ENZYMES

- Help speed up chemical reactions in the human body

- Bind to molecules and alter them in specific ways
- Essential for respiration, digesting food, muscle and nerve function, and a thousand of other roles
- Are built of proteins folded into complicated shapes: they are present throughout the body

Substrate
- Binds to the active site of an enzyme and is converted into products

What do enzymes do?

 The Digestive System – enzymes help the body break down larger complex molecules into smaller
molecules, such as glucose, so that the body can use them as fuel
 DNA Replication – each time a cell divides, the DNA needs to be copied. Enzymes help in this process by
unwinding the DNA coils and copying the information

 Liver Enzymes – through the use of a range of enzymes, the liver is able to break down toxins in the body

Working Mechanism of Enzymes

An Overview: Each enzyme acts upon a specific target called substrate, which is transformed into usable products
through the action of the enzyme. In other words, the enzyme reacts with the substrate forming an enzyme-substrate
complex. Once the reaction is complete, the enzyme remains the same, but the substrate transforms to products. 

Factors that Affect Enzyme’s Action

 Temperature - high temperatures boost the rate of reactions involving enzymes. The optimal temperature
for such reactions are said to be around 37 ºC to 40 ºC.  Once the temperature rises above this level, the
enzymes get denatured and they are no longer fit for reaction with substrates. 

 pH - Variations from that pH level may slow down the activity of enzymes and very high or low pH results
in denatured enzymes that cannot hold the substrate properly.

 Concentration - The rate of enzymatic activities may increase with the concentration of enzymes and
substrates.

Nomenclature of Enzymes
Each enzyme is assigned two names. The first is its short, recommended name, convenient for everyday use. The
second is the more complete systematic name, which is used when the enzyme must be identified without
ambiguity.

A.) Recommended Name

 Most commonly used enzyme names have the suffix “ase” attached to the substrate of the reaction or
to a description of the action performed
 (attached to substrate) Ex. Glucosidase, urease, sucrase
 (attached to action) Ex. Lactate dehydrogenase, adenylate cyclase
 Note: Some enzyme retain their original trivial names, which give no hint of the associated enzyme
reaction.
 Ex. Trypsin and pepsin
 B.) Systematic Name
 According to the International Union of Biochemistry, an enzyme has two parts: the
name of the substrate and the type of reaction catalyzed by the enzyme.
 Example: Lactate Dehydrogenase

Classification of Enzymes
Enzymes are divided into six major classes with several subclasses.
a.) Oxidoreductases are involved in oxidation and reduction.
b.) Transferases transfer functional groups (e.g., amino or phosphate groups)
c.) Hydrolases transfer water; that is, they catalyze the hydrolysis of a substrate
d.) Lyases add (or remove) the elements of water, ammonia, or carbon dioxide (CO 2) to (or from)
double bonds
e.) Isomerases catalyze rearrangements of atoms within a molecule
f.) Ligases join two molecules
Classification Distinguishing Feature
1.) Oxidoreductase Ared + Box  Aox + Bred

Oxidases - Use oxygen as an electron acceptor but do not

incorporate it into the substrate
Dehydrogenases - Use molecules other than oxygen (e.g., NAD +) as
an electron acceptor
Oxygenases - Directly incorporate oxygen into the substrate
- Use H2O2 as an electron acceptor
Peroxidases
2.) Transferases A–B+CA+B–C

Methyltransferases - Transfer one-carbon units between substrates

- Transfer NH2 from amino acids to keto acids
Aminotransferases - Transfer PO3~ from ATP to a substrate
- Transfer PO3~ from inorganic phosphate (P,) to a
Kinases substrate
Phosphorylases
3.) Hydrolases A – B + H2O  A - H + B – OH

Phoshatases - Remove PO3~ from a substance

Phosphodiesterases - Cleave phosphodiester bonds such as those in
nucleic acids
Proteases - Cleave amide bonds such as those in proteins

4.) Lyases A(XH) – B  A – X + B – H

Decarboxylases - Produce CO2 via elimination reactions

Aldolases - Produce aldehydes via elimination reactions
- Link two molecules without involvement of ATP
Synthases
5.) Isomerases A–BB–A

Racemases - Interconvert L and D stereoisomers

Mutases - Transfer groups between atoms within a molecule

6.) Ligases A + B + ATP  A – B + ADP + Pi

 Carboxylases - Use CO2 as substrate
Synthases - Link two molecules via an ATP-dependent
reaction

Commercial Applications of Enzymes

Due to ongoing research by biotechnologists, enzymes now have a large number of commercial applications:
 Textile Industry – enzymes are used for improving production methods and for fabric finishing. 
 Cellulase – for stonewashing denim, polishing of cotton

 Catalase – removing hydrogen peroxide

 Pectinase – for bioscouring (a way to scour fabrics)

(Note: Scouring - the cleaning of fabrics by removing any impurities such as waxes, pectins and any
mineral salts from cellulose fibers)
 Amylase – for removal of starch from the threads of fabric

 Food and Drink Industry

o Baking Industry - enzymes are added to the dough when baking bread to ensure that the bread is
high in quality and has a better volume. Enzymes also have the ability to preserve bread.
 Fungal alpha amylase – for dough improvement in the bread making industry

o Dairy Industry - enzymes are used in cheese making to help bring about the coagulation of milk.
o Brewing Industry - enzymes are added to control the brewing process in alcohol making. This also
helps to produce consistent and high-quality beer.
 Papain enzymes – for fermentation in the brewing industry
o Other enzymes used in food and drinks industry:
 Glucoamylase – used in fermentation

 Beta glucanase – for filtration

 Protease – used in biscuit production and it is also used in the manufacturing of baby
foods to predigest proteins

 Pulp and Paper Industry - In the manufacturing of coated papers, a starch-based coating formulation is used
in order to coat the surface of the paper.  Compared with the uncoated paper, the coating provides a number
of benefits, including; improved gloss, a smoother texture, and printing properties. To achieve this, a
variety of enzymes are used in this industry.

 Cellulase – can be used for pulp deinking and pulp refining

 Xylanase – for pulp bleaching

 Alpha amylase – starch modification

 Detergent, Personal Care and Hygiene Industry - This industry, in addition to the food processing industry
is currently one of the largest application areas for enzymes. They contribute to a: better overall cleaning
performance; they are biodegradable so they do not really effect the environment that much; they reduce
water consumption through more effective release of soil.