Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.

(2) 2006 JST

Fast Sketching of Nyquist Plot in Control Systems

Muhammad A. Eissa

Abstract

The sketching rules of Nyquist plots were laid-out a long time ago, but have never been modified. This
paper examines simple rules for faster sketching of the most famous Nyquist plots. These rules allow the
estimation of some systems transfer functions directly from the plot, leading to a better conception of
system design and the compensation procedure.

Keywords: Nyquist plot starting-point, Diving angle into the origin, Similar sketch transfer functions,

Reduced transfer functions, Stability centre (-1, 0), Positive pole P , Positive zero Z .

1. Introduction
The Nyquist criterion is a semi-graphical method that determines the stability of a closed
loop system by investigating the properties of the frequency-domain plot. The Nyquist plot of
the open loop transfer function GH (S ) is a plot of GH( ) in the polar coordinate of
Imag.[GH( )] versus Real[GH( )] as the input frequency 0 . It is a
utilization of the properties of open loop transfer function to find the performance of a
closed-loop system [2],[3]. To show this, we will sketch the Nyquist contour of the following
example:

2( S 2.5)
GH ( S )
S ( S 2)(S 4)
Transform the transfer function TF = GH(s) into the frequency domain GH( ) to obtain
its modulus R and argument , where is the Input frequency (r/s).

2
2 6 . 25
R( ) | GH ( i )|
2 2
. 4. 16

( ) arg .[GH (i )] tan 1 ( ) tan 1 tan 1

2 .5 2 2 4
Calculate the modulus and argument of GH( i ) for various values of frequencies,
forming the following table:

Associate professor at Sana a University, Electrical Engineering Department - Email: M-A-Eissa@Maktoob.com

Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

Table (1): Shows the magnitude and argument of the Nyquist plot.

R( ) GH (i ) ( ) arg[GH (i )]..(deg .)
0 -90
0.1 6.245 -92
0.5 1.227 -99.85
1 0.584 -108.8
10 0.0188 -160.9
0 -180

Sketch the previous modulus against its argument R on polar coordinates (real
and imaginary coordinates). This is the most difficult and tedious part of the Nyquist plot
which we need to simplify. See Figure (1).

Fig. (1) The most difficult and tedious part of Nyquist plot as 0 .

Obtain the conjugate plot when 0 . Figure (2 - A).

Close the polar contour in the clockwise [CW] direction using infinite semi-circles equal
to the type L of the transfer function. Figure (2 B).

Fig. (2) The processes of the Nyquist Plot.

The old Nyquist stability criterion states that[2],[3]:

The closed-loop system, which has a stable open-loop transfer function TF = GH( i ) is
stable if and only if :
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

N +P 0
Where: N is the total number of clockwise encirclements of the contour to the
stability center.
P is the number of positive poles in the TF.
Of course, when the system has a positive pole, then it is unstable (at least for small values
of amplifier gain). In this case, the Nyquist contour must enclose the stability center ( as will
be clarified later in equation 10), and the stability criterion can be reduced to:
N 0
It is clear that the contour does not enclose the stability center (-1 , 0) in the CW direction,
i.e. the system is stable, if that was happened then it is unstable.
The sketching procedure of a Nyquist plot is very tedious, requiring various difficult
calculations. These complicated calculations are the main source of error when performing a
Nyquist plot (table 1), usually resulting in an inaccurate plot. Some designers still insist on
using the classical method of sketching the Nyquist plot [3][6][7], wheres others have
mentioned inadequate ideas to initiate this research [2][4][5], especially[2], though he did
not properly utilize his idea. A new research work offered in [8] and [9], has introduced
purely graphical methods to analyze the control systems with the help of isoclines. The use of
a computer to accelerate the sketch has solved the Problem [1], but it still difficult to use.
In this paper, simple bases for Nyquist-plot will be presented and casted in robust rules.
These rules facilitate the sketching procedure, and maheit much easier and faster for the
designer to deal with the Nyquist plot in control systems. This plot can be done immediately,
and without any calculation. Therefore, this method leads to a better understanding of the
system transfer function, allows for greater conception of the design procedure, and also it
introduces a faster way of compensation. Finally, it allows the estimation of some system
transfer functions directly and immediately from the Nyquist plot when the number of zeroes
are given. If it is not given, then this method helps to obtain only the reduced transfer
function which has no zeroes,(i.e. all zeroes are eliminated with a corresponding numbers of
poles).

2. Simple Rules for the Famous Nyquist Plots

In the following discussion we introduce simple rules and classifications for the famous
Nyquist plots. These rules only help in sketching the plot when the frequency ( =0 ).
The conjugate part of the plot can then be easily obtained, using the old procedure to close
and complete the Nyquist plot.
Rule (1): The start of the Nyquist plot occurs only from one of the following infinitesimal
directions (or positions) on the X Y plane, North, South, East and West depending upon the
type of the control system. see Figure (3).

Fig. (3) Shows the starting positions of Nyquist plot.

 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

Type zero-control system Starts from the positive x-axis.

Type one-control system Starts from the negative y- axis.
Type two-control system Starts from the negative x- axis.
Type three-control system Starts from the positive y- axis.
Type four-control system Starts from the positive x- axis again.
And so on
I.e. In type zero, four, eight etc. the plot starts from a position on the positive x-axis.
To prove that, let us consider the following transfer function:

( S Z1 )( S Z 2 ) ...
GH ( S ) ..... (1)
S L ( S P1 )( S P2 ) ...
Where L: is the type of the system transfer function.
The modulus of that transfer function TF when S i is

2 2 2 2
Z1 . Z2 ...
R ( ) | GH (i ) | .. (2)
L 2 2 2 2
. P1 . P2 . ...
And the argument is:

arg .GH (i ) tan 1 tan 1 ... ( L )( ) tan 1 tan 1 (3)

Z Z 2 P P2
1 2 1
When = 0, the radius of the polar plot can take any real value,
(Usually = ), and the argument of the polar plot becomes:

( ) arg .GH (i ) L Tail .. (4)

2
Where the parameter (Tail) is a negligible angle (either to be added to or subtracted from
the diving angle), with its sign being very important as it determines on which side of the axis
(left or right, over or under) the plot will start.
It is clear that at = 0 the start of the plot depends only on the type of system transfer
function and sign of the parameter (Tail). This sign can be determined from to the following
equation:
1 1
Tail .. (5)
i Zi j PJ
Where: ( Z i ..and ...Pj ) are the zeroes and poles in TF which have real non-zero values.
Note: For special case systems with L= -1, -2, the plot starts from the origin, flies around,
and returns the origin or somewhere else on the positive x-axis. These cases are thus not part
of the famous group.
Rule (2): Before mentioning this rule, we must define the diving angle into the origin dv ,
which is the limiting angle that the plot makes when it arrives to the origin, i.e.when .
This angle depends on the number of asymptotes in the system transfer function N, where:
N = (the number of poles the number of zeroes).
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

The radius in polar coordinates usually tends to zero when , while the argument of
the plot is given by equation (3).

arg .GH (i ) tan 1 ... ( L )( ) tan 1 tan 1 ...

Z 2 P P2
1 1
The sum of the arguments when is dv where,

dv ( number of zeroes - number of poles) * Tail .(6)

2
For a realistic control system the number of poles should be the number of zeroes, i.e.

dv (N ) Tail . (7)
2
This equation shows that the diving angle is dependent upon the number of asymptotes
N in the system transfer function. See Figure (4).

Fig. (4) Various diving angles in relation to the origin.

As we have four initial sketching positions according to Rule 1, and four final sketching
shapes according to Rule 2, we can therefore say that in normal circumstances we have
4 * 4 = 16 general shapes of Nyquist plots.
Note: In case of type zero and when N 0 , the diving angle doesn't fall into the origin.
Therefore, this problem is a special case and needs to be solved classically. It might also be
considered out of the famous group because it is a lead or lag compensation circuit.
Let us now analyze the case a positive zero P like (S Z),
Its argument in the frequency domain is equal to:

arg[i Z] tan 1
Z
This is because of the negative real value of Z, which means that the angle lies in the
second quarter of the complex plane. See Figure (5).
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

Fig. (5) The argument of a positive zero.

In this case tan 1 . ... (8)

Z
Notice that in the previous equation when =0 i.e. the start of the Nyquist
plot is shifted by .

But when = , meaning that the positive zero doesn't cause

2 2
any change to the diving angle when = .

Also the effect of a positive pole P like ( S P ) is opposite to the effect of a positive zero,
since its argument is equal to:

1
arg[ ] tan 1 .. (9)
( i. P) p

In the previous equation when =0

This means that the start of Nyquist plot is shifted by .

But when = Which means that the diving angle is

2 2
unaffected by a positive pole?

It is clear that the positive zero Z rotates the starting point of the Nyquist plot by means
of , and the positive pole P rotates back this point by means of . Thus the effect
of a positive pole and zero together is to rotate that starting point by means of one complete
infinite circle which means that the contour is enclosing the stability center and the system is
unstable.
Equal to one infinite circle. .. .. equation (10)
We can conclude that the change of sign of pole or zero (positive pole or zero) does not
change the value of the diving angle, but it shifts the starting point of the plot by means of
. Therefore, the MATLAB should be modified to sketch a complete infinite circle to
show system instability.
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

The effect of amplifier gain K on system stability

The main reasons for unstable open loop control system are:
Positive poles and zeroes.
High values of the amplifier gain K.
High values of the deterioration index (discussed later in this paper)
Sometimes, when transforming a system from an open-loop into a closed-loop feed back
control system, it becomes stable. This is because the feedback closure decreases the
amplifier gain K, so that the shape of the Nyquist plot is changed from enclosing into not-
enclosing the stability center. see Figure (6).
The following system has been sketched for two values of amplifier gain K:
K
GH ( S )
S ( S P1 )(S P2 )

The inner sketch with small amplifier gain K 1 is stable, while the outer sketch with high
amplifier gain K 2 is unstable.

Fig. (6) The effect of amplifier gain on system stability.

3. Application Examples on the Simple Rules

Ex-1: Let us analyze the following transfer function:

( S 2)
GH ( S )
S ( S 1)(S 3)
The system is of type 1, meaning that it starts from the negative Y-axis.
The sign of the parameter (Tail) can be calculated according to equation 5.
1 1 1
Tail Negative
2 1 3
This means that the start of the plot will be from the left hand side of the negative Y-axis
(Refer to Figure (3)).
The number of asymptotes = 2 i.e. The diving angle dv (Refer to Figure (4)).
The plot will then be completed using the classical steps.

Note: the plot can be sketched directly without writing the previous analysis (Refer to
Figure (7.A)).
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

Ex-2: Another example to further clarify the rules:

( S Z1 )
GH ( S ) 2
S ( S P1 )(S P2 )

The system is of type 2, meaning that it is expected to start from the negative
X-axis (refer to Figure (3)). However due to the positive zero, the start is shifted by
means of , i.e. it starts from the positive real X-axis.
3
The index N = 3 asymptotes i.e. the diving angle dv = (Refer to Figure (4)).
2
The completion of the plot will be done using the classical steps, i.e. we need 2 to
close the contour. Thus the system is unstable.

Notice that the plot can be sketched directly without writing the previous analysis (See
Figure (7.B)).

Fig. (7) The sketches of the last two Nyquist plots.

Ex-3: Sketch the Nyquist plot of the transfer function:

( s 3)
GH ( s)
s( s 4)(s 5)
The system is of type 1, meaning that the plot must start from the negative Y-axis
(also the effect of the positive pole and zero eliminate each others).
The index N = 2 asymptotes i.e. the diving angle dv = . (Refer to Figure (4)).
We need half infinite-circle to close the contour ( type 1). The system looks stable
(even on MATLAB), but the system has a positive pole and a positive zero, therefore
its contour must be closed by an extra infinite circle according to equation (10). This
implies that the contour encloses the stability center and the system is unstable.
These problems happen only when the number of positive poles is equal to the number
of the positive zeroes. This might be the only reason for considering the number of
positive poles in the old Nyquist stability criterion.
It is common that the system is unstable when having a positive pole. (see Figure (8)).
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

Fig. (8) Sketch of the last Nyquist plot.

4. Estimating the Transfer Function from the Plot

This method shows that the number of poles and zeros are not directly important in
determining the shape of the plot. For example the following two transfer functions have
similar plots.
(S Z1 )
1 . GH ( S )
S ( S P1 )( S P2 )

(S Z 1 )( S Z 2 )
2 . GH ( S )
S (S P1 )( S P2 )( S P3 )
That is because they are of the same type and have the same number of asymptotes N .
The number of zeroes is useful to know when revealing the transfer function from the
Nyquist plot. since if we know them, we can estimate the general shape of the transfer
function from the plot (as will be discussed in Ex 4).
The value of the poles and zeroes can be obtained from the value of the modulus R( ),
(refer to equation (2)).
2 2 2 2
Z1 . Z2 ...
R(i ) | GH (i ) |
L 2 2 2 2
. P1 . P2 . ...
From Table (1), we can substitute to obtain a number of equations equal to the number of
unknown poles and zeroes (n),
R1 ( 1 ) value1
R2 ( 2 ) value 2
. . . . .
Rn ( n ) value n
Then this system of equations can be solved to obtain the unknown values of poles and
zeroes.
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

Ex-4: Another example:

Let us analyze the following Nyquist plot (given that the system has one negative zero, and
all the poles in the transfer function are negative).

Imaginary GH(i )

Fig. (9) Nyquist plot of unknown transfer function.

The sketch starts from the negative Y-axis, meaning that it is of type 1
(see rule 1 and Figure (3)).
The diving angle into the origin denotes that it has four asymptotes i.e.
N 4 (refer to rule (2)).
It is given that the system has one negative zero, thus:
No. of poles = 4 +1 = 5 (refer to equation (6)).

The transfer function has one zero (given) and 5 poles, also of type 1.
Therefore:

( S Z1 )
GH ( S )
S (S P1 )( S P2 )( S P3 )( S P4 )

This idea contributes to a greater understanding of the compensation procedure.

It should be noted that in generalm the addition of a lead or lag circuit etc. , will not change
the general shape of the Nyquist plot, but will affect the stability only, moving the plot closer
or further away from the stability centre ( -1, 0 ).
It is known that moving the pole to the left or moving the zero to the right. helps to
improve the system stability.
This fast method of Nyquist plot is not suitable for transfer functions of type zero and
has N 0 , because the diving angle dv does not fall into the origin. (see Table (2) in the
appendix).
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

5. System Deterioration Index

This index indicates the inherent trouble and instability in the system transfer function, In
addition, it gives greater insight about the usefulness of the system. This index is givin by:

= Number of asymptotes + System type number.

=N+L

Table 2 (see appendix) provides helpful data and a classification of the system
deterioration index can also be obtained (although it is not very strict):

When 2 : the system is inherently stable and useful.

= 3 or 4 : the system is useful and might be stable.

= 5 : the system is around the critical stability and can be

compensated.
6 : the system is inherently unstable and useless.

Unfortunately, the MATLAB sketch is unable to show clearly all the details in table (2)
(see appendix). One possible reason for these troubles is that the computer can not obtain the
limit of the argument when 0..or.. .

6. Comments and Conclusions

1. Easy rules and parameters were examined to describe and treat the control systems in a
modern and simplified menner.
2. The start of the Nyquist plot usually occurs on one of the four directions of the X-axis
and Y- axis, and the diving angle also falls into the origin in four directions.
3. These rules help in sketching most of the Nyquist plots immediately without
performing any calculations.
4. This method is very useful at the end of examinations when the time is limited, and the
student need to give very quick insight to verify the Nyquist plot.
5. This method provides a better conception of the compensation procedure, because it is
easy for the designer to change the type or the diving angle in order to obtain better
system characteristics.
6. It is clear that the positive zero or positive pole cause shifts to the starting position of
the Nyquist plots by means of . The effect of both together is a complete infinite
circle surrounding the stability center, which means that the system is unstable. This
point can not be demonstrated using MATLAB.
7. The change of sign of pole or zero does not affect the value of the diving angle.
8. The number of general Nyquist plots is 16; however, one of these plots does not satisfy
the rules completely.
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

9. This method is not suitable for systems of type zero and has N 0 , because the diving
angle dv does not fall into the origin, but falls into a point on the positive real axis.
This is also the case when the type L= -1, -2, where the sketch starts from the origin,
flies around and returns the origin.
10. Every box in table 2 (see appendix) represents a set of transfer functions having the
same type and number of asymptotes. They thus have a common Nyquist plot, although
they might have an extra lead or lag circuit.
11. The compensation with a lead or lag circuit does not change the general shape of the
Nyquist plot, but it improves the system characteristics.
12. Prediction of the transfer function is possible when the Nyquist plot is available and the
number of zeroes is known.
13. The number of asymptotes and the type number of the system help each other to
deteriorate its characteristics.
14. In a Nyquist plot, the point (-1 , 0) is called the stability centre (or stability border).
15. In case of a system with a positive pole and zero, MATLAB should be modified to
sketch a complete infinite circle to show system instability.
16. Although these new rules are very helpful to designers, the classical sketching method
is still essential when teaching beginners.

7. References:

MATLAB [1]

[2]. Katsuhiko OGATA, "Modern Control Engineering", Prentice Hall International 2001.
[3]. Benjamin C. KUO, "Automatic Control Systems", Prentice Hall Inc. 2002.
[4]. Paulo J. S. G. Ferreira, "Concerning the Nyquist Plots of Rational Functions of
Nonzero Type", IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol. 42, NO. 3, August 1999.
[5]. Peter H. Greg son, "Using Contests to Teach Design to EE Juniors", Member IEEE, and
Timothy A. Little, IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol. 42, NO. 3, August 1999.
[6]. D. Chen, D. E. Seborg, "Design of decentralized PI control systems based on Nyquist
analysis", Journal of Process control Volume(issue):13 (1) 2003.
[7]. P. A. Cook, "Stability of two-dimensional feedback system", Taylor & Francis Group-
Article, London, Oxford shire OX14 4RN.
[8]. Kent H. Lundberg, "Pole-zero phase maps", IEEE Control Systems Magazine, vol. 25,
no. 1, pp. 84 87, Feb.2005.
[9]. Kent H. Lundberg and Zachary Malchano, "Three-Dimensional Visualization of Nichols,
Hall, and Robust-Performance Diagrams", ACC2004.
 Journal of Science & Technology Vol. (11) No.(2) 2006 JST

8. Appendix

Appendix-1

A program to sketch the Nyquist plot using MATLAB soft-ware is:

In case of zero-pole-gain transfer function gh = zpk( [-z 1 ] , [ 0 -p 1 -p 2 ] , [k] )
or in case of a polynomial transfer function gh = tf( [ a1 a2 ] , [ b1 b2 b3 ] )
Nyquist(gh)

Appendix-2:
Table (2): Showing the relation between the deterioration index and the famous systems transfer-
functions.
The No. of
asymptotes
N 0 1 2 3
The
Type L
(s a) 1 1 1
=0 =1 =2 =3
( s b1 )( s b2 ) ( s b1 )( s b2 )( s b3 )
(s b) (s b)

(s a) 1 1 1
S
=1 S =2 =3 =4
S ( S b) S ( s b1 )( s b2 )

( s a1 )( s a 2 ) ( s a) 1 1
=2 =3 =4 =5
S2 S2 S2 S 2 ( s b)

( s a1 )( s a 2 ) (s a) 1
( s a1 )(s a 2 )(s a3 ) =3 =4 =5 =6
S3 S3 S 3
S3

Notice: that every transfer function is plotted as possible as we can in the stable shape to
demonstrate the useful field.