, and is also a common
weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, which means
wind, and is used to describe any wind speed instrument used in meteorology. The first known
description of an anemometer was given by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450.

Cup anemometer

A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson, of
Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms, which
were mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned
the shaft at a rate that was roughly proportional to the wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns
of the shaft over a set time interval produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a
wide range of speeds. It is also called a rotational anemometer.

On an anemometer with four cups, it is easy to see that since the cups are arranged symmetrically
on the end of the arms, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it and is blowing
on the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross. Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag
coefficient of .38 on the spherical side and 1.42 on the hollow side, [2] more force is generated on
the cup that is presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this asymmetrical force, torque
is generated on the axis of the anemometer, causing it to spin.

Vane anemometers

One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the vane anemometer. It may be
described as a windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose
axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the
wind and therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to
follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be
employed.

A vane anemometer thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and
precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. [3] The speed of the fan
is measured by a rev counter and converted to a wind speed by an electronic chip. Hence,
volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.

In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of
mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results.

1. Vane style of anemometer 2.Helicoid propeller anemometer incorporating a wind vane

for orientation 3.Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer 4.Hand-held digital

A hygrometer (/haɪˈɡrɒmɪtər/) is an instrument used for measuring the amount of humidity and
water vapor in the atmosphere, in soil, or in confined spaces. Humidity measurement instruments
usually rely on measurements of some other quantity such as temperature, pressure, mass or a
mechanical or electrical change in a substance as moisture is absorbed. By calibration and
calculation, these measured quantities can lead to a measurement of humidity. Modern electronic
devices use temperature of condensation (the dew point), or changes in electrical capacitance or
resistance to measure humidity differences. The first crude hygrometer was invented by the
Italian Renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vinci in 1480 and a more modern version was created
by Swiss polymath Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1755.

The maximum amount of water vapor that can be held in a given volume of air (saturation)
varies greatly by temperature; cold air can hold less mass of water per unit volume than hot air.
Most instruments respond to (or are calibrated to read) relative humidity (RH), which is the
amount of water relative to the maximum at a particular temperature expressed as per cent.

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 Teacher’s Signature……………………

PRACTICAL NO 4: VISIT TO METEOROLOGICAL STATION AND LEARNING ALL

SETS OF INSRTUMENTS USED IN THE OBSERVATORY

PRACTICAL NO 5: DETERMINATION OF SOME METEOROLOGICAL

PARAMETERS

a. AIR TEMERATURE
b. Relative humidity

c. Wind speed and direction

d. Annual precipitation

e. Sunshine hours and days

f. Evaporation and evapo-transpiration

g. Soil temperature

h. Heat flux and thermal properties of spoil