ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title no. 102-M34
Cast-in-Place Cellulose Fiber-Reinforced Cement Paste,
Mortar, and Concrete
by Julie R. Rapoport and Surendra P. Shah
Fiber-reinforced concrete is a fast-growing technology. This
research considers the use of cellulose fibers as an inexpensive
alternative to synthetic fibers. This study characterizes the
behavior of cellulose fiber-reinforced paste, mortar, and concrete
and investigates rheological, dispersion, and mechanical properties
of the materials. The addition of cellulose fibers to a cementitious
material stiffens the matrix. This stiffening limits the maximum
usable fiber volume. At fiber volumes used, fibers offer little
improvement in flexural properties. Optical and scanning electron
microscopy are used to inspect fiber dispersion. A technique is
developed to locate fibers in hardened specimens. Correlations
among fiber dispersion, mechanical performance, and rheology
are investigated.
Restrained ring shrinkage tests are performed on paste and mortar.
Fibers are found to reduce the width of shrinkage cracks in both
materials. Fiber dispersion, matrix rheology, and mechanical
performance cannot be correlated. Fibers disperse well under normal
mixing conditions, regardless of matrix rheological properties.
Keywords: fibers; rheology; shrinkage.
INTRODUCTION
Cellulose fibers are inexpensive, easily produced forms of
reinforcement for cement-based materials. Much research has
inspected the properties of cellulose fiber-reinforced thin-
sheet elements. Because of their low cost and demonstrated
reinforcing ability, cellulose fibers are currently being investi-
gated as reinforcement for cast-in-place concrete.
In general, many types of fibers can enhance mechanical
properties such as tensile strength, flexural strength, and
flexural toughness in concrete and cementitious materials
(Kim, Saeki, and Horiguchi 1999; Mobasher and Li 1996;
Cheng et al. 2000; Shah 1991; Bentur 1989; Banthia et al.
1994; Morgan 1989; Li and Stang 1997). The work
performed in this study investigates how cellulose fibers
alter mechanical properties of cementitious materials.
Fiber dispersion controls the effectiveness of the fiber rein-
forcement. If fibers clump, little reinforcement is provided in
the material. If fibers are uniformly dispersed, maximum
reinforcement is provided (Akkaya 2000; Lawler 2001).
Fiber dispersion also affects rheological properties of
fresh cement, mortar, or concrete. The addition of fibers to a
cementitious material stiffens the mixture. The yield stress—
stress necessary to start material flow—and viscosity—resis-
tance to continued flow—are both increased. The change in
workability due to the addition of fibers is of concern
because even if a material shows excellent mechanical
performance, it will not be used if it cannot be placed in
molds. It is hypothesized that well-dispersed fibers will
affect rheological parameters differently than poorly
dispersed fibers. In addition, it is considered that changes in
the rheology of the matrix might alter fiber dispersion. That
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005
TECHNICAL PAPER
is, a more (or less) viscous material might prevent fibers
from dispersing well—likewise for changes in yield stress.
Fiber dispersion has been analyzed primarily qualitatively.
Researchers have inspected the fresh mixture for fiber
clumps (Yang 2002; Ogawa et al. 2001; Flink and Stenberg
1989) or otherwise performed burnout tests and measured
changes in weight (Stroeven, Shui, and Cheng 2000). While
qualitative analysis is an acceptable screening test, it is not
sufficiently rigorous to correlate numerical fiber dispersion
and material properties such as strength, toughness, and
workability. To analyze fiber dispersion quantitatively,
certain statistical processes have been adapted to the cemen-
titious systems under study.
Previous researchers have shown that cellulose fibers at
volumes ranging from 0.06% to 0.5% significantly reduce
restrained drying-shrinkage cracking in concrete (Buch,
Rheman, and Hiller 1999; Sarigaphuti, Shah, and Vinson
1993; Soroushian 1997). In this study, restrained ring
shrinkage tests are performed on fiber-reinforced mortar to
evaluate the potential of the fibers to reduce shrinkage
cracking at a range of fiber volumes. Fiber dispersion and
shrinkage cracking reduction are compared. In addition, the
effect of different matrix yield stresses and viscosities on
fiber dispersion and shrinkage crack reduction is inspected.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
The purpose of this research was: to determine appropriate
applications for cellulose fiber-reinforced cementitious mate-
rials; to correlate rheological parameters (fresh properties)
with fiber dispersion, as well as correlate fiber dispersion
with shrinkage crack reduction (hardened properties); and to
correlate rheology and shrinkage performance directly.
MATERIALS AND MIXING
Shrinkage and rheology tests
Fibers used in this study were bleached, kraft-processed
cellulose fibers, with an average length of 2.5 mm (0.1 in.)
and an average diameter of 15 µm (0.006 in.). Type I ordinary
portland cement, tap water, and 1 mm (0.039 in.) monosized
silica sand were used in mortar. High-range water-reducing
admixture and methylcellulose (MC) were used at dosages
of 0.5% and 0.1%, by weight of cement, respectively. These
admixtures and additives were chosen to alter paste
rheology. The high-range water-reducing admixture is
designed to reduce yield stress, though it also reduces
ACI Materials Journal, V. 102, No. 5, September-October 2005.
MS No. 03-364 received August 28, 2003, and reviewed under Institute publication
policies. Copyright © 2005, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including
the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Pertinent discussion including authors’ closure, if any, will be published in the July-August
2006 ACI Materials Journal if the discussion is received by April 1, 2006.
299
Julie R. Rapoport is an engineer at Exponent, Failure Analysis Associates, Menlo
Park, Calif. She received her MS and PhD from Northwestern University, Evanston,
Ill. Her research interests include nondestructive evaluation, transport properties, and
fiber-reinforced concrete.
Surendra P. Shah, FACI, is a Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil Engineering, and
the Director of the Center for Advanced Cement Based Materials, Northwestern
University. He is a member of ACI Committees 215, Fatigue of Concrete; 446, Fracture
Mechanics; 544, Fiber Reinforced Concrete; 549, Thin Reinforced Cementitious
Products and Ferrocement; and E 803, Faculty Network Coordinating Committee.
viscosity somewhat. MC is used to increase viscosity. It has
little effect on yield stress at low dosages. The volume of
fibers was varied in the yield stress study.
Water and high-range water-reducing admixture were
premixed by hand. Cement and MC were hand-blended.
Unless otherwise specified, wet ingredients were added to
dry ingredients and mixed in a small, planetary mixer for
1 min, after which the paddle and sides of the mixing bowl
were scraped down. Mixing resumed for 4 min, with another
pause for cleaning after 2 min.
Yield stress tests were performed on fiber-reinforced paste
with w/c of 0.4 and 0.5. Viscosity tests were performed on
unreinforced pasted with a w/c of 0.4. At higher w/c in the
viscosity test, some settlement occurred in which the cement
grains drifted to the bottom of the testing apparatus. This
caused concern that the viscosity of the material was being
measured inaccurately, thus in subsequent tests, a lower w/c
was used.
Flexural tests
Flexural studies were performed on concrete beams both
with and without fibers. Concrete was formed with tap
water, the cement described previously, graded river sand,
and 9 mm (3/8 in.) pea gravel. Cement, coarse aggregate,
fine aggregate, and water were mixed with weight ratios of
1:2:2:0.5. One percent by cement weight of high-range
water-reducing admixture was used. Fibers were added at
0.25% volume.
The water and high-range water-reducing admixture were
hand-mixed initially and placed in the mixer. The fibers were
added and mixed with the water for 5 to 30 s. Coarse aggre-
gates were added and mixed for 1 min. Fine aggregates were
added and mixed for 3 min. Cement was added and mixed
for 2 min. The concrete was placed in the molds, rodded 25
times, and vibrated for 1 min.
TESTING PROCEDURES
Restrained ring shrinkage tests
To determine whether cellulose fibers reinforce against
drying-shrinkage cracking, mortar shrinkage rings were cast
at a range of fiber volumes. The restrained ring shrinkage
apparatus was used. Figure 1 shows a schematic of this
setup. Only paste and mortar were tested for drying-
shrinkage cracking. As a result, smaller steel rings than those
used for concrete could be used. This facilitated casting and
ring movement and also shortened the time of the tests.
Smaller rings cracked faster.
A 400 mm (4 in.) tall, 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) thick, 175 mm (7 in.)
outer diameter ring of steel was placed around pegs on a
plywood board. The pegs were placed to ensure that the ring
was centered on the board. A 3 mm (1/8 in.) thick groove was
cut into the board, exactly 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) outside of the
steel ring. Cardboard ring molds—the type used for casting
concrete columns—400 mm (4 in.) tall, 3 mm (1/8 in.) thick
were placed into the grooves. Paste or mortar was cast into
300
Fig. 1—Restrained ring shrinkage apparatus.
the gap between the cardboard and steel to form a ring 400 mm
(4 in.) tall, 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) thick, 200 mm (8 in.) in the
outer diameter. Three rings were cast for each mixture. After
casting, rings were covered with plastic wrap and cured in
ambient lab conditions. After 2 days, the plastic wrap and
cardboard molds were removed and the tops of the paste or
mortar rings were sealed with silicone caulking to ensure
drying only occurred laterally. Rings cured at 22 °C (72 °F),
50% relative humidity for the duration of the test. Rings were
checked daily until cracking occurred. Crack widths were
measured several times at three locations along the crack
height during testing. Crack widths reported are the average
of the three measurement locations and the three rings for
each mixture. In cases where multiple cracking was
observed, the largest crack width is reported because that
crack controls permeability.
To observe whether alterations in rheological properties
would change material mechanical performance, mortar
shrinkage rings with different viscosities and yield stresses
were cast. Rings with matrixes with low and high viscosities
(NM and MC, respectively) were cast with fiber volumes of
0.75%, 0.375%, and 0.14%. The 0.75% fiber volume
mixtures were also cast with and without 0.5% high-range
water-reducing admixture to observe the effect of yield
stress on mechanical performance.
Flexural tests
To inspect the influence of cellulose fibers on concrete
flexural properties, three 50 x 100 x 450 mm (2 x 4 x 18 in.)
concrete beams were cast at 0.25% fiber volume and 0%
fiber volume (control). Beams were left in molds overnight
and then stripped and cured at 100% relative humidity and
room temperature for 7 days before testing.
Beams were tested in three-point bending to determine
flexural strength and toughness. A notch was saw-cut in the
middle of the specimen to approximately 1/3 the height of
the specimen. A strain gauge extensometer, with a 12.5 mm
(0.5 in.) range, was glued onto the specimen, with the knife
edges of the extensometer on either side of the notch. The
crack-mouth-opening displacement (CMOD) of the exten-
someter was used as the feedback signal. Center-point
displacement was measured with yoke-mounted linear vari-
able differential transducers (LVDTs).
Rheology
A rheometer was used to investigate the rheological
properties of cement paste, both with and without fibers. A
concentric cylinder geometry was used to test the viscosity
of the unreinforced matrix. A vane fixture was used to test
the yield stress of the fiber-reinforced matrix.
Viscosity tests—Figure 2 shows the concentric cylinder
geometry used to examine the viscosity of unreinforced
paste. The gap between the inner and outer cylinders (bob and
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005
 Fig. 3—Viscosities of different cementitious matrixes, as
determined by concentric cylinder fixture.

Fig. 2—Concentric cylinder fixture for rheometer.

cup, respectively) was 0.8 mm, which was too small to test
fiber-reinforced paste—the fibers were 2.5 mm long—thus,
only the cement paste matrix was tested using this geometry.
Material was placed into the cup until it reached a line
scribed inside the cup. This line is scribed so that when the
bob is placed in the cup at the testing position, the material is
displaced until it just reaches the top of the bob. The cup was
clamped into the rheometer and the bob was lowered until the
bottom of the bob was 4.2 mm (0.168 in.) from the bottom of
the cup, as specified by the rheometer manufacturer.
To measure viscosity, material was placed in the rheometer
cup, stirred by hand, and allowed to rest for 30 s. The shear
rate was then ramped from 0 to 100 s–1 over 10 s. The bob
rotated at 100 s–1 until the stress in the material was constant
or for 2 min—whichever came first. This preconditioning
ensured that each material started with the same shear history.
The shear rate was then ramped down from 100 to 0 s–1 over
30 s. Viscosity was determined as the slope of the shear Fig. 4—Vane fixture for rheometer.
stress-shear rate curve from 20 to 80 s–1, on the downslope.
Figure 3 shows shear stress-shear rate curves for several Table 1—Mixture proportions, viscosities, and
different matrixes. The mixture with a water-binder ratio (w/b) yield stresses for cement paste matrixes
of 0.4 and 0.1% MC has a significantly higher viscosity than Viscosity, Yield
the same mixture without MC. Table 1 shows the mixture Name w/b Additive, % of weight cement cP stress, Pa
proportions, viscosities, and yield stresses for the various NP 0.4 None 468.7 33.6
cement paste matrixes used in the rheology study. MC 0.4 0.1% MC 1360.2 47.7
Yield stress tests—Figure 4 shows the vane geometry for the 0.5% high-range water-reducing
NPSP 0.4 admixture 139.1 2.6
rheometer. The 22 mm (7/8 in.) diameter vane is inserted into
a 43.4 mm (1.75 in.) diameter cylinder full of the material to MCSP 0.4
0.1% MC and 0.5% high-range
571.8 2.9
water-reducing admixture
be tested. A large gap exists between the vane and cylinder
walls, which enables the testing of fiber-reinforced paste. SF 0.4 5% silica fume 1574.8 177.2
Material is present between the fins of the vanes. A slow FA 0.4 30% fly ash 456.4 —
rotation rate is applied. As the vane begins to rotate, the
material between the fins stretches elastically. As the vane To acquire yield stress, the vane was rotated at 0.03 s–1 for
continues to rotate, the material is stretched more and more 300 s. The shear stress-time curve was recorded. Figure 5
until the elastic bonds break and the material begins to shows shear stress-time curves for several different matrixes.
flow. The stress at which the bonds break is the yield stress Note that cement matrixes with 0.4 w/b, with and without
of the material. 0.1% MC, by weight of cement, have similar yield stresses.
The rheometer cup was filled to within 2 to 3 mm (0.08 to As has already been shown, these two matrixes have radi-
0.12 in.) of the top. The cup was clamped into the rheometer cally different viscosities. The addition of 0.5% high-range
and the vane was lowered into the cylinder until the bottom water-reducing admixture, by weight of cement, reduces
of the vane was 32 mm (1.28 in.) from the bottom of the yield stress almost to zero.
cylinder. The large distance between cylinder bottom and Figure 6 shows the yield stresses of fiber-reinforced paste,
vane bottom ensured that no edge effects would interfere with 0.5 w/c, at several different fiber volumes. As expected,
with testing (Dzuy and Boger 1985). the yield stress increases with increasing fiber volume.

ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005 301


Fig. 5—Yield stresses of different cementitious matrixes, as
determined by vane fixture.
Fig. 6—Yield stress curves of 0.5 w/c cement paste with
different fiber volumes.
Fig. 7—Fiber-reinforced paste exposed to fluorescent
whitening agent under: (a) white light; and (b) ultraviolet
light (24×).
Dispersion
To analyze fiber dispersion, images of fiber locations were
acquired as discussed in the following section. Fiber
dispersion was then analyzed using statistical tools also
described in the following.
Locating fibers within cement matrix—Dispersion specimens
were cast into 30 mm (1.25 in.) diameter, 25 mm (1 in.) tall
specimens. They were covered with plastic and cured in the
lab. After 2 days, they were demolded. Specimens were cut
with a band saw approximately in half height-wise (the cross
section stayed circular) to expose the center section of the
material. The exposed surface was ground using an polisher
with 180 grit sandpaper. Specimens were washed, dried with
compressed air, and then soaked for 1 h in a water solution
containing 2% by weight of triethanolamine—a fluorescent
whitening agent (FWA) that bonds only to the fibers and
causes the fibers to fluoresce under ultraviolet light. The
specimens were removed, scrubbed thoroughly, and rinsed
302
FIg. 8—Fiber dispersion modes: (a) uniform; (b) random;
and (c) clumped.
under tap water to remove any extraneous FWA debris that
might have adhered to the matrix.
After the specimens were prepared, they were placed
under a stereo microscope and images were taken at 9.75×
under ultraviolet light, which was supplied by a hand-held
ultraviolet wand. Light was 254 nm in wavelength at 115 V,
60 Hz, and 0.16 amps. Four pictures were required to fully
image each specimen.
Acquired images were converted to grayscale. The fibers
appeared as white specks. The matrix appeared as a black
background. A commercially available image analysis soft-
ware package was used to generate a location matrix from
the positions of the white specks (fibers) in the grayscale
image. In many instances, fibers were clumped, in which
case the user manually input additional fibers into the location
matrix by selecting positions in the software package with
the mouse. In the case of large fiber clumps, a grid of evenly
spaced dots was placed over the fiber blob on the screen to
simulate densely packed fibers.
Figure 7(a) is an image of a treated specimen under white
light. Figure 7(b) is the identical area of the treated specimen
under ultraviolet light, with the image processing described
previously. The fiber locations are quite clear in Fig. 7(b).
The fiber location file created by the software package was
analyzed using programs written in the computer language IDL
to determine fiber dispersion, as described in the following.
Statistical analyses—Fibers can be thought to disperse in
three fundamental modes—uniform, random, or clumped—
or combinations of them, as shown in Fig. 8. Ideally, the
fibers in the materials under study would be uniformly
distributed, but short of inserting each fiber into the matrix
by hand, it is hard to imagine how to obtain this sort of
dispersion. Fibers can also clump together. Because fibers
cannot be uniformly dispersed, a random distribution is the
best that can be obtained. A random distribution ensures that
little clumping exists and that specimens are well-reinforced.
Statistical point processes were used to analyze the fiber
dispersion in the images acquired. These processes were
created by Diggle (1983) and developed for cementitious
systems by Akkaya and Lawler. They are described thoroughly
in Akkaya (2000) and Lawler (2001).
The K-function indicates whether fibers clump or disperse
randomly. Conceptually, the K-function determines how
many fibers have nearest neighbors—the fiber closest to the
fiber under inspection—within a given radius. If the nearest
neighbors of most fibers are quite close, then there is
probably a large degree of clumping. If the distance between
fibers and their nearest neighbors is greater, then the fibers
are probably more randomly distributed.
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005
 The K-functions for uniform, random, and clumped point
distributions are shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the K-
function of a uniform distribution falls below that of a
random distribution, whereas the K-function of a clumped
distribution rises above that of a random distribution. The
distance between an experimental K-function and a random
K-function is used to determine fiber dispersion and
clumping. Higher K-functions indicate more clumping.

RESULTS
Drying shrinkage tests
Mortar shrinkage rings with varying fiber volumes were
tested to determine the effect of fiber volume on shrinkage
cracking. As seen in Fig. 10, even the lowest fiber volume
(0.14%) markedly decreases shrinkage crack width as Fig. 9—K-functions for uniform, random, and clumped fibers.
compared with unreinforced mortar. For fiber volumes of
0.14% and 0.36% (equivalent to 0.1% and 0.25% in
concrete), the shrinkage crack width at 14 days decreased by
37% from unreinforced mortar. At higher fiber volumes,
multiple smaller cracks were induced, which has positive
durability implications due to decreased crack widths. These
data show that drying shrinkage crack control is a good
application for cellulose fiber-reinforced concrete.

Flexural tests
Figure 11 shows the average stress-CMOD curves for
unreinforced and reinforced concrete beams. CMOD values
shown herein are almost identical to the center-point
displacements of the beam. It can be seen that fibers do not
change strength at all and increase toughness late in the post-
peak region. Cellulose fibers do not enhance flexural properties. Fig. 10—Restrained ring shrinkage crack widths in mortar
Shrinkage cracking reinforcement and flexural reinforce- rings, with different fiber volumes.
ment—Comparing Fig. 10 and 11, it can be seen that the
influence of fibers is more pronounced in restrained ring
shrinkage tests as compared with the flexural tests. There are
several reasons for this apparent difference. The flexural
tests were carried out only until the crack width opening
displacement reached 0.4 mm (0.016 in.). However, crack
widths of almost 1 mm (0.04 mm) were observed in the
unreinforced shrinkage rings. Thus, it is possible that a more
pronounced effect of cellulose fibers might be seen at larger
CMOD values. Another possibility is that the flexural
response (three-point bend test) is dominated by a single
crack opening, while multiple cracks can be observed in
some ring tests.

Rheology tests: dispersion and rheology

Yield stress and dispersion—To correlate fiber dispersion
and yield stress, two questions must be answered. First: Does
fiber dispersion alter material yield stress? That is, does a
material with well-dispersed fibers have a lower yield stress
than a material with poorly dispersed fibers (or vice versa)?
Second: Does matrix yield stress affect fiber dispersion?
That is, does a matrix with a higher yield stress prevent fibers
from dispersing as well as a matrix with a lower yield stress
(or vice versa)? Mixtures used in this phase of testing had
0.5 w/c and were mixed in a small planetary mixer on the
lowest speed, as detailed in the following.
To determine if fiber dispersion affected material yield
stress, two mixtures were cast. In the first mixture P1,
cement and water were mixed for 1 min, the paddle and sides
of the mixing bowl were scraped down, and then the paste
was mixed for an additional minute. A fiber volume of 0.5%
was added and mixed for 1 min; the paddle and sides of the
Fig. 11—Stress-CMOD curves for unreinforced and rein-
forced (Vf = 0.25%) concrete.
mixing bowl were scraped down; and then the fiber-rein-
forced paste was mixed for an additional minute. Suffi-
cient material was mixed to perform the vane test and cast
three dispersion specimens for the dispersion analysis. The
yield stress of the material is shown in Fig. 12(a). The second
mixture P3 was mixed in exactly the same way. However,
prior to mixing, fibers were soaked in water and then
squeezed into tiny clumps (resembling spit-balls). The fiber
clumps were dried entirely to prevent the addition of extra
water when they were added to the mixture. The purpose of
using these clumped fibers was to ensure poor fiber disper-
sion. As can be seen in Fig. 12(a), the yield stress of this
mixture is the same as that of P1. Figure 12(b) shows the K-
functions of Mixtures P1 and P3. Recall that higher K-func-

ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005 303


Fig. 12—Yield stresses and K-functions for Mixtures P1, P2,
and P3.
Fig. 13—Viscosity and K-functions for neat paste and paste
with 0.1% MC.
Fig. 14—Drying shrinkage performance for all mixtures
with neat mortar.
tions indicate more clumping. P3 has a significantly higher
K-function than P1, indicating far more clumping, as
expected. However, there is no change in yield stress
between the mixture with well-dispersed fibers and poorly
dispersed fibers. This indicates that, at least at the fiber
volumes tested herein, fiber dispersion does not affect material
yield stress.
To determine if the matrix yield stress influenced fiber
dispersion, an additional mixture, P2, was cast. In this
mixture, water and fibers were mixed for 1 min. Cement was
then added and mixed for 1 min, after which the paddle and
sides of the mixing bowl were scraped down. The fiber-rein-
forced paste was then mixed for an additional minute. As
Fig. 12(a) shows, the yield stress of this material is more than
three times greater than that of P1. As Fig. 12(b) shows, the
K-functions for P1 and P2 are identical. Even though the
yield stresses for Mixtures P1 and P2 are vastly different,
their dispersions are the same. This indicates that matrix
yield stress does not affect fiber dispersion. In addition,
water can be considered to have zero yield stress. Therefore,
304
the matrix into which the fibers in P2 are originally mixed
has a yield stress of zero. This initial matrix yield stress for
P2 is clearly less than that of P1. Yet the K-functions for P1
and P2 remain the same. When considered this way, the
matrix yield stress still does not affect fiber dispersion.
Viscosity and dispersion—To correlate fiber dispersion
and viscosity, the same two questions arise that occurred
during yield stress testing. Namely, does fiber dispersion
affect material viscosity? And, does matrix viscosity affect
fiber dispersion? The former cannot be answered in this
study because there is no way of testing the viscosity of
fiber-reinforced paste with the available rheometer.
However, the second question was explored, using a matrix
with 0.4 w/b, both with and without 0.1% MC.
Figure 13(a) shows the viscosities for the matrix without
any MC, neat paste (NP), and with 0.1% MC. In MC, cement
and MC were hand-blended for 30 s. Water was added and
the material was mixed for 4 min, with pauses after each
minute to scrape down the paddle and mixing bowl. The
viscosity of the matrix was tested. After material was removed
for viscosity determination (and while the viscosity test was
running), fibers were added to the remaining paste and mixed
for 2 min, with a pause after the first minute to scrape down the
paddle and sides of the bowl. Three dispersion specimens were
cast for each mixture. The same mixing procedure was followed
for NP except no MC was hand-blended with the cement.
Figure 13(b) shows the K-functions for NP and MC. It can
be seen that both mixtures have identical K-functions, even
though the viscosity of MC is nearly 2.5 times greater than that
of NP. This indicates that matrix viscosity does not affect fiber
dispersion, at least at the viscosities and fiber volumes tested,
and with the dispersion analysis approach used.
Rheology and drying-shrinkage cracking
It is assumed that mechanical performance is controlled by
fiber dispersion. Even though the aforementioned results
indicated that matrix rheology did not affect fiber dispersion,
it was considered that perhaps the statistical analysis to
determine fiber dispersion was not sensitive enough to the
system under study. As such, a test series was performed to
inspect directly the influence of matrix rheology on mechan-
ical performance. Any changes in performance are still
expected to be due to changes in fiber dispersion. It is simply
hypothesized that such dispersion changes cannot be seen
with the current dispersion analysis method.
Figure 14 shows the drying shrinkage performance of all
the mortar mixtures without MC (0% NM, 0.14% NM, 0.5%
NM, 0.75% NM, and 0.75% NMSP). The addition of any
fibers at all drastically reduces shrinkage crack widths. Fiber
volumes of 0.375% and 0.75% provide the same amount of
reinforcement. This indicates that additional fibers above a
certain volume do not provide extra reinforcement. Because
a greater fiber volume stiffens the mixture more, this
suggests that an optimal fiber volume can be found that
provides maximum reinforcement with minimum stiffening.
Figure 15 shows the drying shrinkage performance of all
the mortar mixtures with MC (0% MC, 0.14% MC, 0.5%
MC, 0.75% MC, and 0.75% MCSP). For reference, the
behavior of mortar without fibers or MC (0% NM) is also
shown. Again, fibers at any volume greatly reduce shrinkage
crack widths. In addition, fiber volumes of 0.375% and
0.75% provide the same amount of reinforcement, as seen in
the NM test series. The mixtures with MC and fibers show
the exact same behavior as the reinforced mixtures without
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005
Fig. 15—Drying shrinkage performance for all mixtures
with MC.
Fig. 16—Similar shrinkage crack width for all mixtures with
and without MC at multiple fiber volumes.
ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005
Fig. 17—Drying shrinkage performance for all mixtures
with 0.75% fiber volume.
MC at all fiber volumes (Fig. 16). This shows that changes
in viscosity do not affect drying shrinkage performance and,
therefore, presumably, fiber dispersion.
Figure 17 shows the shrinkage crack widths for all the
mixtures with 0.75% fibers. The MC and neat mortar
mixtures behave identically, both with and without high-
range water-reducing admixture. This implies that changes
in yield stress do not alter drying shrinkage performance and,
therefore, fiber dispersion.
CONCLUSIONS
Experiments were performed to determine how cellulose
fibers alter flexural and restrained drying shrinkage perfor-
mance in concrete and mortar. Cellulose fibers significantly
reduce drying shrinkage crack widths. Such pronounced
differences were not observed in flexural performance.
In addition, relationships were inspected between rheological
parameters and fiber dispersion of fiber-reinforced paste and
mortar. Fiber dispersion does not affect material yield stress
and matrix rheological properties do not affect fiber
dispersion—at least at the levels tested herein with the
dispersion and rheological methods used. This may imply
that there is no correlation between fiber dispersion and
material rheology.
MC was added to mortar to increase viscosity, and high-
range water-reducing admixture was used to decrease yield
stress. MC mixtures perform the same as mixtures without
MC. In mixtures with and without high-range water-reducing
admixture, the same drying shrinkage performance is
observed. This shows there is no correlation between matrix
yield stress or viscosity and drying shrinkage performance.
This suggests that cellulose fibers disperse well under
normal mixing conditions, regardless of matrix yield stress
or viscosity. This is useful for field mixing, as it means that
if a contractor wants to decrease yield stress (by adding high-
range water-reducing admixture, for example) or change
viscosity, it will not affect fiber dispersion. This means that
cellulose fiber dispersion is a robust process and is not a
concern when changing matrix rheology.
Mixtures with fiber volumes of 0.375% and 0.75% show
the same drying shrinkage performance. This indicates that
above a certain fiber volume, additional fibers do not
increase reinforcement. This suggests that an optimal fiber
volume can be found that provides maximum reinforcement
with minimum mixture stiffening.
305
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was performed at Northwestern University, the headquarters of
the Center for Advanced Cement Based Materials. Fibers and significant
funding were provided by Weyerhaeuser Co. Additional funding was
provided by ACBM.
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ACI Materials Journal/September-October 2005
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