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2018-01-1798 Published 10 Sep 2018
Effects of Different Injection Strategies and EGR
on Partially Premixed Combustion
Jinlin Han, Shuli Wang, and Bart Somers Eindhoven University of Technology
Citation: Han, J., Wang, S., and Somers, B., “Effects of Different Injection Strategies and EGR on Partially Premixed Combustion,”
SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-1798, 2018, doi:10.4271/2018-01-1798.
Abstract
P
remixed Charge Compression Ignition concepts are
promising to reduce NOx and soot simultaneously and
keeping a high thermal efficiency. Partially premixed
combustion is a single fuel variant of this new combustion
concepts applying a fuel with a low cetane number to achieve
the necessary long ignition delay. In this study, multiple injec-
tion strategies are studied in the partially premixed combus-
tion approach to reach stable combustion and ultra-low NOx
and soot emission at 15.5 bar gross indicated mean effective
pressure. Three different injection strategies (single injection,
pilot-main injection, main-post injection) are experimentally
investigated on a heavy duty compression ignition engine.
A fuel blend (70 vol% n-butanol and 30 vol% n-heptane) was
tested. The effects of different pilot and post-injection timing,
Introduction
I
ncreasingly constrained emission regulation and the energy
crisis have pushed the development of internal combustion
engine (ICE) technology to low-temperature combustion
(LTC) modes. For instance, the Homogeneous-Charge
compression ignition (HCCI) concept uses very early port injec-
tion to get homogeneous mixture by the end of the compression
stroke and auto-ignited by compression heat, which leads to
low NOx and soot emissions [1]. However, HCCI is mainly
kinetically controlled and suffered from limited load range and
unacceptable high pressure rise rates [2]. In comparison with
HCCI, partially premixed combustion (PPC) is a combination
of HCCI and traditional diesel diffusion combustion.
Particularly, by injecting fuel at some point during compression
stroke and the application of Exhaust-gas Recirculation (EGR),
PPC generally features with a separation between the injection
event and auto-ignition, which results in a simultaneous reduc-
tion of NOx and soot emission and a high thermal efficiency.
Pioneer work has confirmed that both commercial diesel
and gasoline are confronted with several challenges when
applied in partially premixed combustion [3, 4, 5, 6]. Typically,
high research octane number (RON) fuels are more resistant
to auto-ignition, which can extend PPC load range and are
more favorable to be applied at high load and compression
ratio [7]. It is reported that gasoline-like fuels tend to have
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as well as Exhaust-gas Recirculation rate on different injection
strategies investigated. All the measurements were performed
at the same load, combustion phasing, lambda and engine
speed. The results show that all three injection strategies
produced ultra-low soot emission, while less NOx emission
was noticed for pilot-main injection because of less diffusion
combustion mode. Pilot-main injection strategy decreases the
maximum pressure rise rate effectively compared to single
injection. For pilot-main injection at 15.5 bar gross indicated
mean effective pressure, when 24.3% (pilot/total fuel mass
ratio) of fuel injected at −30 crank angle after top dead center
in the pilot and the rest injected in the main with 45% EGR
rate, 48.97% gross indicated efficiency is achieved. In addition,
ultra-low soot (0.19 ppm) and NOx (0.327 g/kWh) emissions
are achieved respectively without using after treatment.
longer ignition delay than diesel-like at given injection timing
and oxygen concentration due to lower reactivity of gasoline-
like fuel. The distribution of mass and equivalence ratio illus-
trate that gasoline-like fuel is always leaner, which leads to
lower soot emission [8]. Consequently, less EGR is needed in
gasoline-like fuel compared to diesel-like fuel to achieve the
same emission level [9].
More recently, Alcohol fuels have drawn attentions for
its sustainability and regenerative origins [10]. Research has
shown that oxygen atom contained in the alcohol molecule
seems to be beneficial in soot reduction and the relatively high
vaporization heat can decrease the in-cylinder temperature
[11, 12]. Specifically, butanol may play an important role as a
drop-in fuel in achieving partially premixed combustion due
to its higher lower heating value (LHV), better lubricity and
higher flash point compared with methanol and ethanol [13].
All these properties make butanol easier to be adapted in
current transportation equipment with higher security and
more appropriate for the common rail fuel injection system
[13]. Furthermore, n-butanol is more reactive and has the least
sooting tendency compared to the other butanol isomers
(sec-butanol, iso-butanol, and tert-butanol). This makes
n-butanol a more suitable fuel for PPC. [14, 15]
Cheng investigated the potential usage of butanol-diesel
blends in PPC combustion in a light-duty diesel engine
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2 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION
(CR:17.5) by applying single injection from low load to high
load [16]. Compared with pure diesel, PPC combustion was
achieved with lower injection pressure and moderate EGR
rate. Long premixed duration was found in both early and late
injection, and smoke emission was reduced up to 70% because
of fuel reactivity and oxygen content. Injection pressure did
not show much influence in decreasing smoke emission, but
can be used to optimize the combustion phasing for B30 (30%
n-butanol in the blend fuel). In addition, B30 blends showed
a higher premixed fraction at all three loads. Decreased
premixed fraction and more diffusion dominant combustion
was observed as the load increases, which means higher
portion of butanol is necessary to decrease the reactivity of
blend fuel. The author pointed out that butanol is effective in
reducing the mass of PM due to longer ignition delay but did
not reduce the peak soot size.
Similarly, Valentino investigated low n-butanol ratio (20%
and 40%) blends with conventional diesel on a high speed
diesel engine. The effects of injection timing, injection
pressure, and oxygen concentration on performance and
emission were studied by applying a single injection strategy
[17]. The tests were carried out at a constant 24Due to the
resistance to auto-ignition of butanol-blend, partially
premixed combustion was achieved along with reduced
emission but a slight increase of fuel consumption. With
retarded single injection and decreased oxygen concentration
by a small amount of EGR, the soot emission is quite low,
however, the NOx emission is still high. Although high injec-
tion pressure benefits the atomization and mixing rate which
reduce the PM emission, ignition delay is decreased and NOx
emission deteriorated. The author concluded that the higher
volatility of n-butanol blends promotes the dispersion of fuel
vapor within the combustion chamber resulting in an almost
smokeless combustion.
Leermakers blended high volume ratio of n-butanol (50%,
60%, 70%, 80%, and 90%) with diesel to investigate the poten-
tial of BuOH-Diesel in PPC in terms of emission and efficiency
from 8 to 16  bar gross indicated mean effective pressure
(gIMEP) by applying a single injection strategy [18]. It is
shown that moderate ratio of BuOH-Diesel seems to be a good
option as EURO VI complaint fuel surrogate. Due to the long
ignition delay and oxygen atoms contained in the molecule,
the engine-out soot emission is extremely low. Although not
all the blends can meet the NOx emission level for EURO VI
at the given condition, with a higher EGR rate the NOx
emission can be reduced with an acceptable penalty of PM
and slightly higher fuel pressure. The author also pointed out
that the fuel pressure does not influence PM emission of
BuOH60 blend fuel significantly at 8 bar gIMEP due to high
premixed fraction. On the contrary, conventional diesel was
shown quite sensitive to fuel pressure, especially for soot
emission. Besides, relatively fast heat release was noticed for
single injection strategies. Shuli Wang also found out that
unacceptable high pressure rise rate was noticed when single
injection strategy was applied with high RON fuels with PPC
combustion [19].
It should be noted that although PPC brings high effi-
ciency and low emission, acoustic noise and pressure oscil-
lation during combustion would also occur [20]. As is
reported by Shuli Wang that unacceptable high pressure rise
rate is observed for single injection PPC, which is thought to
be due to the partially kinetically controlled combustion
process [19]. The combustion largely depends on local
chamber condition rather than injection alone and sharp heat
release and combustion noise tend to occur. Specifically, a
complete separation between the injection and combustion
events would lead to relatively high pressure oscillation which
would finally cause reduced thermal efficiency due to higher
heat transfer [21]. To solve this problem, a more stratified
mixture could be accomplished by multiple injections. The
application of a pilot/post injection makes the overall energy
of fuel injected in the cylinder released in a prolonged time
interval so that the maximum pressure rise rate could
decrease, which illustrated that fuel distribution is critical to
tune the heat release rate profile. Control of the combustion
is re-gained through the injection event and the maximum
pressure rise rate (MPRR) is reduced because of an increase
in stratification [22].
Huang H investigated the effects of pilot injection with
0, 20%, and 30% volume fraction of n-butanol blended with
diesel [23]. The results demonstrated that advanced the pilot
injection timing would decrease the maximum heat release
of pre-injected fuel while slightly increase the maximum heat
release rate of main-injected fuel. Soot and NOx decrease with
an advanced injection timing, which is assumed due to better
fuel and air mixing. However, brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) increases due to decrease of thermal efficiency. When
the proportion of pre-injection is higher, decreased peak heat
release of main-injected fuel and higher peak in-cylinder
pressure were observed.
The aim of this study is to accomplish ultra-low NOx and
soot emission and reach stable combustion at medium high
load. To attain this, multiple-injection strategies are experi-
mentally investigated at 15.5 bar gIMEP. Three different
injection strategies (single injection, pilot-main injection,
main-post injection) are compared on a heavy duty compres-
sion ignition engine in this work. BH70 (70 vol% n-butanol
and 30 vol% n-heptane) is blended and used in order to achieve
a low cetane number (CN) fuel. N-heptane is a reference fuel
which has similar characteristics with diesel yet has a mono
opponent and simpler structure. Although auto-ignition
mechanism of n-butanol and n-heptane mixture can be found
in the literature [24]. Butanol and heptane are also applied in
HCCI experiments as blend fuel and in Reactivity-controlled
Compression Ignition (RCCI) experiments as dual-fuel [25,
26]. Few work has been done by adopting n-butanol and
n-heptane blends in PPC mode with different injection strate-
gies to achieve low emission as well as high efficiency. The
effects of different pilot, post injection timing, and EGR rate,
are also demonstrated.
Methodology
The Experimental Setup
The test setup CYCLOPS is a single cylinder research engine
based on a DAF six cylinder diesel engine XE355c. Pistons of
cylinder 2 and 3 are disabled. Cylinder 4, 5 and 6 function as
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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION 3

 FIGURE 1   Schematic of Cyclops setup TABLE 1  CYCLOPS specifications

Engine specification for the test engine

Base engine DAF XE355c
Stroke 158 mm
Bore 130 mm
Connecting Rod 266.7 mm
Compression ratio 15.85:1
Number of Valves 4

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Injector
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Nozzle holes 7
Nozzle diameter 0.18 mm
Included spray angle 139°

Experiment Methods
propelling cylinders under DAF engine control unit to control and Conditions
the speed of engine with help of a hydraulic dynamometer The aim of this investigation is to compare effects of different
Schenk W450. As is shown in the schematic Figure 1, the test injection strategies at higher load under PPC operation.
cylinder is isolated from the rest cylinders except for crank Multiple injections are applied to reduce MPRR so as to
shaft and cam shaft. Inlet pressure can be boosted up to 5 bar achieve stable combustion. All the tests are performed at the
by the air compressor. With the help of an electrical heater, steady and warmed-up condition. The engine is running at a
desired intake charge temperature can be maintained. The constant speed of 1200 rpm and the temperature of water and
three surge tanks are applied to buffer oscillation and guar- oil are kept above 80oC. 15.5 bar gIMEP is selected as the test
antee a sufficient mixing between fresh air and EGR load. Both pilot-main injection and main-post injection are
flows respectively. compared with the single injection in terms of efficiency,
The fuel for the test cylinder is provided by a double- emission, and combustion stability. In order to achieve a rela-
acting air-drive Resato HPU200-625-2 pump, which has the tively stable combustion, the combustion phasing (CA50) is
ability to deliver a fuel pressure up to 4200 bar theoretically. kept constant at around 9.5 CAD aTDC for all the measure-
Due to pressure limitation in the injector and the fuel lines, ments. First of all, a single injection is performed as a reference
a maximum fuel pressure of 2500 bar is constrained. An accu- test with a 30% EGR rate. For the multiple injections (pilot-
mulator is placed near the fuel injector to mimic the volume main and main-post injection), the main injection timing is
of a typical common rail and dampen pressure fluctuations adjusted to keep a fixed combustion phasing, a sweep of pilot
originating from the pump. Direct fuel injection of test injection timing and post injection timing was also investi-
cylinder is via injector provided by Delphi. All steady state gated under the 30% EGR rate. Next, for all three injection
flows of fuel and air are measured with a Micro Motion mass strategies (single injection, pilot-main, main-post), a sweep of
flow meter. EGR rate is carried out to keep NOx below EURO VI standard
meanwhile inlet boost pressure is adjusted accordingly to keep
lambda around 1.55 to achieve ultralow soot emission as well.
Measurement System In this work, lambda is calculated according to the
Brettschneider Equation (1) [27]:
Gaseous exhaust emissions are analyzed by a Horiba Mexa
7100 DEGR emission measurement system. Exhaust smoke é CO ù
éëCO2 ùû + ê
ë 2 û
é NO ù æ OCV
ú + éëO2 ùû + ê 2 ú + ç 4 *
ë û ç
3.5
é éëCO ùû ù OCV ÷ ë
ö
(
÷ * éCO2 ùû + éëCO ùû )
level in Filter Smoke Number (FSN) is measured using an AVL 3 .5 + ê ú -
çç ëê CO2 úû 2 ÷÷
415S smoke meter. The test engine is equipped with all è ø
common engine sensors, such as intake and exhaust pressures æ HCV OCV ö
ç1 +
è 4
- ( ( ))
÷ * éëCO2 ùû + éëCO ùû + C f * éëHC ùû
2 ø
and temperatures, and oil and water temperature. Data from
these sensors, together with air and fuel flows and emission Where [xx] is the gas concentration in volume, HCV and
level are recorded at 0.5 Hz for a period of 40 seconds by means OCV is the atomic ratio of hydrogen and oxygen to carbon in
of an in house data acquisition system (TUeDACS). An AVL the fuel respectively. Cf is the carbon number in the hydro-
GU21C uncooled pressure transducer is installed in the test carbons molecules measured by Horiba Mexa 7100 DEGR.
cylinder, which measures in-cylinder pressure at 0.1 CA inter- Exhaust back pressure is always maintained 0.3 bar higher
vals. In-cylinder pressure, along with crank angle, intake than the intake pressure (to mimic the presence of a turbo-
pressure, fuel pressure and injector current are recorded and charger of finite efficiency and to enable the use of external
processed by a SMETEC Combi data-acquisition system. short route EGR in practice). A constant injection pressure of
Other important test setup parameters are listed in Table 1. 1800 bar is selected to achieve a relatively short injection
The accuracy of equipment is given in Table 5, included duration and better atomization for all the test. For pilot/main
in Appendix. and main/post injection strategies, the ratio of the amount of

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4 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION

TABLE 2  Test Matrix.

Injection timing sweep

Results and Discussion
EGR rate[%] 30 The results and discussion can be  categorized into two
Intake pressure[bar] 2.5 sections. The first section is the results of pilot injection timing
Injection strategy Single Pilot/main Main/post sweep and post-injection timing sweep. Based on the results
Actuation timing [CAD −5 −59/2.8 −5.4/6 of this section, an EGR sweep was performed on all three
aTDC] −50/−2.8 −5.2/10 injection strategies (single injection, pilot/main, and main/
−40/−2.7 −4.9/15
post). The results of changing EGR rate will be discussed in
section two in detail.
−30/−2.6 −4.6/20
−20/−2.3
Injection Timing Sweep As is shown in Figure 2a~f, the
−10 /−2.1 apparent rate of heat release (aROHR) of pilot/main injection
EGR Sweep features with a premixed combustion and mixing controlled
Actuation timing Single Pilot/main Main/post combustion. Obviously, combustion starts before the start of

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Injection timing[CAD −5 −30/2.8 −5.6/6 the main injection regardless of the pilot injection timing,
aTDC] which illustrated that the reactivity of BH70 is still not low
EGR rate[%] 30 35 42.5 30 35 40 30 35 40 44 enough to resist auto-combustion at current load. Considering
45 49 43 45 50 in-cylinder temperature and pressure are relatively high at
15.5 bar gIMEP, high RON fuel is necessary to achieve a sepa-
ration between the end of main injection and start of combus-
TABLE 3  Operating conditions tion. However, this separation would result in a highly
Operating parameters premixed mixture and lead to extremely high peak pressure
Load 15.5 bar gIMEP and MPRR [21]. Low-temperature heat release is noticed when
Injection pressure 1800 bar the pilot is injected at a more advanced timing (from
−60~ − 30 CA aTDC), for the pilot injected at −20 and − 10
Lambda 1.55±0.05
CA aTDC skipped this part. According to [24], at low tempera-
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Intake temperature 313 K

ture, the ignition delay time of n-butanol and n-heptane
Exhaust pressure Intake pressure + 0.3 bar mixture is determined by the competition for OH radicals.
Engine speed 1200 rpm Most of the n-butanol undergoes H-abstraction by OH
CA50 9.5 CAD aTDC radicals from the a-carbon position to form a-hydroxybutyl
at low temperature, and subsequently react with oxygen to
form stable butyraldehyde, leading to an increased ignition
fuel injected in the pilot and post compared with total fuel delay time. For early pilot injection at lower cylinder tempera-
flow is constant as 24.3%. The test matrix and main operating ture and pressure, OH radicals are very important for the
conditions can be found in Table 2 and Table 3. oxidation of this fuel blend. The consumption of n-heptane is
inhibited while that of n-butanol is promoted due to the
competition of OH radicals. In this way, longer ignition delay
Fuel Blends under between pilot timing and start-of-combustion is noticed. In
addition, as the pilot injection is retarded, a more remarkable
Investigation premixed combustion is observed. Compared with the single
Table 4 below gives some properties of blend fuel BH70 which injection, the peak of apparent rate of heat release is much
are used in the blends. To achieve a relatively longer ignition lower which is because of the combustion heat is released in
delay, a blend of 70 vol% n-butanol and 30 vol% n-heptane is a prolonged interval.
selected (referred as BH70). Neither the cetane number of this With respect to the main/post injections, aROHR of
fuel blend has been tested on an ignition delay tester nor has close-coupled main/post injection (post injected at 6 CA
the octane number been tested on a CFR engine. Therefore, aTDC) is quite similar to aROHR of single injection, as is
an approximate estimation of the reactivity of the blend, based shown in Figure 2g and Figure 2h. From Figure 2i~k, aROHR
on linear blending. The reference CN value for n-butanol, feathers a mixing controlled combustion and a
being 17, is taken from [28]. Some properties of the blends post-combustion.
used are given in Table 4. Generally, cyclic variation is used to assess the combus-
tion stability of ICE. Specifically, coefficient of variation
(COV) is applied to evaluate this aspect as defined in
equation (2):
æ
å /n ö÷
TABLE 4  Properties of fuels. n
( xi - x )
2
ç
è ø
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i =1
Fuel CN RON LHV[MJ/kg] AFRst Boiling point COV = (2)
n-butanol 17 97 33.08 11.13 390.25[K] x
n-heptane 56.3 0 44.6 15.2 371.57[K] Where xi is one parameter obtained from in-cylinder
BH70 67 36.13 12.22 pressure, x is the average value of xi. In this work, COV of
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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION 5

 FIGURE 2   Apparent rate of heat release (aROHR) of pilot/  FIGURE 3   COV and MPRR as a function of
main injection, single injection, main/post injection. injection strategy.

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gIMEP is compared among three injection strategies. All three
injection strategies show a low COV of gIMEP, which is lower
than a threshold 5% as is shown in Figure 3a. Single injection
appears to be  most stable at this count. For the sake of
preventing too much combustion noise and engine damage,
pressure rise rates (PRR) should be kept within a certain limit.
Although the setup has proven to withstand a PRR of 30 bar/
CA [29]. For safety consideration, it is necessary to keep MPRR
below 15 bar/CA. Clearly, in Figure 3b, advanced pilot injec-
tion could significantly reduce MPRR compared with the
other injection strategies. However, when pilot injected at −20
and − 10 CA aTDC, the MPRR seems to increase sharply. This
is caused by a rather pronounced premixed combustion before
TDC, the negative work of piston further enhance the
in-cylinder pressure in a short interval. The pilot injected at
−60 CA aTDC demonstrated lowest MPRR.
It can be seen from Figure 4a that unburned hydrocarbon
(HC) emissions increase significantly at early pilot injection
timing, which is mainly due to poor injection targeting and
wall impingement at too early injection timing(−60~ − 40
CAD aTDC). The fuel remained in the small crevice between
the piston and the piston rings and the cylinder wall where
the flame cannot penetrate [30]. When pilot injected at −30
~ −10 CAD aTDC, HC emission is quite comparable with the
single injection due to less wall impingement. For the main/
post injection strategy, post injection timing seems do not
have a clear effect on HC emissions. It is similar to that of the
single injection. Figure 4b displays the carbon monoxide (CO)
emission of different injection strategies. Apparently, CO
emission is not a big concern for conventional compression
ignition engine at higher load due to high pressure and

 FIGURE 4   ISHC and ISCO as a function of

injection strategy.
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6 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION

temperature, the CO emission formed from rich mixtures  FIGURE 5   In-cylinder Global temperature as a function of
would be  eventually be  oxidized during sufficient post crank angle degree for different injection strategies.
combustion mixing time. For low-temperature combustion,
by contrast, due to the application of EGR and inlet boost, the
fuel-lean mixture is assumed to be the dominant cause of CO
emission [31]. For the case of early pilot injection timing
(−60 ~ −30 CA aTDC), wall impingement and over-lean local
air/fuel mixture finally caused a distinct increase of CO
emission. When compared with main/post injections, CO
emission increases slightly with the retarded post injection
timing. Because of post-combustion happened at expansion
stroke when the piston moving downward, the in-cylinder
global temperature decreases with a late post injection timing,
which makes it more difficult for the oxidization of CO as is
shown in Figure 5c. The global temperature is calculated based
on ideal gas law, which certainly is not the exactly temperature
in the cylinder, yet an indication of the overall condition inside
the cylinder is demonstrated. CO emissions of single injection,
main/post injection and well-tuned pilot/main injection with
BH70 are considerably below the EURO VI standard. This is
beneficial for the catalyst considering efficiency of catalyst for
LTC is not high.
NOx emissions are generally referred as nitric oxide (NO)
and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), in which NO is the main compo-
nent. NOx formation is primarily governed by the Zeldovich
mechanism, the three reactions are determined by high
temperature, rich local oxygen concentration, enough time
to stay in these aforementioned area and production rates
increase exponentially with temperature [32, 33, 34].

N 2 + O « NO + N

N + O2 « NO + O

N + OH « NO + H

In [35], Wang reported that NOx emission appears to

have a strong correlation with CA50. In other words, less NOx
would be produced at a late combustion phasing because of
expansion and short residence time at a local high-tempera-
ture region. In this work to achieve a more stable combustion
and keep NOx and soot below EURO VI standard, CA50 is
maintained at 9.5 CAD aTDC. As is demonstrated in Figure
6a, none of the injection strategies could achieve a NOx
emission below EURO VI standard with 30% EGR. Yet, among
all three injection strategies, a decreased NOx emission is
noticed with the advance of pilot injection timing. This is
because early pilot injection pulse will results in a homoge-
neous lean region. In addition, based on Figure 2, pilot/main
injection strategies feather with more premixed combustion
and less diffusion phase. Consequently, less fuel is combusted
is combusted in an oxygen-rich and high-temperature area.
Specifically, for pilot injection at −60 CAD aTDC, a decrease
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of 25% NOx emission is observed compared with single injec-

tion. When pilot timing is at −20 and − 10 CAD aTDC, pilot/
main injections produce more NOx emission than single
injection. This is assumed due to a higher in-cylinder tempera-
ture as is shown in Figure 5b. For main/post injections, NOx
emission decreases when the post injection timing get
retarded. The possible reason is in-cylinder global temperature
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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION 7

 FIGURE 6   NOx and soot emissions as a function of  FIGURE 7   Combustion efficiency and gross indicated
injection strategy efficiency comparison for different injection strategies.
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drops when late post-combustion happens during expansion,
as is shown in Figure 5c.
Figure 6b shows soot emissions of different injection
strategies. Apparently, BH 70 has a very low sooting tendency
under current experiment conditions. Both pilot/main injec-
tion and single injection produce negligible soot emission
regardless of injection timing. Considering the accuracy of
AVL smoke meter is ±0.01, it is hard to tell any difference
between pilot/main injection and single injection. For the case
of main/post-injection strategy, a clear NOx-Soot tradeoff is
observed. Soot emission of late post-injection increases signifi-
cantly. This is assumed due to temperature decreasing of late
post-combustion. On the one hand, less soot would
be produced at a lower temperature. On the other hand oxida-
tion rate of soot decreases accordingly. Soot emission is a result
of a competition between the rate of pyrolysis to form the
precursors and the rate of oxidation [36]. It seems that in this
case, the effects of oxidation outweighs the effects of formation.
In this work, the combustion efficiency is calculated
according to equation (3):
ISHC * LHVfuel + ISCO * LHVCO + ISH2 * LHVH2
hcomb = 1 -
 ISfc * LHVfuel
(3)
And the gross indicated efficiency (GIE) is expressed as
following equation (4):
180
hind ,gross ==
ò P * dV/ ( m
-180
fuel * LHVfuel ) (4)
Where ISHC and ISCO and IS H2 are the specific emis-
sions while LHVCO and LHVH2 are the lower heating value of
CO and H2. ISfc and LHVfuel are fuel consumption and lower
heating value of the fuel. Hydrogen emission is calculated
based on CO and CO2 emission, according to the gas-water-
shift reaction. P is the in-cylinder pressure, mfuel is fuel flow
and V is displacement of test cylinder.
As is shown in Figure 7, among all three injection strate-
gies, pilot/main injections have lower combustion efficiencies
at earlier injection timing due to higher HC and CO emissions.
Specifically, the earlier the pilot injection timing, the lower
emission. But a reduced gross indicated efficiency is observed
as the post injection timing get retarded, which is due to late
post-combustion at expansion.
EGR Sweep This section is based on the results of previous
injection timing sweep, −30/2.8 and − 5.6/6 CAD aTDC are
chosen to be the optimum pilot and post-injection timing
respectively for the sake of MPRR, emission, and efficiency.
To investigate the effects of EGR on different injection strate-
gies and further decrease NOx emission, an EGR rate sweep
was performed. Main injection timing is slightly adjusted (in
terms of 0.1 CA) to keep the combustion phasing constant
when EGR increases. Although, application of EGR decreases
oxygen concentration [37]. It is also reported that very low
soot and NOx emission could be achieved when lambda is
controlled by a combination of EGR and boosted inlet [38].
In this work, EGR rate is defined by the ratio between volume
concentrations of CO2  in the intake air and exhaust gas.
Intake pressure is increased accordingly when EGR increases
to keep lambda constant as 1.55±0.05, as is shown in Figure 8.
Thus soot emission would not increase significantly.
Figure 9 displays apparent rate of heat release of all three
injection strategies using different EGR rates. A higher EGR
rate decreases the peak aROHR of premixed combustion and
increases the peak of diffusion combustion when a pilot/main
injection strategy is used. For main/post injection, due to the
close-coupled injection timing, aROHR of which is similar to
the single injection strategy. Overall, the peak aROHR of both
injection strategies are lower at high EGR rate.
 FIGURE 8   Inlet pressure as a function of EGR rate.
© SAE International

the combustion efficiency will be. With respect to gross indi-

cated efficiency, pilot/main injection and single injection are
similar. Main/post and single injection strategies show iden-
tical combustion efficiency due to similar HC and CO
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8 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION

 FIGURE 9   aROHR of three injection strategies with  FIGURE 11   In-cylinder Global temperature of three injection
different EGR rates. strategies with different EGR rates.

© SAE International

Maximum pressure rise rate is expected to decrease with

increase of EGR due to above mentioned reasons. According
to Figure 10a, A marginally decrease is noticed when high
EGR rate is applied for all three injection strategies. This is
probably because of higher intake pressure, which is increased
when EGR rate is enhanced to keep lambda constant. A more
condensed inlet charge at the same excess air coefficient
somehow keeps the combustion process less affected by higher
EGR rate. COV of three injection strategies are below 5% when
EGR rate increases, as is shown in Figure 10b. A slight
­fluctuation of COV is noticed at different EGR rates regardless
of injection strategies.
It is generally believed that high heat capacity of CO2
and H2O in exhaust gas could result in lower mixture temper-
ature and a lower flame temperature. The increase of soot
emission further enhances flame radiation, thus a decrease
in flame temperature [39]. As is demonstrated in Figure 11,
in-cylinder global temperature decreases as EGR rate increases
© SAE International

 FIGURE 10   MPRR and COV of three injection strategies

with different EGR rates.

due to aforementioned reasons. Even though lambda is kept

constant as 1.55±0.05, as is shown in Figure 15 in Appendix.
This temperature drop finally results in higher CO emission
© SAE International

for all three injection strategies, Figure 12b. Decreased

in-cylinder temperature deteriorates oxidation process of CO.
Particularly, among all three injection strategies, pilot/main
injections show the most CO emission at given operating
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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION 9

 FIGURE 12   HC and CO emissions of three injection  FIGURE 14   Efficiency as a function of EGR rate under
strategies with different EGR rates. different injection strategies.
© SAE International

© SAE International
conditions. For the pilot/main strategy, due to the early injec-
proportional to the oxygen concentration of ambient charge [40].
tion timing of pilot pulse, there is enough mixing time for
In this investigation, although global lambda is kept constant,
the charge and over-leaning is assumed to be the leading
soot emission increases when higher EGR rate is applied. In other
factor for higher CO emission compared with the other two
words, by means of keeping oxygen concentration unaffected,
injection strategies. Nevertheless, an opposite effect is
the main cause of higher soot emission is assumed to be decreased
observed for HC emission. It is assumed that the higher
in-cylinder temperature which decelerates oxidation of soot. PM
ambient density because of the higher inlet pressure decreases
of single injection is still low enough even at 49% EGR rate while
the spray penetration [18, 39]. During the test, the inlet
higher soot yield is noticed for the case of main/post. In a nut-
pressure is increasing when EGR rate increases. Consequently,
shell, pilot/main injection strategy has more advantages than
ambient density in the cylinder is higher, which shortens the
single and main/post injections to reduce NOx and soot simul-
penetration of the spray jet. So that less fuel is trapped in the
taneously due to due to the fact that a lower EGR rate may
crevice and less wall impingement occurs, leading to less HC
be used. Specifically, when 24.3% (pilot/total fuel mass ratio) of
emissions, as is displayed in Figure 12a.
fuel injected at −30 CA aTDC in the pilot and the rest injected
Figure 13a and Figure 13b represent NOx and soot emission
in the main with 45% EGR rate, ultra-low soot (0.19 ppm) and
of three injection strategies with various EGR rates. The so-called
NOx (0.327 g/kWh) emissions are achieved respectively without
NOx-Soot tradeoff is noticed when higher EGR rate is applied.
using after treatment.
NOx emissions decrease and soot emissions increase as EGR rate
As is shown in Figure 14a, combustion efficiencies of single
is enhanced. Among all the investigated injection strategies,
pilot/main injection seems to be more beneficial when it comes injection and main/post injection appear to be quite constant
when the EGR rate increases. This is mainly because the
to NOx reduction, which is probably due to less diffusion
combustion efficiency is calculated according to CO, HC and
combustion based on the aROHR, see Figure 2. So that locally
there is less fuel get combusted in an oxygen rich and high hydrogen emissions. Decreased HC and increased CO emis-
sions due to aforementioned reasons make the combustion
temperature area. Compared with the single injection and main/
efficiency of single and main/post injection strategies less
post injection, less EGR rate is required to achieve NOx emissions
affected by increased EGR rate. However, due to over-leaning
below the Euro VI standard. The major benefit of applying BH70
mixture, higher CO emission is noticed for pilot/main injection
is its soot reduction potential. In this investigation, almost zero
soot emission is produced for all three injection strategies when compared with the other two injection strategies. Consequently,
a considerable decrease of combustion efficiency is observed
the EGR rate is under 40%. According to [39], the soot formation
for pilot/main injection strategy when high EGR rate is applied.
is shown to be directly dependent on the equivalent fuel/air ratio
A notable exception to the trend discussed above can
at the lift-off length. In addition, lift-off length is inversely
be expected when higher EGR rate brings about higher indi-
cated efficiency. This is because high EGR rate decreases
 FIGURE 13   NOx and soot emissions of three injection
in-cylinder temperature, which leads to low heat-transfer.
Similar results can also be found in [41] In addition, as the EGR
strategies with different EGR rates.
rate increases, the inlet pressure also increases considerably to
keep a constant lambda. This will lead to a higher in-cylinder
pressure as well. Based on equation 3, the numerator will
increase, so GIE is expected to increase as shown in Figure 14b.

Summary/Conclusions
© SAE International

In this study, three different injection strategies are investigated

at a 15.5 bar gIMEP on a heavy-duty diesel engine. For pilot/
main and main/post injection strategies, sweeps of pilot timing
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10 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION
and post timing are performed to study combustion stability,
emission and efficiencies by application of low cetane number
blend fuel BH70. EGR rate is increased in order to decrease the
NOx emission. Conclusions can be drawn as follows:
1. A complete separation between injection and
combustion is not possible for BH70 for the given load
point. All three injection strategies show low soot
emission and low COV with BH70;
2. The main advantages of pilot/main injection is
decreasing the MPRR compared with the other two
injection strategies. The effect of an advanced pilot
injection timing at 15.5 bar gIMEP can results in high
HC and CO emissions, which leads to a decrease in
combustion efficiency. A reduction of NOx can
be achieved when the pilot timing is earlier than −20
CAD aTDC due to lower fraction of
diffusive combustion;
3. Retarded post-injection timing goes hand-in-hand
with combustion during the late expansion stroke,
which decreases the gross indicated efficiency.
Although NOx emissions decrease at main/post
injection strategy due to lower in-cylinder global
temperature, soot emissions increase because of
poor oxidation.
4. Increasing EGR rate could significantly reduce NOx
emissions for all three injection strategies. Less EGR
is needed for pilot/main injection strategy to keep
engine-out NOx below EURO VI standard without
after treatment. Even though inlet pressure is
increased in the test to keep the lambda constant, still
soot emissions increase remarkably at high EGR rate
on account of poor oxidation of soot.
5. Overall, among all the injection strategies, when 25%
(pilot/main fuel mass ratio) of fuel injected at −30 CA
ATDC in the pilot with 45% EGR rate, soot and NOx
emissions are 0.19 ppm and 0.327 g/kwh respectively
without using after treatment. Nevertheless, this
requires high-pressure EGR loop. In practical
application, inlet boosting is limited due to the
positive pressure difference needed over the engine
but also because the exhaust energy for propelling the
turbine is inherently limited.
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Contact Information
Jinlin Han
J.Han.1@tue.nl
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Eindhoven University of Technology
Netherlands
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank technicians of Eindhoven
University Combustion Technology group for their valuable
contributions: Hans van Griensven, Theo de Groot, Bart van
Pinxten, Jaap de Hullu and Gerard van Hout.
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12 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INJECTION STRATEGIES AND EGR ON PARTIALLY PREMIXED COMBUSTION

Definitions/Abbreviations PRF - primary reference fuel

MPRR - maximum pressure rise rate
PCCI - Premixed charge compression ignition RON - research octane number
ICE - internal combustion engine aTDC - after top dead center
PPC - partially premixed combustion AFR st - stoichiometric air fuel ratio
HCCI - homogeneous charge compression ignition LHV - low heat value
LTC - low temperature combustion EGR - exhaust gas recirculation
NOX - nitrogen oxides BH70 - 70 vol% n-butanol and 30 vol% n-heptane
CO - carbon monoxide CA - crank angle
HC - hydrocarbon CA50 - Crank angle of 50% of mass is burnt
gIMEP - gross indicated mean effective pressure PM - particulate matter
rpm - rotation per minute CN - cetane number
CR - Compression ratio

Appendix
TABLE 5  Accuracy of equipment [42].

Data type Brand Type Unit Accuracy

Temperatures Omega k-type thermal couple o
C ±1.1oC
Pressure GE PMP 1400 Pa ±0.25 % of rate
Air mass flow Micro Motion Coriolis CMF200 g/s ±0.35 % of rate

© SAE International
Diesel mass flow Micro Motion Coriolis CMF010 g/s ±0.2 % of rate
In-cylinder pressure AVL GU21C bar <±0.3 % of FS(250 bar)
Gaseous analyzer Horiba 7100 DEGR %,ppm <±0.5 % FS
Smoke meter AVL 415S/Filter Method FSN ±0.01 FSN(<6FSN)

 FIGURE 15   Lambda as a function of EGR rate under different injection strategies.
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