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Influence of Instruction on Velocity and Accuracy in Soccer Kicking of

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Influence of Instruction on Velocity and Accuracy in

Soccer Kicking of Experienced Soccer Players
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Roland van den Tillaar & Aleksander Ulvik
a
Department of Teacher Education of Nord Trøndelag University College, Levanger, Norway
Published online: 28 Apr 2014.

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 Journal of Motor Behavior, Vol. 46, No. 5, 2014
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Influence of Instruction on Velocity and Accuracy in Soccer
Kicking of Experienced Soccer Players
Roland van den Tillaar, Aleksander Ulvik
Department of Teacher Education of Nord Trøndelag University College, Levanger, Norway.
ABSTRACT. The authors’ aim was to investigate the speed-accu-
racy tradeoff in soccer kicking with the dominant and nondomi-
nant foot by using different types of instructions prioritizing speed
or accuracy in experienced soccer players. Ten male soccer play-
ers were randomly given 1 of the 4 instructions that differed in
aspects of the kick they should emphasize and what the secondary
aim would be (speed or accuracy). It was found that ball velocity
was affected by instruction in the expected way: emphasis on
accuracy and ball velocity reduced for both kicking feet. In addi-
tion kicking accuracy increased when emphasizing this, but only
with the dominant foot indicating that Fitts’ law only was found in
kicks with the dominant foot.
Downloaded by [Roland van den Tillaar] at 13:15 30 April 2014
Keywords: dominant–nondominant, Fitts’ law, performance,
speed-accuracy tradeoff
V elocity and accuracy of kicking are two dominant fac-
tors in kicking in sports such as soccer, rugby, and
American football. To make a goal-directed kick there are
several possible strategies; one is simply kick as fast as pos-
sible without any intent to aim accurately, trying to surprise
the opponent by the velocity of the ball. Another strategy is
to kick the ball as accurately as possible, trying to keep the
ball out off reach of the opponent.
Earlier studies have reported different tradeoffs between
velocity and accuracy that apply to different movement
classes and were based on different theoretical principles
(Fitts, 1954; Schmidt, Zelaznik, & Frank, 1978; Schmidt,
Zelaznik, Hawkins, Frank, & Quinn, 1979; Plamondon &
Alimi, 1997). For example, Fitts’ law showed a logarithmic
function between speed and accuracy, which Fitts based on
principles of limited information processing capacity.
Schmidt et al. (1978; 1979) found a tradeoff relationship
between the magnitude and variability of force for a large
force range in simple static as well as dynamic actions.
However, most of these studies were performed on simple
or cyclical tasks and perhaps not suitable for fast discrete
movements that often are used in sports like throwing and
kicking (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003). According to
Indermill and Husak (1984) and Etnyre (1998) in these
types of movements throwing velocity and accuracy were
influenced in an inverse manner. In contrast, van den Till-
aar and Ettema (2003, 2006) showed that this only happens
partly. They found that throwing velocity decreases when
accuracy is more important, but that the accuracy of the
performance is not better when focusing on accuracy and
thereby did not follow Fitts’ law. Therefore, Van den Till-
aar and Ettema (2006) suggested that it is the characteristics
of the task that causes the lack of the appearance of the
speed-accuracy tradeoff in team handball overarm
287
throwing. All these studies used instructions that emphasize
velocity, accuracy or both in different throwing tasks
(Etnyre, 1998; Indermill & Husak, 1984; van den Tillaar &
Ettema, 2003, 2006). The discrepancy in findings may be
caused by the different target size, distance, and type of
movement. Etnyre used dart throwing, in which the main
focus is on accuracy, while in team handball the throwing
velocity is also very important to score goals.
All previous studies in the speed-accuracy tradeoff on
fast discrete movements were performed in throwing,
which is executed with arms. Arms are generally used for
more fine motor tasks such as grasping and writing, while
the lower limbs are mainly used for gross motor tasks such
as walking, jumping, and running. The differences in main
purpose between the limbs can thereby influence the speed-
accuracy tradeoff in a different way. Soccer kicking is a
good example of a fast discrete movement with the lower
limbs that is very much used in different sports in which
both speed and accuracy are both very important. Further-
more, in soccer a lot of times both feet are used for kicking.
However, it is not precisely known how the kicking perfor-
mance is influenced by instructions that emphasize veloc-
ity, accuracy, or both. To our best knowledge only two
studies have investigated soccer kicks based on max kick-
ing speed and accuracy (Andersen & D€orge, 2011; Lees &
Nolan, 2002) and found that by prioritizing accuracy the
kicking ball velocity decreased to 75% (Lees & Nolan,
2002) to 85% (Andersen & D€orge, 2011). However, in
these studies very few subjects were included (two and
seven). Furthermore, accuracy was only measured as a hit
or miss that does not give detailed enough information. In
addition, only two instructions were used in these studies:
kick as fast as possible and hit the target. It seems reason-
able to suggest that in kicking as fast as possible is initiated
by a different control and movement strategy than when
having to aim as precise as possible. Detailed knowledge
may help elucidate the underlying mechanisms of the
speed-accuracy tradeoff (e.g., Fitts, 1954; Plamondon &
Alimi, 1997). Furthermore, the findings may have practical
implications regarding training instructions.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate
the effect of type of instruction on the kicking performance
(velocity and accuracy) with the dominant and
Correspondence address: Roland van den Tillaar, Depart-
ment of Teacher Education of Nord Trøndelag University Col-
lege, Odins veg 23, 7603 Levanger, Norway. e-mail: roland.
tillaar@hint.no
 R. van den Tillaar & A. Ulvik
nondominant foot in experienced soccer players. Because in
overarm throwing the speed-accuracy tradeoff stated by
Fitts’ law (1954) was not followed and it was suggested
that it is the characteristics of the task that causes the lack
of the appearance of the speed-accuracy tradeoff, it is inter-
esting to investigate if the same results will be found in
soccer kicking. As a result of this the same setup and
hypothesis was formulated as in the throwing studies of van
den Tillaar and Ettema (2003, 2006) to make it possible to
compare the findings directly with overarm throwing. It
was hypothesized that instructions where the focus was on
accuracy would result in lower kicking velocities than those
where the focus was on velocity and that accuracy was not
influenced by instruction. Furthermore, that kicking with
the dominant and nondominant foot would show the same
development, but with a lower accuracy and kicking veloc-
ity with the nondominant foot. Different results from these
throwing studies (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003, 2006)
Downloaded by [Roland van den Tillaar] at 13:15 30 April 2014
suggest that the type of movement and used limbs would be
of importance in the speed-accuracy tradeoff.
Method
Ten experienced male soccer players (age ¼ 22.0 
2.5 years, body mass ¼ 70.8  6.4 kg, body height ¼ 1.85
FIGURE 1. Experimental setup indicating target size and
distance, and measures used to express accuracy. Mean
radial error was measured as the average of absolute dis-
tance to the centre of the target (a). The subject’s own mid-
point is measured as the average hit location over all trials
per instruction per subject. Centroid error is the absolute
distance of the subject’s own midpoint to absolute target
midpoint (b). Bivariate variable error, also referred to as
consistency, is the average of the absolute distance to the
subject’s own midpoint (c).
288
 0.05 m, soccer experience ¼ 14.5  2.5 years) playing
in the second-fifth division of the national competition par-
ticipated in this study. All the participants had their right
foot as dominant kicking foot. A written informed consent
was obtained prior to all testing from all subjects and the
study complied with the approval of the local committee
for medical research ethics and the current ethical standards
in sports and exercise research.
Procedure
After a general warmup of 10 min (jogging and specific
kicking drills to warm up the body and to avoid injury
under testing), kicking performance was tested for starting
diagonal from a 3 m distance. The participants were given
a series of tasks that differed in instructions for what
aspects of the kick they should emphasize and what the sec-
ondary aim would be. The four instructions were modified
from earlier studies of van den Tillaar and Ettema (2003,
2006) in overarm throwing who used five instructions. In
the first task (Vo), the instruction was to kick as hard as pos-
sible to determine maximal ball velocity. Therefore, in this
instruction, individuals were not asked to aim at the actual
target (the soccer goal) to ensure that the subjects would
not prioritize accuracy at all. In the second task, the instruc-
tion was to kick as fast as possible (maximum velocity)
with a secondary aim to kick accurate (VA). In the third
task the opposite of the second instruction was given: the
main aim was to hit the center of the target and second aim
to kick as fast as possible (Av). In the last task, the only aim
was to hit the target (Ao). No absolute constraints were set
regarding velocity and accuracy, merely prioritization. The
actual verbal instructions are given subsequently.
(Vo) Kick the ball as fast as possible straight for-
wards in the goal.
(VA) Kick the ball as fast as possible and try to hit
the center of the target.
(Av) Hit the center of the target and try to kick the
ball as fast as possible.
(Ao) Hit the center of the target.
The target was a 1  1 square in a standard soccer goal
on the middle of the goal at 1.25 m height (Figure 1). Kick-
ing distance was 11 m. A regular senior soccer ball for men
(weight approximately 0.45 kg, with diameter 68 cm) was
used. Each subject was asked to kick eight times according
to each instruction with each leg, leading a total of 32 kicks
per leg per subject. The different instructions were given in
a random order to avoid that learning, fatigue, or any other
time related effect might affect the results in a systematic
way. The random order was determined by a random num-
ber generator. The subjects had approximately 40–60 s of
rest between each attempt (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003,
2006). The next kick was performed when the participant
felt that he was ready for it. Not more than eight kicks
Journal of Motor Behavior

according to each instruction and with each kicking foot
were performed to avoid an effect of fatigue on velocity or
accuracy (van den Tillaar & Ettema, 2003, 2006). All kicks
were performed within a 40–50-min time period.
Measurements
Maximal ball kicking velocity was determined using a
Doppler radar gun (Stalker ATS II, Applied Concepts Inc.,
Plano, TX), with 0.028 m/s accuracy within a field of 10
from the gun. The radar gun was located 1 m behind the
participant at ball height during the kick.
Kicking accuracy was measured (50 Hz) with a video
camera (Sony HDR A-S15, Tokyo, Japan) at a distance of
15 m from the goal. The camera was placed such that the
subject did not obstruct the visual field of the camera
toward the goal (Figure 1). The projection of a regular sized
soccer goal (2.447.32 m) was in the vision of the video
Downloaded by [Roland van den Tillaar] at 13:15 30 April 2014
camera with the target exactly in the middle. The position
of the centre of the ball was measured at the moment that
the ball struck the goal. Mean radial error (MRE), bivariate
variable error (BVE), and centroid error as described by
Hancock, Butler, and Fishman (1995) and van den Tillaar
and Ettema (2003, 2006) were used as a measurement of
accuracy (Figure 1). MRE was measured as the average of
absolute distance to the center of the target (Figure 1: dis-
tance a). Each subject’s midpoint was measured as the aver-
age hit location over all trials for each instruction. The
absolute distance of a subject’s midpoint to the absolute
midpoint is called the bias or centroid error (Figure 1: dis-
tance b). The BVE, also referred to as consistency, was
measured, as the average of the absolute distance to the
subject’s own midpoint (Figure 1: distance c). The x and y
positions of the ball from the center of the target were
FIGURE 2. Average peak ball velocity per instruction and
kicking leg. Significant difference in maximal ball veloc-
ity on a .05 level between the kicks with the dominant and
nondominant foot. ySignificant lower–higher maximal ball
velocity on a .05 level for this type of instruction compared
with all other instructions for this kicking foot.
2014, Vol. 46, No. 5
Speed Accuracy in Soccer Kicking
measured with a ruler with an accuracy in mm. when the
video camera was connected to a 0.61.0 m flat screen.
The 11 m target was used as calibration frame.
Statistics
To assess the effects of instruction on velocity and accu-
racy in kicks with the dominant and nondominant leg, a
repeated measures 2 Kicking Foot (dominant, nondomi-
nant)  4 Instruction (Vo, VA, AV, Ao) analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used. When significant differences were
found also a one-way ANOVA was performed on each
kicking foot. In the case that the sphericity assumption was
violated, the Greenhouse-Geisser adjustments of the p val-
ues are reported in the results. A post hoc test using Holm-
Bonferroni probability adjustments was used to locate sig-
nificant differences. All variables are expressed as M  SD.
Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 21.0 for
Windows (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL).
Results
For both kicks with the dominant and nondominant foot,
there was a significant influence of instruction on ball
velocities (main instruction effect; F(1.8, 16.6) ¼ 43.6,
p < 0.001, h2 ¼ .83. Post hoc comparison showed that the
ball velocity was significantly higher when there was no
aim of accuracy (instruction Vo) and that the ball velocity
was significantly lower when the aim was only accuracy
(instruction Ao; Figure 2). When performing a one-way
ANOVA on each kicking foot post hoc comparisons
showed that the ball velocity only was significantly higher
for instruction Vo with the dominant kicking foot and not
with the nondominant foot (Figure 2). In addition, ball
velocity was significantly higher when kicking with the
dominant foot compared with the nondominant one, F(1, 9)
¼ 30.6, p < .001, h2 ¼ .78). However, post hoc comparison
showed no significant difference in ball velocity between
the kicking feet for instruction Ao. The relationship
between instruction and ball velocity was the same for the
kicks with both feet (no kicking foot-instruction interaction,
F(1.2, 11.0) ¼ 3.36, p ¼ .87, h2 ¼ .27 (Figure 2).
Accuracy with the dominant foot was significantly higher
than with the nondominant foot for all three measurements
(centroid error, BVE, and MRE) of accuracy, F(1, 9) 
9.21, p  .014, h2 ¼ .51. Post hoc comparison showed that
only the accuracy was significantly higher with the domi-
nant foot in all instructions except instruction Av (p 
.066). Accuracy was also significantly influenced by
instruction for the BVE, F(3, 27) ¼ 6.7, p ¼ .002, h2 ¼ .43,
and MRE, F(3, 27) ¼ 4.4, p ¼ .012, h2 ¼ .33, but not for
the centroid error, F(1.9, 17.0) ¼ 1.1, p ¼ .36, h2 ¼ .11
(Figure 3). On the other hand a one-way ANOVA on each
kicking foot showed that there was only a significant
instruction effect found for BVE and MRE for the dominant
kicking foot: BVE, F(3, 27) ¼ 7.6, p ¼ .001; MRE, F(3, 27)
289
 R. van den Tillaar & A. Ulvik
Downloaded by [Roland van den Tillaar] at 13:15 30 April 2014
FIGURE 3. Average bivariate variable error (BVE), mean
radial error (MRE), and centroid error (CE) per instruction
and kicking leg. Significant difference in accuracy on a
.05 level between the kicks with the dominant and non-
dominant foot. ySignificant lower mean radial error and
BVE on a .05 level for this type of instruction compared
with all other instructions for this kicking foot.
¼ 8.7, p < .001, and not for the nonkicking foot: BVE, F(3,
27) ¼ 1.9, p ¼ .16; MRE, F(3, 27) ¼ 1.0, p ¼ .39. Post hoc
comparison on the dominant foot showed that for MRE and
BVE in instruction A0 were significantly more accurate
than at all other instructions (Figure 3). Furthermore, no
interaction effect was found for neither accuracy variable,
F(3, 27)  4.4, p  .14, h2  .05.
Discussion
In this study the effect of instructions prioritizing veloc-
ity, accuracy, or both on soccer kicking performance (ball
velocity and hitting accuracy) with the dominant and non-
dominant foot in experienced soccer players was examined.
The main findings were that ball velocity was affected by
290
instruction in the expected way: emphasis on accuracy and
ball velocity reduced for both kicking feet (Figure 2). In
addition kicking accuracy increased when emphasizing
this. However, this only occurred with the dominant foot
and not with the nondominant foot (Figure 3). Furthermore,
in general the kicking velocity was higher and more accu-
rate with the dominant compared with kicks performed
with the nondominant foot (Figures 2 and 3).
The maximal ball velocity in our study was higher
(28.8 vs. 25.5 m/s) than in the study of Lees and Nolan
(2002), who used professional soccer players, while it
was similar (29.0 m/s) to the study of Andersen and
D€orge (2011). These differences in results can be
explained by the target position. In the study of Lees and
Nolan the two soccer players had to hit the right top cor-
ner, while in our study the subjects had to kick straight.
This would demand other kinematics of the subject and
thereby lower ball velocities.
A clear tradeoff between velocity and task prioritization
of accuracy was indicated for both kicking feet. Kicking
with the dominant foot showed that velocity decreases
together with a significant increase in accuracy (measured
by MRE and BVE), while prioritizing accuracy (Figures 2
and 3). This follows Fitts’ law (1954) that suggested that
one can only prioritize speed or accuracy and not both. It
suggests that prioritizing accuracy will lead to another kick-
ing strategy as shown by the decreased kicking velocity. As
Fitts suggested it could be the result of limited information
processing capacity. This could result in a lower in run
velocity and kicking kinematics and thereby a lower kick-
ing velocity (Andersen & D€orge, 2011). However, no kine-
matic analysis was performed that could state this. Future
studies should include kinematic analysis to investigate
what exactly happens to gain more information what the
cause of differences in kicking velocity is.
In kicks with the nondominant foot also the velocity
decreased significantly when the only aim was accuracy
and thereby following Fitts’ law (1954). Nonetheless,
the accuracy of the kicks did not significantly change. A
reasonable explanation for this was experience. Subjects
were not used to kick accurately and hard with their
nondominant leg, which also was shown by the signifi-
cantly lower kicking velocity and accuracy (Figures 2
and 3).
The results of our study were not in accordance to the
similar studies of van den Tillaar and Ettema (2003, 2006)
in overarm throwing. Van den Tillaar & Ettema, (2003,
2006) also found that the throwing velocity was affected,
but the accuracy did not increase when prioritizing accu-
racy. Possible explanations for these differences are that in
overarm throwing accuracy is easier (van den Tillaar &
Ettema, 2003) to establish as shown by the higher accuracy
measurements of BVE (0.26 vs. 0.81 m) and MRE (0.3 vs.
0.94 m). In addition the distance of kicking (11 vs. 7 m)
and target sizes (1  1 m vs. 0.5  0.5 m) were different
between throwing and kicking that could influence the
Journal of Motor Behavior

accuracy. Another point that shows that another strategy
was used in kicking compared with overarm throwing was
the average velocity in instruction Ao. In this instruction in
overarm throwing the ball velocity was around 85% of
maximal throwing velocity, while in the current study the
ball velocity was 73% of the maximal ball velocity obtained
in instruction Vo. This was comparable with the results of
Lees and Nolan (2002), who also found that the soccer ball
velocity decreased to 75% when the priority was accuracy.
Indermill and Husak (1984) showed that executing a fast
discrete movement (throwing) at around 75% is more accu-
rate than faster movements. In our study it was shown that
at instructions Va and Av the velocities were 96% and 92%
and thereby also much higher than the 85% in which accu-
racy does not change much anymore (Cauraugh, Gabert &
White, 1990).
The average MRE with the dominant foot was 0.94 m
with instruction Va an Av over 1 m. With the nondomi-
Downloaded by [Roland van den Tillaar] at 13:15 30 April 2014
nant foot this was 1.5 m from the center of the target,
indicating that this subject group, although very experi-
enced, could not shoot very accurately. Probably the use
of elite players could give different results. Therefore, in
future studies it is suggested to used elite players to
investigate if the same relationship appears and if the
accuracy found in the present study is as good as be
expected from soccer players or that it is an excellent
performance of the elite players that they can hit the tar-
get so accurately.
In summary it can be stated that that ball velocity was
affected by instruction in the expected way: emphasis on
accuracy and ball velocity reduced for both kicking feet. In
addition kicking accuracy increased when emphasizing
this, but only with the dominant foot indicating that Fitts’
law only was found in kicks with the dominant foot. As a
result of the current study it is suggested to trainers and ath-
letes to use instruction Vo (and perhaps also instruction Va)
in training and competition, because of the high kicking
velocity (28.8 vs. 20.5 m/s with instruction Ao) and relative
good accuracy compared with instruction Ao (MRE:
0.86 vs. 0.68m). On average the accuracy increases with
0.18 m when using instruction Ao which is good for scoring
goals. However, the velocity decreases with 8.3 m/s, which
makes it much easier for the goalkeeper to react on the
kick. Therefore, based on the findings of the current study
2014, Vol. 46, No. 5
View publication stats
Speed Accuracy in Soccer Kicking
instruction Vo should be used in training and competition
by soccer players.
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Received November 2, 2013
Revised December 12, 2013
Accepted February 23, 2014
291