Wave equation in 1D (part 1)*

• Derivation of the 1D Wave equation

– Vibrations of an elastic string
• Solution by separation of variables
– Three steps to a solution
• Several worked examples
• Travelling waves
– more on this in a later lecture
• d’Alembert’s insightful solution to the 1D
Wave Equation
*Kreysig, 8th Edn, Sections 11.2 – 11.4
 A plucked string
x t = 0, small displacement

a short while later

a little while later …

These are snapshots, freezing time, and looking at the

vertical displacement of the string:

u ( x, ti ), i = 0,1,...
Equally, we could fix attention to one point on the string
and watch it over time
 Physical assumptions*
1. The mass of the string per unit length is
constant (“homogeneous string”). The string is
perfectly elastic and does not offer resistance
to bending
2. The tension caused by stretching the string is
so large that gravitational effects can be
neglected.
3. The string performs small transverse motions –
that is, every particle on the string moves
strictly vertically and so that the deflection and
the slope at every point of the string remain
small.

*Kreysig, 8th Edn, page 585

 Derivation of the 1D Wave Equation

Consider the transverse vibrations in a string held under tension …….

T2
β
By assumption 3 :
α T1 cos α = T2 cos β = T (a constant)
T1
u ( x, t ) ∂ 2u
T2 sin β − T1 sin α = (ρ∆x ) 2
x δx ∂t
Newton’s Law of motion in the vertical direction
tan β − tan α =
( ρ∆x ) ∂ 2u
T ∂t 2
⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ 1 ⎛⎜ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ⎞⎟ ρ ∂ u
2

Since tan α = ⎜ ⎟ and tan β = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ ⎟ =

⎝ ∂x ⎠ x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ x + ∆x ∆x ⎝ ⎝ ∂x ⎠ x + ∆x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ x ⎠ T ∂t 2
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
T
Letting ∆x → 0, we obtain : 2 = c , where c 2
=
∂t ∂x 2 ρ
 Boundary conditions
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
To solve : 2 = c
∂t ∂x 2

Fixed ends : u (0, t ) = 0 and u ( L, t ) = 0

Initial conditions :
u ( x,0) = f ( x)
∂u
= g ( x)
∂t t =0
Example :
g ( x) = 0
2k L
x if 0 < x ≤
f ( x) = L 2
2k L
( L − x) if < x ≤ L
L 2
Solution by Separation of Variables
1. Convert the PDE into two separate
ODEs
2. Solve the two (well known) ODEs
3. Compose the solutions to the two ODEs
into a solution of the original PDE
– This uses Fourier series
 Step 1: PDE Î 2 ODEs
The first step is to assume that the function of two variables has a very
special form: the product of two separate functions, each of one variable,
that is: Assume that : u ( x, t ) = F ( x)G (t )
Differentiating, we find :
∂ 2u &&
= FG So that && = c 2 F ' ' G
∂t 2
FG
∂ 2u
= F ''G &&
∂x 2
G F''
d 2
G d 2
F
equivalently
2
= =k
&& =
where G and F ' ' = cG F
dt 2 dx 2

The two (homogeneous) ODEs are:

F ' '− kF = 0
&&
G − kc G = 0
2
Step 2a: boundary conditions
u (0, t ) = F (0)G (t ) = 0 and u ( L, t ) = F ( L)G (t ) = 0
G (t ) ≡ 0 is of no interest, and so :
F (0) = 0
F ( L) = 0
 Step 2b: solving for F
We have to solve: F ' '−kF = 0
case k = µ 2 > 0 the general solution is : case k = 0 :
F ( x) = Ae µx + Be − µx F ( x) = ax + b
Applying the boundary conditions Applying the boundary conditions : a = b = 0
A+ B = 0
Ae µL + Be − µL = 0
and so A = B = 0
case k = − p 2 < 0 : the solution is pL = nπ that is :
F ( x) = A cos px + B sin px π
p=n
Applying the boundary conditions , we find L
F (0) = A = 0 so that
F ( L) = B sin pL = 0, and so sin pL = 0 π
Fn ( x) = sin n x
L
 Step 2c: solving for G
π
2

As a result of solving for F, we have restricted k = − p = −⎛⎜ n ⎞⎟ 2

⎝ L⎠

π
Denoting λn = cn , the solutions for G (t ) are
L
Gn (t ) = Bn cos λnt + Bn * sin λnt
Solutions for the 1D Wave Equation are :
π
un ( x, t ) = Fn ( x)Gn (t ) = (Bn cos λn t + Bn * sin λn t )sin n x
L
These functions are the eigenfunctions of the vibrating string, and
the values λn = cnπ / L are called the eigenvalues. The set of the
eigenvalues [λ1 ,..., λn ] is called the spectrum.

Remembering that c 2 = T / ρ there are several ways to change the

spectrum of a string – change the material, the tension, and the length
 Step 3: Initial conditions & Fourier
∞
π
The solution we have found is u ( x, t ) = ∑ (Bn cos λnt + Bn * sin λnt )sin n x
n =1 L
We still have to apply the initial conditions :
u ( x,0) = f ( x)
∂u
= g(x)
∂t t =0

∞
π ∂u ⎡∞
= g ( x ) = ⎢∑ (− λn Bn sin λn t + λn Bn * cos λn t )sin n
π ⎤
u(x,0) = ∑ Bn sin n x = f (x) ∂t t =0 ⎣ n =1 L
x⎥
⎦ t =0
n=1 L
∞
π
andso = ∑ λn Bn * sin n x
n =1 L
2
L
π and so
Bn = ∫ f ( x) sin n xdx
L0 L 2
L
π
λn Bn * = ∫ g ( x ) sin n xdx
L0 L
2
L
π
Bn * =
cnπ ∫ g ( x) sin n
0
L
xdx

Note that Bn * = 0, if, as is often the case, g ( x) ≡ 0

 An alternative expression
∞
π π
Suppose that g ( x) ≡ 0, so that u ( x, t ) = ∑ Bn cos nc t sin n x
n =1 L L

Remembering formulae for produces of sines and cosines:

π π 1⎡ π π ⎤
cos nc t sin n x= sin n ( x − ct ) + sin n ( x + ct )
L L 2 ⎢⎣ L L ⎥
⎦

Substituting this in the formula for u(x,t) we see that:

1
u ( x, t ) = ( f odd ( x − ct ) + f odd ( x + ct ))
2
f odd is the odd periodic extension of f ( x) with period 2 L

Later we will interpret these as travelling waves moving in

opposite directions (the sign of +/-c)
 Recall of the general solution to the
1D Wave Equation
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
To solve : 2 = c
∂t ∂x 2

Boundary conditions = fixed ends : u (0, t ) = 0 and u ( L, t ) = 0

Initial conditions :
u ( x,0) = f ( x)
∂u
= g ( x)
∂t t =0
∞
π
Solution : u ( x, t ) = ∑ (Bn cos λnt + Bn * sin λnt )sin n x
n =1 L

L
π 2
L
π
∫
2 Bn * =
Bn = ∫ f ( x) sin n xdx g ( x) sin n xdx
L0 L cnπ 0 L
 Example 1: plucked string*
k
0 L

⎧ 2k L
⎪L x if 0 < x <
f ( x) = ⎨ 2
2k L
⎪ ( L − x) if < x < L
⎩L 2
g ( x) ≡ 0

Since g ( x) ≡ 0, Bn * = 0, for all n

To solve for Bn either apply orthogonal ity relations or consult HLT

*Kreysig, 8th Edn, page 593

 Fourier coefficients
We need to extend the string to a periodic function

We know that the solution is a sum of sin terms, so choose

an odd function periodic extension:

Using HLT, orthogonal ity, or Kreysig, p545 - 6

8k
Bn = (−1) 2 n −1
n 2π 2
8k ⎡ 1 π πc 1 3π 3πc 1 5π 5πc ⎤
u ( x, t ) = sin x cos t − sin x cos t + sin x cos t − ...
π 2 ⎢⎣12 L L 32 L L 52 L L ⎥⎦
d’Alembert’s elegant solution to the
1D Wave Equation
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
To solve : 2 = c (Eqn 1)
∂t ∂x 2
Introduce two new variables :
v = x + ct
z = x − ct
Applying the Chain Rule :
u x = uv v x + u z z x = uv + u z
u xx = (uv + u z )x = (uv + u z )v v x + (uv + u z )z z x
u xx = uvv + 2uvz + u zz
Similarly for t, we can derive
utt = c 2 (uvv − 2uvz + u zz )

Inserting these values in Eqn 1, we find :

∂ 2u
uvz = =0
∂v∂z
 D’Alembert continued
Integratin g uvz = 0 with respect to z gives
u v = h (v )
where h(v) is some unknown function of v.
Integratin g with respect to v gives :
u = ∫ h(v)dv + ψ ( z )
for some unknown function ψ ( z ).
Since the integral is a function φ (v) of v, we may conclude that :
u ( x, t ) = φ (v) +ψ ( z ) = φ ( x + ct ) + ψ ( x − ct )
 Jean Le Rond d’Alembert
Jean was the illegitimate son of a cavalry officer
who was out of the country at his birth in 1717.
His “socialite” mother left him on the steps of St
Jean le Rond – hence his name. He invented the
name d’Alembert for college entry.
He developed into one of the leading French
mathematicians of the 18th Century, making
particular contributions to mechanics, which is odd, since he believed
mechanics is essentially metaphysics, and he rejected experimentation.
His genes shaped his personality:
“D'Alembert was always surrounded by controversy. ... he was a
lightning rod which drew sparks from all the foes of the philosophes. ...
Unfortunately he carried this... pugnacity into his scientific research and
once he had entered a controversy, he argued his cause with vigour and
stubbornness. He closed his mind to the possibility that he might be
wrong...”
 Wave propagation
• Displacement of a string
• Compression waves
• Electrical waves
• Water waves
• Acoustic waves

The last couple of lectures will be dedicated to variants to

the wave equation