ALGEBR

ALGEBRA A
Algebra is a branch of mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation and quantity. The name is derived
from the treatise written by the Persian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and geographer, Muhammad bin Mūsā al-
Khwārizmī titled Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala (meaning "The Book of Compulsion and Encountering" "The Compendious
Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing"), which provided symbolic operations for the systematic solution of
linear and quadratic equations.

Together with geometry, analysis, combinatorics, and number theory, algebra is one of the main branches of
mathematics. Elementary algebra is often part of the curriculum in secondary education and provides an introduction to
the basic ideas of algebra, including effects of adding and multiplying numbers, the concept of variables, definition of
polynomials, along with factorization and determining their roots.

In addition to working directly with numbers, algebra covers working with symbols, variables, and set elements.
Addition and multiplication are viewed as general operations, and their precise definitions lead to structures such as
groups, rings and fields.

A variable is a letter that represents a number. Since it represents a number, you treat it just like you do a
number when you do various mathematical operations involving variables.

“x” is a very common variable that is used in algebra, but you can use any letter (a, b, c, d, ....) to be a variable.

An algebraic expression is a number, variable or combination of the two connected by some mathematical
operation like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and/or roots.
2x + y, a/5, and 10 - r are all examples of algebraic expressions.

You evaluate an expression by replacing the variable with the given number and performing the indicated
operation.

Sometimes, you find yourself having to write out your own algebraic expression based on the wording of a problem. 

In that situation, you have to 

1. read the problem carefully,

2. pick out key words and phrases and determine their equivalent mathematical meaning,
3. replace any unknowns with a variable, and
4. put it all together in an algebraic expression.

Here are some commonly used terms that signal specific mathematical operation.

Addition: sum, plus, add to, added to, more than, increased by, total
Subtraction:  difference of, minus, subtracted from, less than, decreased by, less, diminished by
Multiplication:  product, times, multiply, twice, thrice, of 
Division:  quotient divide, into, ratio

Simplifying algebraic expressions

Some pointers to remember:

A. To simplify any given expression, it is advised that one should be guided by the acronym, PEMDAS (Parentheses-
Exponentiation- Multiplication-Division- Addition-Subtraction).

The strategy suggests that:

 1. The operations inside the parenthesis (or any grouping symbol) should be performed first.
2. Exponent should be dealt after step 1 is accomplished.
3. The operations: Multiplication and Division should be performed before Addition and Subtraction.
B. The order in which letters and numbers are used as factors does not matter.
(Commutative Property of Multiplication)

Example: 21mn = 21nm

C. You may use the following laws of exponents to simplify terms with roots or powers.

D. Combining like terms

Terms having identical literal coefficients are combined.

POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials are algebraic expressions which is the sum of finite number of terms, each of which is the product of
a finite collection of numbers and variables. A polynomial contains positive integral exponents.

6x2 + 4y – 5 is a polynomial while 20x-4 + y2 -3 is not.

Polynomials like 3x2 and 5xyz4 which have only one term are called monomials. Those with two terms like x – 4y
are called binomials. 5x3- xy2 + 4 in an example of a trinomial; that is, it is composed of three terms.

I. Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

Just like any algebraic expression, the process of addition can be conveniently carried out by combining like
terms. In order to subtract two polynomials, convert the problem to addition and proceed.

II. Multiplication of Polynomials

Multiplication of polynomials is based upon the method of multiplying monomials, together with the repeated
use of the distributive law.

Binomials as Factors
a) Product of Two Binomials
Illustrative examples:
1. (x + 1) (x + 2) = x2 + 3x + 2
2. (x + 5) (x – 7) = x2 – 2x – 35
Note: When multiplying two binomials with only one variable, the middle term is just the sum of the constant
terms where each one takes the operation that precedes it as its sign (i.e., 1 for x + 1, and -7 for x-7).

b) Binomial Raised to a Nonnegative Integer

It is practical to use the Pascal’s Triangle in order to identify the numerical coefficient of specific term of a
binomial expansion of a binomial of the form (a + b)n , where a and b are any variable, and n is a nonnegative
integer.

The Pascal’s Triangle is illustrated below:

0 1
1 1
1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1

The numbers on the left indicate the value by which the binomial is being raised.
For example,
“3” is for (x + y)3 and the numbers on its right are the coefficients of the expansion.
So that (x + y)3 = 1x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
The literal coefficients are either a single variable raised to the highest exponent or a product of the two
variables whose exponents add up to the original (the exponent of the given).
 c. Special Products
For any variable x and a, or any constant a,
(x + a) (x + a) = (x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x – a) (x – a) = (x - a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x + a) (x – a) = x2 - a2
(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
(x + a) (x2 - ax + a2) = x3 + a3
(x - a) (x2 + ax + a2) = x3 - a3
(x + a)3 = (x3 + 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3)
3
(x - a) = (x3 - 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3)

III. Division of Polynomials

The following are some of the points to consider when dividing a polynomial:

1. If the divisor is a monomial (a variable, a constant or a product of variable/s and constant) each term is to be
divided one-by- one.
2. If the divisor is a binomial, the dividend should be written in a decreasing order of exponent. In case a
3. The division continues step by step until a remainder is reached whose degree is less than the degree of the
divisor. If the remainder is zero, the division is said to be exact.

Example: Divide 6x3 – x2 + 11x + 4 by 3x + 1

2x2 – x + 4
3x + 1 / 6x3 – x2 + 11x + 4
- 6x3 + 2x2 2
- 3x + 11x
- - 3x2 - x
12x + 4
- 12x + 4
0
EQUATIONS

An equation is a statement that says two algebraic expressions are equal.

There are two important things to note in solving equations (finding the roots or value of the variable/s that will
satisfy the given):
i) If you add or subtract the same algebraic expression to or from each side of an equation, the resulting
equation is equal to the original equation; and
ii) If you multiply of divide both sides of an equation by a nonzero algebraic expression, still the resulting
equation is equivalent of the original equation.

Solving Two Equations with Two Unknowns

A. By Substitution
Use one equation to solve for one unknown in terms of the other, change the second equation in only
one unknown and then solve.

Example: Solve for the value of x and y in system of equation,

2x + y = 4 (equation 1)
3x + 2y = 6 (equation 2)
Solution:
Using equation 1, solve for y in terms of x, y = -2x + 4 (equation 3)
Now, substitute the value of y obtained in equation 3 to equation 2, then solve for the value of x.
3x + 2 (-2x + 4) = 6
3x + (-4x) + 8 = 6
-x = 6 - 8
-x (-1) = -2 (-1)
x=2
 Since y = -2x + 4 (equation 3) and x = 2, by substitution
y = -2(2) + 4
y=0
B. By Elimination through addition or subtraction

Sometimes we can solve two equations by adding them or subtracting one from the other.

Example: Solve for x and y: x + 2y = 4 (equation 1)

4x – 2y = 6 (equation 2)
Solution: Adding equations 1 and 2, we were able to eliminate terms containing the variable y,
x + 2y = 4
4x – 2y = 6
5x = 10
then solve for the value of x,
5x = 10
x = 2.
By subtracting the value of x to either equation 1 or 2 we will be able to find the value of y.
x + 2y = 4 (equation 1)
2 + 2y = 4
2y = 2
y=1
Solving Quadratic Equations

Equations in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0, are called quadratic equations.

In order to find the value of the variable that will satisfy the given quadratic equation:
1. Group all the terms on one side of the equation so that the other side is zero.
2. Combine the terms on the nonzero side.
3. Factor the expression into linear expressions (if possible).
4. Set the linear factors equal to zero and solve.

The method is based on the fact that if a product of an expression is zero, then at least one of the expressions
must be zero.

Example: Solve for x in x2 + 5x = -6

Solution:
1. x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
2. (x +2) (x + 3) = 0
3. x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
4. x = -2 or x = -3 Solution set {-2, -3}.

Note: a quadratic equation will usually have two different solutions, but it is possible to have only one solution or even no
real solution or root.

You can also solve for the value of the variable in a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula,
Given ax2 + bx + c = 0 then
x = -b ± √ b2 – 4ac
The quadratic formula will always give you the solution to2a
any quadratic equation, but if you can factor the
equation, factoring will give you the solution in less time. If you can’t find the solution immediately, then use the formula.

Solving Radical Equations

When the given variable in an equation occurs in a square root, cube root, and so on, that is; it occurs in a radical,
the equation is called a radical equation.

In some cases, a suitable operation changes a radical equation into linear or quadratic.
 3
Example: √ 2x – 4 - 2 = 0
(3√ 2x – 4 )3 = (2) 3
2x – 4 = 8
2x = 12
x=6
Note that the most commonly used procedure is to isolate the most complicated radical on one side of the
equation and then eliminate it by raising both sides of the equation to a power equal to the index of the radical.

Checking is necessary to identify the solution set of the given equation. Sometimes, the value(s) do not satisfy the
given. Those which satisfy the equation are included in the solution set while those which do not are discarded.

Inequalities

An inequality is a statement involving two expressions separated by one of the inequality symbols <, ≤, >, ≥ or ≠.

The following basic principles are used in working with inequalities:

1. If a < b then a + c < b + c
2. If a < b then a – c < b – c
3. If a < b and c >0 then ac < bc
4. If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc
5. If a < b and c < d then a + c < b + d
6. If a < b and b < c then a < c

The above principles also applies when the inequality symbol is replaced by >, ≤, >, ≥ or ≠.

As with equations, one method of solving inequalities is to replace it by a series of equivalent inequalities until an
inequality with an obvious solution like x > 5 is obtained. Operations used in solving equations may be used to solve
inequalities.

The following procedures leave the inequality symbol unchanged:

i) simplifying both sides of the inequality by combining like terms;

ii) adding or subtracting the same expression or quantity to both sides of the inequality; and
iii) multiplying or dividing by the same positive number or expression.

The following procedure reverses the sense of inequality symbols, thus making it inconsistent:

i) interchanging the two sides of inequality

8 < x becomes x < 8
ii) multiplying or dividing both sides by the same negative expression without changing the inequality symbol
-4x > 12 becomes -4x > 12
-4 -4
Note: When you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality with a negative quantity, the inequality symbol is
replaced as follows: (a) > by < and (b) ≤ by ≥ .

Example 1: Solve the inequality 3 (x + 2) ≥ 2 (5 – x)

Solution: 3 (x + 2) ≥ 2 (5 – x)
3x + 6 ≥ 10 – 2x
3x + 2x ≥ 10 – 6
5x ≥ 4
x ≥ 4 /5

Example 2: Solve the inequality 4x – 10 < 5x – 3

 Solution: 4x – 10 < 5x – 3
-10 + 3 < 5x – 4x
-7 < x or x > -7

VERBAL PROBLEMS

Verbal Problems are solved by translating them into appropriate algebraic equations. These are the general steps
in solving a verbal problem

 Read the problem carefully

 Determine the given and the unknown quantities
 Write the working equation
 Solve the equation
 Check if the answer satisfies the conditions given by the problem

Motion Problems

The general formula for this type of problem is:

Distance = Rate x Time

Example:

Two trains start at the same time and travel toward each other from cities 260 miles apart. How many hours will it
take for them to meet if one train travels at 60 mi/h and the other travels at 70 mi/h?

Given:
Rate of train 1: 60 mi/h
Rate of train 2: 70 mi/h
Distance of Stations from each other = 260 mi

Let:
t = time from when the train starts to when they meet
60t = distance traveled by train 1
70t = distance traveled by train 2

Solution:
60t + 70t = 260
130t = 260
t=2

It takes 2 hours for the trains to meet

Work Problems

It is always assumed that workers in the same category work at the same rate.

The general formula for work problems is:

1/t1 + 1/t2 = 1/t

where:
t1 = time taken by the 1st person
t2 = time taken by the 2nd person
t = time taken by both

the formula can be extended depending on the number of persons involved in the problem

Example
 Jamee can clean the house in 6 hours. Christine can do the same job in 5 hours. How long will it take them to
clean the house together?

1/6 + 1/5 = 1/t

(1/6 + 1/5)30 = (1/t)30
5 + 6 = 30/t
11 = 30/t
t = 30/11 or 2 8/11 hours

Counting Problems:

In a public survey done by the SWS 60% owned a mobile phone, 80% owned a landline and 50% owned both a
mobile phone and a landline. What percent of those surveyed owned a mobile phone or a landline?

People who owned a mobile phone or a landline = people who own a mobile phone + people who own a landline – people
who own both a landline and a mobile phone

People who own a mobile phone or a landline = 60% + 80% – 50%

= 90%

90% percent of those surveyed owned either a landline or a mobile phone

VARIATION

Direct Variation

If the ratio of two variables is a constant (not zero), then either variable is said to vary directly as the other.

If the variables are x and y then:.

y/x = k

where k is called the constant of variation and can be any constant except zero

Example:

If y varies directly as x and x = 13 and y = 5. What is the value of y when x = 21?

Solution:

If we are given one set of values of x and y, we can solve for the value of k and in turn find the corresponding
value of y at a certain value of x.

y = kx
5 = 13k
k = 5/13

since we need to find the value of y at x = 21

y = 21(5/13)
y = 8 1/13

Inverse Variation

If the product of two variables x and y is constant (not zero), then x and y is said to vary inversely.

xy = k

Example:
 If the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure and if the gas occupies 20 cubic centimeter at a pressure
of 40 lb, what is the volume of the gas at a pressure of 50 lb?

Solution:

We have two variables, the volume and the pressure. Knowing one set of values of V and P, we can solve the
constant k.

xy = k
800 = k

Substituting the value of k in the equation VP = k we can get the new volume of the gas at 80 lb.

VP = 800
V = 800/80
V = 10 cc

SEQUENCE AND PROGRESSION

A sequence is a set of numbers, which obeys a fixed law. In the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12 … 3, 6, 9, 12 are called
terms of the sequence.

Arithmetic Progression

A sequence of numbers, called terms, in which each term after the first is formed from the preceding term by
adding to it a fixed number called the common difference.

an = a1 + (n-1) d

where:
an = last term n = number of terms
a1 = 1st term in the progression d = common difference

Example
Find the 38th term of the series 7,1,-6 . ..

Given:
a1= 7
n = 38
d = -6
Solution:

an = 7 + (38-1) -6
an = 7 + (37) -6
an = -215

The nth term or the last term of an arithmetic progression can be solved by using the formula:

Sn = (n/2) (a1 + an) or Sn = (n/2) (2a1 + (n-1)d)

Example:
Find the sum of the first 100 terms of the progression 10,7,4 …

Solution:

Given:
a1= 10
n = 100
d = -3
Solution:
Sn = (100/2) (2(10)+ (100-1)-3)
= 50( 20 + 99(-3))
= 78

Geometric Progression
A sequence is a considered a geometric progression when the ratio of two consecutive terms in the sequence is
always the same.

an = a1r(n-1)

where:
r = common ratio

Example:
Write the first 3 terms of the geometric progression in which an is 5 and r is ½.

a2 = 5(1/2) = 5/2
a3 = 5(1/2)2 = 5/4

the first three terms of the geometric progression are 5, 5/2, 5/4