Unit-1: Compiled By: Shambhu Kumar Mishra (B. Sc. 3 Year, 2 Half)

Unit-1
Introduction
1.1 History status of wildlife conservation in Nepal

1.2 Legislation concerning wildlife conservation in Nepal
1.3 Problems of wildlife conservation in Nepal
1.4 Lesson learnt, challenge & prospects in conserving wildlife in Nepal
Unit-2
Wildlife management Techniques
2.1 Capturing wild animals (indigenous & modern techniques)

2.1.1 Capturing birds and mammals
2.2 Making animals for identification
2.2.1 Marking birds and mammals
2.3 Capturing and handling reptiles
2.4 Chemical Immobilization
2.5 Radio telemetry
2.6 Camera trapping
2.7 GPS & satellites collaring
2.8 GIS application & remote sensing
Unit-3
Habitat Evaluation and Management
3.1 Habitat evaluation

3.1.1 Evaluation for specific management objectives: food production, cover, edge, indicators species, and
condition of individual‘s animals
3.1.2 Evaluation of natural communities
3.1.2.1 Species diversity
3.1.3 Standard evaluation procedures
3.2 Habitat management
3.2.1 Adjustment of seral stages
3.2.1.1 Setting back and advancing succession
3.2.2 Manipulation of edges
3.2.3 Mitigation
3.3 Management techniques
3.3.1 Food production (fruits, fodder, flowers)
3.3.2 Water hole development (natural & artificial)
3.3.3 Wetlands improvement (shallow marshes potholes)
3.3.4 Cover management (protective nesting)
3.3.5 Grassland management
3.3.6 Fences 7 trenches
3.3.7 Predation management & control
3.3.8 Fire as a tool management
Unit-4
Population Estimation and Analysis
4.1 Estimation of animal abundance (Direct & indirect count)

4.1.1 Mark-and-recapture
4.1.2 Transect surveys
Compiled By: Shambhu Kumar Mishra (B. Sc. 3rd year, 2nd half) Page 1
4.1.3 Change-in-ratio method
4.1.4 Pellet-group counts
4.1.5 Roadside counts
4.1.6 Water hole counts
4.1.7 Road kills
4.1.8 Scent station surveys
4.2 Population analysis: Estimating rate or increase and estimating mortality and survival; life table
4.3 Application of population genetics to wildlife management
Unit-5
Wildlife Damage and Control Techniques
5.1 Types & nature of damage life casualties &live stock damages, crop damage
5.2 Damage assessment
5.3 Control techniques; physical, chemical & biological
5.4 Compensation schemes
Unit-6
Human Population Growths & Wildlife Conservation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Wildlife law enforcement
6.3 Economic and social perspectives including the scope of tourism and recreation
6.4 Public policy issues in wildlife conservation
6.5 Resolving conflicts between park/people
Unit-7
Buffer zones& Land Use Management
7.1 Human population growth

7.2 Forest management and wildlife
7.3 Wildlife on croplands
7.4 Range lands and wildlife
7.5 Buffer zone management concepts and practices
Unit-8
Zoo Management
8.1 Definition
8.2 Objectives & role of zoo in wildlife management
8.3 Planning and administration of zoos
8.4 Core maintenance and welfare of captive wild animals
8.5 Enclose designer and barrier
8.6 Isolation/quarantine ward and postman facilities
8.7 Visitors facilities and safety
8.8 Breeding animals in captivity
8.9 Animal handling, restraint 7 veterinary facilities
Unit-9
Wetland Management
9.1 Concept of wetland and its type

9.2 Wetland function and values
9.3 Wetland biodiversity
9.4 Problems of wetlands
9.5 Sustainable use of wetland, its conservation and management
9.6 Status of Nepal‘s RAMSAR site and other wetlands
9.7 Institutions in wetlands management in Nepal
9.8 Hydropower development and its impacts
Unit-10
High Altitude wildlife management
10.1 Structural, physiological and behavioral adaptation in high altitude

10.2 Factors in decline of wildlife
10.2.1 Habitat destruction
10.2.2 Poaching
10.2.3 Random use of pesticides
10.2.4 Wildlife diseases, pests and predator
10.3 Conservation and Management
10.3.1 Impact of political and economic climate
10.3.2 Habitat protection
10.3.3 Gameranching
10.3.4 Breeding and farming
10.3.5 Tourism and wildlife conservation
10.4 Wildlife farming.
Unit-1
Introduction
1.1 History status of wildlife conservation in Nepal

1.2 Legislation concerning wildlife conservation in Nepal
1.3 Problems of wildlife conservation in Nepal
1.4 Lesson learnt, challenge & prospects in conserving wildlife in Nepal
Introduction to wildlife conservation in Nepal
Wildlife:
 Animal, birds, insects, etc that are wild and live in a natural environment (Oxford)
 A vast assemblage of plants and animals in their natural environment (Trippensee, 1953)
Wildlife Management:
Wildlife management is an art of desired population of wild animals. It includes restoring, protecting, conserving and
maintaining the animal population.
Wildlife management in Nepal:
In Nepal, wildlife has been regarded as a resources belonging to the public. The ideal management concept is
―preservation through wise use‖ and the basic objectives of wildlife management are to prevent disappearance of
species native to the country employing biological principles. This is also known as biological basis of management.
While applying this concept, the other conditions such as economic, political, administrative, social and humanitarian
are also taken into account.
Conservation: Management/preservation/protection/sustainable development/wise-use/welfare
1. To protect the value

2. To increase the importance
3. To make favorable environment for living
4. To increase the extent in number, their quantity as well as quality
5. Conservation for whom? : for human welfare so extent of conservation depends up on the nature of interest or
degree of attitude of human
Wildlife Conservation:
It is a scientific program through which WL population is maintained by establishment of protected areas and any
suitable habitat hence it seeks towards-preservation of natural resources, protection and sustainable (wise) use and
development (maintenance) of the WL and their respective habitat.
 WL conservation history is relatively new in Nepal

 Before 1950s abundance and surplus of WL resources were area seed around the country
 At that time, no problems of real WL management so on need for conservation.
 Royal family and Rana minister used organized hundting in Terai dense forest of Chitwan, Bardia,
CharkosheJhadi and Kanchanpur.
Development Phase in WL conservation:
1970s establishment phase:
 Complete protection was provided to species and conservation of habitat

 Boundary delineation
 Research
1980s development phase:
 Public involvement, public demand, need identification was made

 Park-people relation identification
 Partnership with NGO‘s started
 Expansion of legal basis: BZ, CAs, policies strengthening and expansion took place
1990s development as well as maintenance phase:
 Identified and development of BZs around Pas, direct benefit from BZ management to the local people.
 Initiation of park-people conflict resolution program
2000s expansion of landscape level:
 Initiation of eco-region or landscape level concepts.

 Conservation, protection, and management initiated in broad level.
WWF views: Development Phase:
Era-1: 1960-1980s: Species preservation era.

Era-2, 1980s-mid 1990s: Conservation and development era.
Era-3, mid 1990s to present:
1. Started regional level cooperation, eco-regional cooperation

2. Initiation of trans-boundary concept has been set up
3. Started landscape level project (Jamuna river in India in the west to Bagmati river in Nepal in the east)
Summary: WL Conservation Development in Nepal (After 1950):
• Wildlife conservation initiatives were taken because of rapid human population increased massive
resettlement program, eradication of malaria in the terai.
• Alarming/increasing hunting and poaching
• Some WL species sere push to threat of extinction: rhino, tiger, ghariyal etc.
• In response this, in 1957 first act for rhino habitat protection was passed and enforced
• Special conservation legislation was passed in 1973, named as National Park and conservation act, 1973
• This is a remarkable date for WL conservation in Nepal
• Under this act, establishment of RCNP, formulation of rules and regulation, establishment of separate
department: DNPWC.
• This act made the provision for establishment of 4 types of Pas (NP, WLR, HR, SNR), 20 species of
mammals, 4 species of birds were put protected animal list
• Development of Army for protection
• Special power to warden.
Some success in conserving Wildlife in Nepal:
• Enactment of W/L legislation: Strong legislation of NPWC Act, 1973 and its timely amendments
• 30 to 50 % of park revenue go to community
• KMTNC Act, to contribute for conservation
• Creation of DNPWC, to look in matters related to W/L intensively
• Establishment and timely amendment of some important legislative document concerning Wildlife
Conservation
• Environment lobbying group, NGOs, researchers and trained staffs of Pas are working in Wildlife
conservation
• Sagarmatha and Chitwan National Park in World Heritage sites.
• KoshiTappu WLR and others three species; habitat in Ramsar sites.
• Provision to regulated hunting
• Success from single species conservation through ecosystem to landscape level conservation
• Nepal receiving external assistance for WL conservation.
• Rhino translocation (1986-13, 1991-25,1999-14,2000-10 (4 in suklaphanta), 2001-5, 2002-10)
• Captive breeding program of Ghariyal and Elephant and Vulture are remarkable example of the country
• trans boundary conservation program (KCA)
• Nepal became a party member of different great international convention and commission
• Regular monitoring and counting of animals
• Establishment of anti-poaching units.
1.1 History Status of wildlife Conservation in Nepal:
History and Status:
A. Before 1955:
• WL resources are plenty
• No concern for WL protection
• Rana protect and conserve the forest as well as WL for their hunting purpose
B. 1951-1955 (King Tribhuvan Era):

• No significant work in WL conservation
• Only organized hunting in yearly basis
C. 1st to 4th five year plans: 1956-1975 (King Mahendra era):

• Most work was initiated and done in WL conservation and protection.
A Golden Era in WL Conservation/King Mahindra Era:
1957 Nationalization of forest act 1957 (2013) 1987 Preparation of NCS, this is the 1st policy
Proposed Chitwan for protection for BD conservation
Made and passed cos\nstitution of WL protection Act, DHR was Gazetted and KTWR declared
1957 as 1stRamsar site under Ramsar
This may be regarded as the initial effect in WL Convention in Nepal
conservation in Nepal
1961 Increasing the Gainda poaching in Chitwan, result of that 1988 MPFS was prepared to conserve
Gaindagasti was established ecosystem and genetic resources
1964 For Rhino protection purpose, Chitwan was declared as 1991 Makalu Barun NP and CA established (In
rhino Century 2000, CA converted into BZ areas)
1969 Under the WL protection Act, 6 Royal hunting reserve in F Eight five-year plan (1992-1997)
terai and one on mountain was gazetted
1970 Mahendra Proclaimed Chitwan as a 1st National Park 1192 Environmental Protection Council was
Nepal Nature Conservation Society established to: established for policy formulation and
Encourage and support conservation and management of coordination of BD conservation
natural environment Nepal signed the convention of BD in Rio
Earth Summit
GEF was set up to work on BD
conservation
4th amendment of NPWC Act where BZ
provision was included and passed
1972 Under the support of UNDP and FAO the government 1993 NEPAP-1 was prepared, WWF filed
started the Park and WL conservation project with the office was established in KTM
objective of: Rhino Action Plan was prepared by
DNPWC
1. Develop Pas and Conservation laws
2. Propose and survey of PAs and develop list of
protected and hunting species.
1973 Marks an important date 1994 Park People Project started in terai Pas,
Passed NP and WL conservation Act, 1973 (Nepal‘s 1 st BZ of 5 Pas
conservation laws, the act allow for: Nepal became state party in CBD
1. 4 types of Pas (NP, WLR, HR and SNR), Rhino Count took Place (544)
Department of NP and WL resources
2. Special power to warden
3. Allowed thatch grass cutting in Terai
4. Listed hunting and endangered species
(Mammals-20, and Birds-4)
5. Allowed hunting for wild boar
Gazetted of RCNP as 1st National Park of Nepal
Tiger Ecology project was stated
1974 Department of SCWM, that added the conservation of WL 1995 BD Profile reports
habitat
National Committee for Man and Biosphere establish
Military Protection of PAs, only limited responsibility to
them
D 5th and 6th five years plans (1974-1985)
1975 Natural History Museum established in KTM for: 1996 BZ regulation was Gazetted and Manaslu
1. Environment and nature conservation CAP was established
2. Education and awareness BZ of Chitwan and Bardiya declared
3. Nepal became state party member of CITES
4. Protection responsibility was given to Royal
Nepal Army
5. Management Plan of Chitwan, Langtang, Rara,
Bardiya and Khaptad prepared
1976 Establishment and gazette of Langtang NP, Rara NP, G Ninth Five-Year Plan (1197-2002)
Bardia WLR and Koshitappu WLR and Suklaphanta WLR
represent the contry different ecological zone.
1978 Nepal became state party of World heritage Convention 1997 KCA was declared
All Hahisar were recognized and transported to DNPWC Bardiya Research Project on Tiger,
Ghariyal Breeding Centre was established in Kasra, Elephant and Ghariyal Established
Chitwan (NORAD)
1979 Nepal organized 1stPhsesant symposium in Kathmandu 1998 SheyPhoksundoand Langtang BZ
Sagarmatha NP was declared as WH sites declared
Established Elephant breeding cnter in Khorsor, Sauraha PP Project was extended to Rara and
Khaptad NP
Collaborative management of pAs system
began
Tiger action Plan was prepared
1980 Department of NP was established as full phase 1999 Makalu Barun BZ Gazetted
Management Strategy Framwork of 9
NP‘s and WR conducted (ZOPP)
1981 Shey-phoksundo NP established 2000 Rhino count was conducted (Chitwan-612
Diploma in Forestry started at IOF, Pokhara and Bardiya-64)
GIS database of NP prepared almost
Terai parks (except Suklaphanta)
WWF started TAL scheme established
and field office in Bardiya setup
1982 KMTNC was established as a 1st NGO for nature 2002 Shivapuri NP gazette, Sagarmatha BZ
conservation gazette
1983 NP act 2nd amendment took place H Tenth five Year plan (2002 onwards)
1984 Khaptad NP, Parsa WLR and Dhorpatan HR field office 2003 Ghodahgodi, Bishazarital and Jagdishpur
established and Parsa and Khaptad was gazette reservoir in Ramsar sites
RCNP was declared in HW sites
E Seventh Five-year Plan (1985-1990) 2004 Koshitappu BZ declared
1985 UNDP/FAO/HMG parks and Pas monitoring projects 2005 Parsa WR and Suklaphanta BZ declared
began to: Rhino Count in Chitwan (372)
1. Monitor nationwide wildlife population
2. Developed environmental program
3. ACAP was constituted/established under the
KMTNC
1986 Shovapuri watershed and WL reserve established 2006 Rhino action plan (2006-11)
SheyPhoksundo NP and BZ mgt. plan
(2006-11)
SuklaPhanta WLR and BZ mgt plan
(2006-11)
WWF-snow leopard conservation action
strategy for Himalayan region (2006)
2008 Rhino Count: 2009 Vulture conservation action plan of Nepal
In Chitwan (408); Bardiya (22); Sukla (5); (2009-11)
In total, Rhino in Nepal is 435 WL damage relief guidelines 2066 BS
Tiger conservation action plan Nepal (2008-12) (2009)
Declared: Krishnasar CA
2010 Declared: Apinampa CA, Gaurishankar CA, Banke NP 2011 Rhino cont:
Tiber count: 155 In chitwan -145M, 183F, 175 sex not
identified (332 adult, 60 sub adult, 111
calf) total 503
In Bardiya-5M, 9F, 10 sex not identified
(15 A, 4SA, 5C) total 24
In Sukla – 2M, 2F, 3 sex not identified (4
A, 2 SA, 1 C) total 7
In total Rhino in Nepal : 534
2012 (2011-12) Tiger count: in Nepal, tiger in Nepal is 176
In encouraging news on the wildlife front, Nepal has witnessed a jump in tiger population over the last two years during
which the numbers of the wild cat went up from 155 to 176. The latest tiger count made public by WWF Nepal shows
an increase of 21 tigers since 2010, an increase of 15%
General facts:
IUCN categories: II: 10NP, IV: 3WLR, VI: 1HR, 12BZs and 6 conservation Area
Flora and Fauna Diversity:
Ecosystem Forest Floral Fungus Lichens Mammals Birds Reptiles Fishes Butterflies Moths
types Plants
118 35 6500 1500 350 181 862 147 180 640 >6000
PAs Description:
Department of National parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) is a conservation committed government
organization of Nepal with a network of 10 National Parks, 3 wild life reserve, 6 conservation areas, 1 hunting reserve
and 12 BZs in and around parks/reserves. In over 38 years of conservation experiences in wildlife management in
Nepal. It covers an area of 34,185.62 sq. km (23.23%) of the total area of the country
Summary Sheets of Protected area:
Protected Area Number Areas in km2

1. National Parks 10 10853.00
2. Wildlife Reserve 3 979.00
3. Hunting Reserve 1 1325.00
4. CAs 6 15425.95
5. Total BZs 12 5602.67
Total Areas 34185,62 (23.23%) of nation area
National Parks, Wildlife Reserve, Hunting Reserve and Conservation areas and BZ of Nepal:
Protected Year Area Buffer Zones

Area of (Sq.km) Declared Area District VDCs HHs Total User User
est. year (sq.km) Pop. group committee
Chitwan NP 1973 932 1996 750 4 37 36193 223260 1486 21
Bardiya NP 1976 968 1996 507 2 17 15290 103806 182 15
2010 180 1 4 31 4
Khaptad NP 1984 225 2006 216 4 21 5311 33272 418 16
Rara NP 1976 106 2006 198 2 9 1898 11685 127 8
Shey PNP 1984 3555 1993 1349 2 11 2263 11598 90 17
Langtang NP 1976 1710 1993 420 3 34 11220 61413 325 21
Makalu B. 1991 1500 1999 830 2 12 6000 32000 88 12
NP
Sagrarmatha 1976 1148 2002 275 1 3 1288 5896 28 3
NP
Shiva Puri 2002 159 - - - - - - - -
NP
Banke NP 2010 550 2010 343 4 15 4861 35712 - -
Sukla p. 1976 305 2004 243.5 1 12 17006 100953 388 9
WLR
Parsa WLR 1984 499 2005 298.17 3 11 7228 43228 345 11
Koshi T. 1976 175 2004 173 3 16 10693 77950 531 8
WLR
Dhorpatan 1987 1325 - - - - - - - -
HR
ACA 1992 7629 - - 5 57 - 120000 - 57
Manasalu CA 1998 1663 - - 1 7 - 9050 - -
KCA 1997 2035 - - 1 4 968 5254 81 7
Krishnasar 2009 16.95 - 4 1
CA
Api Nampa 2010 1903 -
CA
Gaurishankar 2010 2179
CA
1.2 Legislation concerning WL conservation in Nepal:
In Short:
 Conservation policy is broadly guided by the National Conservation Strategy (NCS), 1987
 It is implemented through periodic 5-year plans, basis of Mater Plan
 GON has adopted the Nepal Environmental and Action Plan (NEPAP): 1993 to integrate environment and
development.
 Pas of Nepal are managed under the National Park and Wildlife Reserve Conservation Act, 1973 with periodic
amendments
 GON has made provision to plough back 30-50% of park revenue to the people of the park vicinity in order to
mitigate park-people conflict.
Long-Term Policy and Guide Lines:
 Under the direction of WCS, the NCS for Nepal 1987 and NEPAP 1993 are long terms policy of Nepal
according to which acts and regulations are farmed to achieve stated objective
Long and Short Terms Plans:
 MFSC 1988, a 21 year long sectoral plan of Nepal, and National Periodic 5 years plans of GON/NPC are long
and short term plan respectively: to develop and formulate for WL conservation program.
Policy and Program:
 Policy: NCS, NEPAP and 5 year plan

 Program: The program related to Pas and WL conservation is included in the MPFS (conservation of
ecosystem and genetic resources as one of the primary development program)
Six Supportive Programs (MPFS):
In support of primary programs, six supportive development programs are provided by MPFS:
1. Policy and legal reform

2. Institutional reform
3. HR development
4. Research and extension
5. Resources information and planning assistances, and
6. Monitoring and evaluation
NCS and NEPAP identify and stress;
NCS:
 Stressesthe need to draft park and reserve management plan through a consultative process involving local
communities
 Stresses on zoning and development of tourism polices and active role of DNPWC for conservation
NEPAP:
 Identifies and stresses the need to local people in park management
 To preparation of management plans to better conserve WL and fulfill basic needs of people depending on it.
 To develop sustainable mechanism for better sharing with people whose livelihood are adversely affected by
the Pas.
National Parks and WL conservation Act, 1973 (Silent features):
 This is a main act related to conservation of WL and Pas in Nepal

 It provides basis for establishment and administration of Pas
 Responsible for conservation of WL animals, birds, reptiles and their respective habitats
It indicates two objectives:
1. Primary; protection of sites or landscapes of scientific, geographical, esthetic importance together with
associated flora and fauna
2. Secondary; development of such areas for tourism
(34 sections and 5 times amendments (1975, 1983, 1889, and 1993)
1. Section 2: describes 5 different categories of Pas and BZ

2. Section 3: Power to declare Pas , BZ, Conservation Areas
3. Section 4 & 5: Deals with entry permit to enter PAs and prohibition of activities
4. Sections 6: Operation of hotel and other service under special permit.
5. Section 10: Allotment of total 38 species in protected list.
6. Section 11-15, 17-20: Deals with hunting license, quotas, fixing, imposed closed season, cancel license, sale
and transfer of trophies etc.
7. Section 16: in management of PAs, power conferred to warden
8. Section 23-31: Special power to warden for inspection and search, arrest without warrant, investigation.
9. Section 25: Rewards up to 50,000; 30-50% park revenue for community development
10. Section 26: Penalty from 50,000 to 100,000 fine or 5 years of Jail or both
Legislative documents for WL conservations:
 NPWC regulation, 2030 (1973/74, 2ne amendments in 2035 (1978/79), 3 rd amendment in 2042 (1985)
 RCNP regulation, 2030 (1973/74)
 WLR regulation, 2034 (1977), 2nd amendment in (2042, 1985)
 Himalayan NP regulation, 2036 (1979)
 Khaptad NP regulation, 2044 (1987)
 RBNP regulation, 2053 (1998)
 Conservation area regulation, 2053 (1998)
 BZ management regulation, 2052 (1996)
 BZ management guideline, 1999
 Species (rhino, tiger, etc) action plans (different years)
 WL damage relief guidelines 2009
Other related acts:
 Forest act, 2049 (1993)

 Forest regulation, 1995 (2051)
 KMTNC act, 2040 and regulation, 2042 (1985)
 Soil Conservation act, 2039 (1982)
 Tourism act, 2035, Water resources act, 1992
 Environmental protection act, 1996, Local Self Governance Act, 1998 etc.
International Agreements:
1. CITES 1973: Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna- Nepal signed this
treaty and became member party in 1975
List of flora and fauna in CITES appendices:
I-totally banded II-Permission from CITES III—can be exchange

HQ
Flora 10 1 10
Fauna
Mammals 28 7 22
Birds 16 9 19
Reptiles 7 4 2
Amphibians - 1 -
Insects - 2 -
2. WHC 1972: Convention for the protection of world cultural and natural heritages/World heritage Conservation
under UNESCO 1972
 Nepal became party member to this convention in 1987 to protect cultural and natural areas of
international importance.
 Sagarmatha NP, 1979 and RCNP in 1984
3. Ramsar Convention or wetland Convention 1971: Convention of wetland of international importance especially
as:
S. N. Ramsar Sites Areas (ha) Location (districts) Zone Elevation

Approximate
1 KoshiTappu 17500 Sunsar/Saptari Terai 90
2 Beeshhazar&Asso Lakes 3200 Chitwan Terai 285
3 Ghodaghodi Lake Area 2563 Kailai Terai 205
4 Gokyo and Asso lakes 7770 Solukhumbu Himal 5000
5 Gosaikunda&Asso Lakes 1030 Rasuwa Himal 4700
6 Jagadishpur Reservoir 225 Kapilbastu Terai 195
7 Mai Pokhari 90 Illam Mid Hills 2100
8 Phoksundo Lake 494 Dolpa Himal 3610
9 Rara Lake 1583 Mugu Himal 2990
Total 34455
The specific threats to each Ramsar Site are presented below (Wetlands International/Ramsar, 2009 DNPWC/WWF
Nepal, 2008
1. Mai PohariRamsar Sites:Invasion of exotic Japanese Pine in the watershed and gold fish has adversely
affected the indigenous floral and faunal species especially birds and amphibians respectively.
2. Rara Lake Ramsar Site: Principal threats come from pollution caused by army personnel and tourists and
unregulated fuelwood collection, especially during festivals
3. PhoksundoLake Ramsar Sites: Overgrazing and pollution from the nearby people of Ringmo village are
considered as potential threats to the sites
4. Gosainkunda and Assiciated Lakes Ramsar Site: Threats to the site include pollution from the huge
gathering of worshippers during the festivals.
5. Gokyo and associated Lakes Ramsar Site: Garbage and sewage left by visitors is difficult to dispose of and
such pollution pressures represent a potential threat, as does overgrazing and deforestation caused by
mountaineering expeditions seeking firewood.
6. Jagdishpur Reservoir Ramsar Site: The current threats to the site include fishing, grazing, fuel wood and
fodder collection, domestic use and supply of water for irrigation.
7. Ghodaghodi Lake Area Ramsar Site: The threat to the site include highway traffic at the southern edge,
construction of unplanned new temples, over grazing, poaching and hunting as well as illegal tree felling and
smuggling of Sal and Khair timber, natural eutrophication accelerated by human religious and agricultural
activities.
8. Beeshazar and Associated Lakes Ramsar Site: The major factors putting pressure on ecology of the site
include unsustainable use of natural resources from wetlands and surrounding areas, water allocation between
the wetlands and for irrigation, invasion with Water hyacinth and other invasive species and leaching of
inorganic fertilizer and pesticide form farmlands into the water of the wetlands.
9. KoshiTappuRamsar Site: The major threats to the site are siltation, overgrazing, over fishing, fish and bird
poisoning, deforestation in the catchments and human disturbances.
4. CBD 1992: Convention on Biological Diversity (Earth Summit):

 Nepal became a member on this convention and established the National biodiversity conservation
action plan.
 GEF (Global Environment Facility) project under this convention is acting in this kingdom.
 Nepal embarked upon Mahindra era of wildlife conservation with the enactment of National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation Act in 1973
 Remarkable progress in conservation during the decades of 1970s and 1980s by creating of all together 15 Pas,
covering nearly 14% of country geographical areas.
 Later 1990s is was increased 18.33% (16Pas including 6BZ)
 National Park and Pas management workshop held in Kathmandu in 1985 with theme of Conservation for
Sustainable Development brought in historic change in the prevalent western concept of Pas management.
 The decade of 1990s brought in many management initiatives as different research recommendation such as:
rhino translocation, better management of habitats act and regulation for BZ management.
 Legislation concerning WL conservation was changed/modified according to changing needs of the country
(Act amendment in 75, 83, and 93)
 Emphasis and importance is placed over conservation awareness and people are participating for successful
conservation
1.3 Problems WL conservation in Nepal
There are so many problems appeared in WL conservation in Nepal, categories in 3 ways:
1. Socio-economic
2. Organizational
3. Legislation
Following points cover all the sector of the above:
1. Key stone species are out of danger line but it is still uncertain that they have maintained their viable
population.
2. Some sites need to be brought PA system and connectivity between fragmented lands is immediately
necessary.
3. Some species needs more protection i. e. bear, leopard because they are protected in India also.
4. Status unknown; birds, reptiles etc.
5. For the low revenue earning PA‘s how to earn revenue and conduct the different development program is quite
challenging task.
6. Barrier in river system must be constructed in such a way that there must be easy in wildlife movement.
7. Forest land fragmentation due to migration of people from uphill.
8. Deforestation/Degradation of forest-loss of habitat, no strong policy to protect wildlife habitat.
9. High dependency on forest resources-uncontrolled collection forest products
10. Agricultural expansion and intensification-use of chemical, loss of habitat, decline in biodiversity
11. Spreading urbanization Centre and infrastructure –river pollution, encroachment of forest land (ultimately
gene drift)
12. Localized and increase in tourist‘s number.
 Habitat destruction
 Migration of animals from their original habitat
 Change in animal behavior
 Ultimately decrease in Wildlife number
13. Environmental change due to habitat destruction, soil erosion and pollution
14. Poaching, Illegal trade of WL, and their parts
15. Poor education and awareness from all levels form politicians to local people.
16. Financial resources are inadequate to invest in WL conservation
17. Size of Pas in some core areas are small which cannot keep WL, population inside the Pas (Shivapuri NP and
Suklaphanta WR)
18. Conservation mainly focus on large mammals to small WL remains suppressed
19. The appendix of animal‘s list given in NPWC act are placed without doing research by put only by the
personaljudgment (need to re-manage)
20. Enforcement of NPWC act and regulation outside the Pas are not allowed, creating some problems in
investigate and search for illegal process.
1.4 Lessons Learnt, Challenge and Prospects in Conserving Wildlife in Nepal:
Lessons Learnt:
 Participatory approach is more effective than traditional approach

 Close monitoring can help to standardize the ageing, sexing and body (health) condition of the animal.
 Regular movement of patrolling team can enhance security
 Illegal activities can be detected early and prompt action can be undertaken,
 Monthly reporting system can guide for management intervention of the park.
Major Issues:
 Habitat loss and Degradation (fragmentation of land, introduction of alien species)

 Poaching
 Development activities
 Weak Law enforcement
 Inadequate awareness/education/research/funding
 Trans-boundary issues.
 Natural Threats
 Pressure on Natural resources (fuel wood)
 Deteriorate livelihood of the local people-those who are dependent upon traditional subsistence agricultural
system.
 Inadequate information and biological research
 Impacts from tourism (Garbage, Pollution, Culture)
 Inadequate infrastructure for effective management.
Challenge:
 Inadequate Intelligence networking

 Weak Law enforcement
 Inadequate resources
Opportunities:
 Develop tourism as an industry with respect to protected areas.

 Enhance community participation and ownership for Natural Resources Management
 Promote Wildlife farming
 Encourage Natural Resource based micro enterprises
 Wise use of Wetland resources
 Develop NTFP farming in BA by participating local people.
 Capacitate and institutionalize local CBOs in conservation and livelihood improvement.
Flora and fauna of Global and Nepal:
Group of organism Number of species Nepal representatives (%)

Globally Nepal
1. Lichens 20000 465 2.3
2. Fungi 69,000 1822(1500) 2.4
3. Algae 26,000 687 2.6
4. Bryophytes 16,600 853 5.1
5. Pteridophytes 11,300 380 3.4
6. Gymnosperms 529 28 5.1
7. Angiosperms 220,00 5,856 2.7
8. Spiders 72,400 144 0.2
9. Butterflies and 112,000
Moths
Butterflies 640 2.6
Moths 2,253
10. Other insects 751,000 5,052 0.70
11. Fishes 18,150 182 1.0
12. Amphibians 4,184 43 1.0
13. Reptiles 6,300 100 1.60
14. Birds 9,040 852 9.3
15. Mammals 4,000 181 4.5
Landscape Level Conservation Program
Terai Arc Landscape Program
Connects 10 protected areas of Nepal and India (6 in Nepal & 7 in Inida) as well as large non-protected areas between
them
Sacred Himalayan Landscape
• 15 protected areas- connecting over 40,000 km2 of natural ecosystems.

• Extends from Langtang National Park in central Nepal through the Kangchenjunga region in India to Toorsa
Strict Nature Reserve in Bhutan.
Conservation of Tiger
Protected Area 1995/96 1999 2000/2001 2005 2009

Chitwan 48-49 50 60 65 91
BNP 30-32 36 40 40
SWR 15-16 23 26 28
Total Breeding Year 93-97 109 126 133 121
Estimated Tiger Population in 1970 was ca. 100

Estimated Tiger population in 2000 – 2005 was 340-350
Estimated Tiger Population in 2009 is 121
Expansion Trends of PAs over times (sq.km vs. intervals)
Conservation Trends – Towards Landscape Approach in Nepal
Unit-2
Wildlife management Techniques

2.1.1 Capturing birds and mammals
2.2 Making animals for identification
2.2.1 Marking birds and mammals
2.3 Capturing and handling reptiles
2.4 Chemical Immobilization
2.5 Radio telemetry
2.6 Camera trapping
2.7 GPS & satellites collaring
2.8 GIS application & remote sensing
In both WL management (including conservation) and research it is often necessary to capture wild animals, including
birds, alive
Reasons for capture and handling:
1. Treatment of sick animals

2. Removal of problem animals such as man-eater.
3. Translocation to a new area (reintroduction/restocking) or a zoo
4. Research such as fixing of an identification tag or radio transmitter
5. Collection of samples (bloods, hair, stomach contents)
Knowledge necessary in capture/handling:
1. Species ecology: animals favored habitat within their range

2. Species behavior: Diurnal pattern of activity and their sensitivity to disturbance and handling
3. Utmost care should be taken to minimize physical and psychological trauma (injury)
4. Should plan to restore the animal back to normal conditions as soon as possible.
5. Proper equipment are essential for dangerous animals.
2.1.1 Capturing birds and mammals:
Live Trapping:
Capture small mammals or carnivores alive:
 Live trapping, with box or cage traps, is used for the capture of small mammals for study purpose.
 Nuisance carnivores (man-eater animals) may also be caught for removal to another area.
 Well-designed live traps cause little or no physical harm to the captives (captures animals)
 The type of trap depends on the target species.
Equipment for capturing animals alive:
Animals Types Animals like Trap types Remarks

Very small Shrew, mice Sherman trap Made of thin sheet
animals
Larger rodents Lagomorphs and carnivores up Steel mesh trap Must be rigid construction and
to jackal size not easily collapsible
Large carnivores Leopard, tiger Roust trap of wooden or iron Having vertical sliding door,
frame closed under gravity.
Trapping Procedure:
Trap Site:
 Traps should be placed inconspicuously by using twigs or grass in shade near to

 Not on a well-used trail
 A strange, highly visible objects or unfamiliar odors such as human sweat may frighten the animal way
 hence rub your hands in fecal material of the species or use gloves when setting the trap
Bait:
 It helps attract the species near to the trapping box or cage
 Select bait which is attractive to the target species and scattered very small portions of in it the area, forming a
trail leading to the trap.
 Some carnivores will only go for live prey, in which case use a trap with a special compartment for a live
chicken or rabbit at one end.
 ―Pre-baiting‖ with a particular shy sps, advisable to familiarize the animal with the trap for some days by
scattering bait around without setting the trigger mechanism & tying the trap door in the open position.
Some important Bait for attracting the species neat to cage:
Animals Baits
Squirrels, small rodents Peanuts, grains
Birds Grains, rice seed
Jackal, fox Chicken necks and entrails, meat
Otter Fish
Jungle cat Fish meat.
Handling captives:
1. Do not leave set traps unattended for long periods.

2. With nocturnal species traps should be checked at beginning of light (Dawn)
3. With diurnal species traps should be checked several times during the day.
4. Precaution should be taken particularly during very hot or very cold weather
5. Once an animal is captured, approach the trap gently cover with cloth or gummy bag-darkness quietens
animals down
6. Handling of a highly excited or dangerous animal may be facilitated by manual injection of a mild tranquilizer
into the tail or a limb projecting through the mesh of the trap.
7. Release animals as soon as possible once research procedure or translocation is completed.
Mist Netting:
To capture smaller birds or bats alive:
 Mist netting is used for the live capture of small birds and bats for study purposes such as migration study.
 Animals are caught in flight by becoming entangled in the fine, relatively invisible black nylon net.
 Mist nets are available in rectangular sizes ranging from 2.1*10m to 2.7*18m
 Filament thickness and mesh size depends on the size of birds or bats being trapped (an average mesh would
be 3cm)
Setting the net:
 The net suspended vertically between two bamboo poles in a known flight path of the target species at an
appropriate height.
 In order to reduce the possibility of the net being seen, mist nets should be set against a back ground of broken
vegetation.
 The poles should be firmly fixed in the ground, about 45cm deep.
 Poles should be slightly further apart than the length of the net.
 The horizontal section of the net between the cords should not be taut but should hang loosely.
 The horizontal cords which pass through the net are held taut by being tied tightly to the poles.
 Once set up nets should be inspected frequently, preferably every hour: to minimize distress and injury to
captives.
 They should not be left long unattended, particularly in extreme climatic conditions.
Removing captives from net:
 After ringing, weighing or other procedures arecompleted; release the captive well away from the net.
Storage:
 After use, all twigs and other material entangled in the net should be removed and the net folded and stored in
dry dark area.
Rocket Netting:
 To capture groups of large ground birds, or small to medium sized ungulates, use the rocket netting (net
attached with gun stock, use from aero-plane or ground)
2.2 Marking animals for identification:
Artificial marking should only be considered in species where it proves impossible to identify an adequate number of
individuals using natural features of the type.
Reasons for identifying individual animals:
1. To recognize dispersal (emigration/Immigration) patter.

2. To follow migration (two way movement)
3. Observe seasonal changes in physical condition
4. Study social interaction
5. Estimate population (capture/recapture)
6. growth study (with recapture)
7. Study reproductive history-breeding season e.g. time of off spring stays with mother
8. Mark should cause irritation, changes in behavior and or mortality
9. Marks are permanent, semi-permanent and temporary
10. Where possible conduct test on penned animals.
Marking Captured mammals:
There are three generals systems of marking:
1. Mutilation
2. Attachment of the marking device e.g. tag and collar.
3. Coloring
1. Mutilation:
 Removal of any part of the body

 It involves toe-clipping, tail-docking, ear-cropping, hole-punching, fur-clipping and branding.
 All forms of mutilation may affect animal‘s behavior or their survival.
 Investigator may be confused with those incurred by the animal in some other way.
 A standard system for marking small mammals is marked by toe-clipping and ear-punching.
Advantage:
1. Marks may be readily applied with a minimum of equipment

2. Marks may be read at a distance.
Branding:
1. Hot branding:
 Mark for cattle mostly
 Permanent and semi-permanent types of marks
 These brands have been successfully read 5 to 20 yrs after its application (depends up on species
types)
2. Freeze branding (Cryo-branding):

 Use copper iron super cooled in dry ice and alcohol
 Or with liquid nitrogen
 Copper branding instruments chilled to 94 ˚f
 Seen up to 20-25 yrs of its application.
Toe-clipping:
1. Especially small mammals

2. Marking more conspicuous also marked by toe punching.
 Toe punching (hole punching) the webs between the toes have been punched as an identifying,
permanent, visible only at close.
3. If a lot of animals marked, can further use ear punching.
2. Tagging:
1. It involves attaching to an animal: a piece of metal on which is stamped an individual numbers often an
address.
2. Tag may be lost due to:
 Wear (smoother by continuously using/rubbing)
 Infection
 Scratching of the marked animals
3. Advantage of tags for marking;
 easy to affix
 easy to see
 May be returned to the investigator if found.
4. Tags are usually placed in the ear of most mammals
5. When the ear is small, fingerling tag is used.
6. Even mice have been successful ear tagged.
7. Tags should not pinch or interfere with the blood supply of the animals
8. Tag should be as light as possible
9. In some mammals the ears are small, tags are applied other than in ear (e.g. Muskrats) use aluminum tag
through two slits in the skin of the back.
3. Coloring:
1. Commercial fur dyes have been used successful to color-mark wild animals.
2. These dyes poisonous and must be used with reasonable care.
3. Dye: Nyanzol 4R (reddish brown) and Nyanzol D (black)
4. Mixed with hydrogen periodic before application
5. The series of marks with coloring can be increased by applying spots to different part of the body.
2.3 Capture marking handling reptiles (esp, crocodile)
 It may be useful to mark crocodiles so that a record can be kept of their origins and date of capture.
 Marking is essential in growth trials when progress of individuals has to be monitored.
1. Paint: for short-term requirements a spot of quick-drying, waterproof paint is the simplest for marking
2. Tagging: Metal clip-on tags, such as ear-tags used for cattle, can be punched through a large tail scute
without any risk of infection or even discomfort to the crocodile; effective for 3 years.
3. Brand: marks are made between two scales directly under a scute
4. Burn Brands: If the skin between two scales is lightly touched with a hot soldering iron it will burn and
heal to leave a permanent scar.
5. Scutes punching/clipping : The scutes can be marked by clipping off the tops or punching holes in them
with leather punch
6. Scutes cut off: If scutes are cut off at the base with a very sharp blade they will not grow again and the
marks will be permanent.
Steel framed hand net for capture of young crocodiles Card board transports box for young crocodiles
2.4 Chemical Immobilization;
Chemical Restraint:
 Chemical restraint includes any methods that primarily uses a chemical agent or ‗drug‖ for restricting animal
freedom i.e. walking, running and aggressiveness
 The state of restraint can vary from:
1. Immobilization (arresting movement)
2. Tranquilization (calming)
3. Anaesthetization (complete loss of consciousness)
 Respiratory depression is a common occurrences in immobilization
 Safe immobilization of animals by using chemicals was developed about 4 decades ago
 Drug immobilization or darting is now a widely used capture method.
 Particularly appropriate for large or dangerous species like wild elephant, tiger, rhino tec.
 Prior training and presence of an experienced person, preferable with veterinary knowledge, are essential
 General information about habitat and behavior of the animal is also essential for deciding the best approach
and ideal time.
 Information on general anatomy and weight should be known to determine drug dosages and effective darting
areas on the body.
 Once the drug delivery is confirmed do not leave the animal until the drug effect wears off.
Purpose:
 Capture of problematic animals or animals in distress

 Veterinary care of wild and captive animals
 Population building and control; e.g. translocation, reintroduction, hormonal implant and sterilization.
 Research studies; e.g. radio collaring, surgical implant
 Drug experimentation.
Advantage:
1. Compared to mechanical capture methods, is causes little disturbance to the animal fear, shock and physical
damage are practically eliminated.
2. It enables capture of carefully selected individuals
3. It can be used in various situation
4. It enables selection of the time of capture
5. The equipment is easy to carry and shift from one place to another in the field.
Disadvantage:
1. Occasionally equipment failure: e.g. faulty charges or any other equipment fault.
2. Animal injury due to operator errors:
 Dart deliver on the wrong site.
 use of more than the required charge for the particular distances
3. As with all drug use, undesirable side effects are possible.
4. Due to drug induction delay (due to oblique hitting of the dart, unsuccessful location of the animal), darted
animal is occasionally lost
5. Procurement of drugs and equipment from overseas can be tedious and expensive
6. Danger to human operator if certain drugs used carelessly
7. Cannot be used for capturing animals on a large scale.
Approaching wild animals for immobilization;
1. Wild animals can be approached within their flight or from a safe distance (in case of aggressive animals)
2. Crossing the limit of safe distance in case of aggressive animals can be dangerous
3. Use of vehicle, elephant, hideout, vantage point or camouflage can be facilitating approaching the animal.
4. Smaller animal need to be closer as compared to the large animals for they have a smaller darting area.
5. Types of forest cover, available road network, terrain, behavior of animal (coming to a salt-lick, water-point)
are factors that would help select the mode of approach
6. In terai grasslands, riding elephants could be the only choice.
7. In dense vegetation, following an elephant on foot will be more profitable.
Basic Considerations for chemical Immobilization;
1. Purpose of capture: should be ecologically, socially, ethically an technically justified

2. Type of terrain: areas with dense cover, steep slopes, and large water bodies nearby (for terrestrial animals)
should be avoided. A complete understanding of terrain is essential
3. Type of animal: Whether aggressive, powerful, potentially dangerous to operator, with young to defined of
prone to stress-should be assessed. Terrestrial, behavioral, hierarchical and health status of animal should be
known.
4. Emaciated (thin/weak), sick or old animals should not be captured or restrained. Such animals have a very
unpredictable drug response.
5. High (more than 35 oc) and low (less than 10oc) Temperature regimes are not ideal, for the animal may suffer
from the temperature stresses.
 The drug effect may further cause an increase (hyperthermia) and decrease (hypothermia) in body
temperature.
 Suitable temperature regime for immobilization can be obtained by selecting different time period in
different seasons.
6. Human antidote (Narcan) kept ready for the use before approaching/operating the immobilization.
7. Safety drugs to meet emergency situation in case of captured animals should always be taken to the field.
8. Sufficient daylight for searching for the darted animal should always be ensured-in winter not after 2 pm (day
light during winter is short)
9. Stay with the immobilized animal till it has completely falling or becoming an easy victim to predation.
Equipment:
 A wide range of equipment is available for delivering chemical agents or drugs to animals
 Drugs delivery to the animal‘s body can be done in various way:
1. Oral: mixed with food or water
2. Hand-held syringe: with ordinary syringe or jab-stick
3. Projected syringe or dart Blow-pie, blow-gun, cross bow, gas or powder charge gun or pistol.
 For successful capture, selection of appropriate equipment and familiarity with its use are essential.
 There are 2 essential items of immobilization equipment:
1. The Projector:
a. Blow pipe
b. Rifle
c. Pistol
2. Projectile: Darting or flying syringe (needle is a vital component)
Projectors syringe or dart:
 Modern chemical restraint technique demands equipment capable of projecting a dart to considerable distance.
 Drug deliver equipment and projectile syringes have undergone a series of modifications and developments
since their discovery around 4 decades ago.
 A dart has basic three components:
1. Anterior needle
2. Middle drug chamber or barrel, and
3. Rear stabilizer
 Projections can be created by air pressure, compressed gas cartridges, and through power charges.
Projector:
1. Blow-Pipe
2. Blow-gun/Air pressure gun/Blow gun rifle
3. Power Charged rifle/dist –inject or Cap-chur:
1. Blow- Pipe:
1. This is simplest type dart projector, consisting of a straight PVC or aluminum pipe 1 to 2 meter in length and
8-10cm in diameter.
2. It propels a small plastic dart over distance of up to 10meter
3. Mainly used for thin skinned animals in enclosures
4. The range can be increased by using a special mouth piece or joining two pipes together
5. The projectile (draft/flying syringe) carry up to 3ml of drug
6. Darts work on the principle of compressed air or gas effect
7. After placing the loaded dart inside its rear end, the blow pipe is held to the mouth and pointed steadily
towards the target area of the animal‘s anatomy
8. After taking a deep breath a rapid ―blow‖ is made to propel the dart toward the most muscular part of animal.
9. Blowpipe is entirely silent in operation, causing minimum disturbance to non-target members of a group
animals.
10. It has no operating cost/only minimum cost for maintaining and repairing of the dart components.
2. Blow-gun/Air pressure gun/Blow gun rifle:
1. This equipment comes under the commercial trade name-Telinject

2. The dart is similar to a blow pipe in structure but bigger and can carry a drug load up to 5.0ml.
3. It consists of blowpipe fitted on to a gun stock which has compression chamber pressurized via rubber tubing
connected to the tyre foot pump.
4. It is quite versatile for use in captivity and in wild situations, particularly on thin skinned animals with an
accuracy range of 30m.
5. Gun stock has a compression chamber than can be pressurized by connecting it to an ear pump or through a
CO2 gas cartridge.
6. Compressed air is released into the barrel to propel the dart by pulling a trigger-a mechanism similar to air
gun.
7. The pressure developed in the compression chamber can be measured with a pressure gauge into a gun.
3. Power Charged rifle/dist –inject or Cap-chur:
1. Propels darts up to 15ml capacity to a range of over 50m by means of explore charge.
2. The impact is obtained by a small explosive charge known as a cap-chur charge or syringe charge
3. When the dart hits the animal, the impact sets up a reverse pressure of the drug inside the syringe barrel that
causes the charge to explode.
4. The expanding gas pushes the rubber plunger forward to inject the drug into the animal
5. Two types of dart are used in Cap-chur:
o Plastic dart (ready and disposable): for single use and carry up to 5ml drugs
o Metal (aluminium) dart: reusable of taking a maximum of 15ml of drug
6. In muscular animals where there are chances of needle coring, the needle of the impact sensitive dart should
preferably have both front and side holes.
7. A pistol is available for short range up to 20m
8. It is the most widely used darting systems at the present (accuracy, shooting range, variety of dart types and
sizes)
Projectile:
Darts:
1. Reusable Plastic dart

2. Disposable Plastic Dart
3. Metal Dart
4. Radio Darts
1. Reusable Plastic Darts:
 The Blowpipe and blow gun fire a reusable light-

weight plastic dart
 Available in sizes between 1 and 3.5ml capacity
 The drug is loaded into the front chamber of the
dart from a syringe and appropriate needle then
attached
 The needle opening is at the side and covered
with a tight fitting plastic sleeve which prevents
loss of the drug when the dart is pressurized
 This is achieved by introducing compressed air
or an insert gas into the rear chamber of the dart,
behind the plunger
 The stabilizer is hen attached
 After firing, as the needle penetrates the animal‘s
skin the sleeve is pushed backwards, allowing
the drug to exit from the side hole into the
animal‘s tissue.
2. Disposable Plastic Darts:
 It cannot be re-used.
 Ready prepared plastic darts with a fixed needle.
 Explosive cap to activate the plunger are available for powder charged rifles, in sizes varying between 1 and
3.5ml
 Light weight
 Due to their lightness these darts are less liable to cause tissue injury on impact
 But more subject to wind deflection than heavier metal darts
3. Metal Darts:
 Required drug volume 1-1.5ml

 Aluminum syringe barrel
 A greased rubber plunger, fitted with an impact
sensitive explosive charge, is placed inside the
barrel towards the rear end.
 A fight stabilizer is screwed in behind it
 After loading the drug, a needle is screwed into
the front of the barrel
 After loading the prepared dart into the rifle a
cylindrical steel cartridge holder is placed into a
rifle.
4. Radio Darts:
 Radio darts are useful in making and locating

and animal in heavily wooden terrain or thickets
 A small powerful impact resistant transmitter is
attached behind the drug barrel with a projecting
and trailing antenna
 Radio darts are quite expensive and their
increased weight reduces the range of the dart
 Because of the heavy weight, the radio darts
usually fall from the body of thin-skinned
animals
 In such cases, a double barb needle (barbed
needle) is useful.
 Radio dart facilitates animal location by use of a
compatible receiver set
 The cost and other difficulties limit us
application.
Chemical Capturing Drugs:
 Most of the immobilizing drugs used today are Central Nervous System Depression which have a relatively
wide safety margin
 Some of these drugs are highly dangerous to the human operator
 Should not be handled by inexperienced or junior staff.
 The time required for a drug to have an effect depends upon the factors such as:
1. The injection site
2. Absorption rate
3. Physiological state of the animal (sick to young energetic)
4. Concentration of the drugs
 Some of the variable that can impair the drug effect due to :
1. Variation in species of animal
2. Age, Sex
3. Seasons, time of day
4. Animal temperature and emotional state
Attributes/characteristics of an “Ideal drug”
 Wide safety margin

 Readily soluble in water
 Non-interference with respiration or temperature regulation
 have minimum side effect
 Requires a small dosages (1-5ml)
 Have fast absorption and rapid action
 Have a specific antidote (antagonist), allowing quick reversal of drugged condition
 Not hazardous to operator
 Easily available at reasonable cost and not restricted by legislation.
1. For carnivores: Rampon (Xyligene) + Ketamine (Antidose = Yohimbner)

(Tiger/Leopard/Bear/Deer/Wild boar etc)
2. For large animals: M-99 (Etorphine hydrochloride) + (Acemorphine) (Antidose = M 50-50)

(Elephant/Rhinoceros/Gaur/Wild buffalo/Blue bull etc)
Chemical Capture Drugs: CNS depressants
1. Diazepam (Valium, Tranimal, Tranimul)

2. Acepromazine Maleate (Acetylpromazine maleate):
3. Xylazine Hydrochloride (Rompun):
4. Ketamine Hydrochloride (Ketaset, Ketalar, Vetalar):
5. . Hellabrunn Mixture (HBM): mixture of Ketamine and Xylazine:
1. Diazepam (Valium, Tranimal, Tranimul)
 It has marked timing effect on animals

 Reduces aggregation and fear
 It acts in the thalamic or hypothalamic part (part or autonomic nervous system) of the brain.
 The drug is used more in relocating captured animals shifting caged animals from one place to another place
(to reduce excitement when handling or transporting animals)
 May not be used in actual capture operation
 Available in 5mg/ml solution
 It can be given orally (not recommended in immobilization), intra-venously or intra-muscular
 There is no antidote available for Diazepam (sometimes Antepamazol may acts as its antidote)
2. Acepromazine Maleate (Acetylpromazine maleate):
 It is CNS depressing agent and potent tranquilizer

 Available in 10ml and 20mg/ml, stronger solution up to 40mg/ml
 It is also used before performing minor surgical operations as per a pre-anesthetic agent
 For immobilization purposes it is rarely used alone.
 It is used frequently in conjunction with Etorphine to reduce the initial excitement of the animal and Ketamine
to facilitate muscle-relaxation.
 Dosage varies with species, can be administered orally in tablet from but effect is unpredictable (effect seen
within 30-60min)
 Insoluble form, the agent may be injected IV (1-3min) or IM (15-25min)
 Side effects: hypothermia/hyperthermia
 There is no known antidote for Acepromazine
3. Xylazine Hydrochloride (Rompun):
 It is non-narcotic compound that acts as a sedative (a sleep like state), analgesic (general elimination of pain),
and muscle relaxant (Ranging from tranquilization to anesthesia)
 The product comes in dry substance in 500mg vials and is supplied with a solvent e.g; 500mg + 10ml solvent
= 5% solution, 500mg + 5ml solvent = 10% solvent solution.
 A slight disadvantage for use with darts is that Xylazine is not as readily soluble as some drugs and therefore
larger volumes are required
 Drug dosages of 0.1to 0.2 or 0.3mg/kg Rompun have often been sufficient to produce powerful sedation, for
immobilization used 1 or 2mg/kg
 Side effect: reduce respiratory rate, at that time artificial respiration required, Antidote: Yohimbine
hydrochloride, also used Tolazoline hydrochloride
4. Ketamine Hydrochloride (Ketaset, Ketalar, Vetalar):
 Ketamine has been safely and effectively used for anesthesia on a large number of wild animals
 Particularly effective in wild carnivores, reptiles and birds, but not suitable for most ungulates.
 At lower dosages of Ketamine, complete recovery usually occurs in 4-5 hours, but at higher dosages it can
take up to 24 hours in some animals
 Ketamine crosses the placental barrier in all species thus the anesthetic effects reaches the focus, so does not
used on pregnant animals.
 The product is available in concentrations of 20, 50 and 100mg/ml solution.
 Side effects: cause erratic and delayed recovery, excessive salivation, muscular tremors (evolutionary
vibration)
 There is no known antidote for Ketamine.
5. Hellabrunn Mixture (HBM): mixture of Ketamine and Xylazine:
 Addition of Xylazine hydrochloride (Rompun) to Ketamine in a specific ratio of 500mg to 400mg respectively
= HBM
 HBM was first developed and tested in Hellarbrunn animal sanctuary, Munich
 Wide range and less hazardous to the operator
 Here Xylazineprovides the advantage of a tranquilizer as well as enhance the pain killing and muscle relaxing
qualities of Ketamine.
 Mixture: 4ml of 100 mg/ml Ketamine is mixed in 500mg of Xylazine power
 Suitable and a safe drug for most ungulate species
 Induction time-7 to 10 minutes and anesthetic effect prolonging for 45-50 minutes; completely recovery in 1-2
hours
6. Etorphine hydrochloride (M-99; USA, Immobilion; Eroupe)
 Morphine (An alkaloid narcotic drug extracted from opium; a types of herbs) like agent having analgesic
potency
 A strong narcotic (lead to addiction) and highly toxic in humand
 Side effect: blood pressure rise, excitement, tremors
 It is available in 1mg/ml solution under the trade name of M-99
 Also used as mixture of 2.45mg/ml Etrophine with 10mg/ml Acepromazine maleate. Here maleate reduces the
initial excitement caused by morphine drugs and also acts as a residual tranquilizer
 It has been tested on a wide range of species
 It is particularly useful for immobilizing large mammals such as elephants, rhinos, and gaurs.
 Low drug requirement and fast immobilization are advantage of the drugs
 Absorbed fast with an intra-muscular administration
 Anesthesia may take place after 10-15 minutes with IM injections
 Antidotes makes recovery as fast as 3-5 minutes (IV) or 4-10 minutes (IM)
 No antidotes are administered recovery may takes as much as 7 hrs.
 Ntidotes: M50-50 or Revision or Diprenorphine-Animal antidotes: Human antidote = Narcan (Naloxone
Hydrochloride); 0.006mg/kg, effects in 2-3 minutes.
2.5 Radio Telemetry (R. Tracking, beacon-telemetry, eco-telemetry, ecological bio-telemetry)
Introduction:
 Radio Telemetry is used by wildlife biologists to study animal movements.

 Animals wear a radio transmitter that gives off a silent signal which can be received by using a special
antenna.
 By reading the signal, wildlife biologists can pin point which animal‘s radio is signaling, determine its exact
location and follow its movements
 Conveying any types of information from WL to another location through use of carrier frequencies
 Radio waves are most common carriers; sound (ultra sonic for fish) or light may rarely be used.
 The first free-ranging animals were tracked around 1962
 Types of information conveyed:
1. Location
2. Motion sensing
3. Transmitter temperature (indicates body temperature of animal if internal)
4. Side temperature (transmitter or sensor external)
5. Bio-physiological data (heartbeat, eye movement, defection, urination)
Definition;
Tele: Distance, Metry: Measurement

RT is one of the research tools
RT is a process of creating, measuring or transforming information form source to the distance location via
radio waves in the form of electro-magnetic energy
In WL biology, it has been used in two primary implications:
1. To provide information about the location of animals that area not readily seen
2. To measure and transfer information about events at distance location
Radio-telemetry has 4 essential components:
1. Sources of signal-Radio collar

2. Detector-Receiver
3. Antenna
4. Head phone
Radio Collar:
 It generates signal like pulse rate which can be picked up or identified and traced from a distance
 Transmitter: Smaller the better, 4% of the body weight (ideal)
 Homing: it is the method rather observes moves towards to animal until a desired degree of proximity is
achieved (by intersection of bearing; <300 is best for intersection
 Electromagnetic ―Radio ―waves
1. LF 300 KHZ – 3MHZ (AM radio)

2. HF 3 MHZ – 30 MHZ (CB; citizen band)
3. VHF 30 MHZ – 300 MHZ (TV, FM radio, most Bio-telemetry)
4. UHF 300 MHZ – 1800 MHZ (TV)
Most used frequencies for Bio-telemetry;
1. Fish at lower end – 47 MHZ

2. Most effective for terrestrial WL – 148-158 MHZ
3. For birds – 200-220 MHZ
4. To penetrate dense vegetation – 30-50 MHZ
5. Under rain forest canopy – 150 MHZ
 Cost: usually increases with increasing frequencies because crystal in receiver and transmitters more
expensive at higher frequencies
 Transmitter Package: Animal must be influenced by transmitter package, weigh normally 0.5-5% of body
weight
 Special sensors: are also present in collar which is able to take information about motion sensing, pulse
interval, temperature of internal transmitter package, heart rate etc.
Antennae:
 ideally should be ½ wavelength long for best

range (a dipole)
 Usually is ¼ wavelength long (a monopole)
 Whip antenna: should be used on transmitter,
greater range than loop antenna
 Loop antennae: inside collar and around neck,
also for internal transmitter
Receiver Package:
 Receiver
 battery
 Data recorder
 head set
 Antenna: hill-horizontal, plain-vertical
polarization
Receiver:
 Most expensive part of most simple radio telemetry systems

 May have gauges (measures) to display signal strength, but listening to the audible signal is usually best for
radio – location
 Band of frequencies covered depends on the receiver
 Scanner will scan all frequencies covered and stop when a signal is received
 Setting frequencies can be done with switches, buttons, dials or all
 Cain (power): of antenna can be controlled- at higher gain there may be too much noise
Power sources: Ruoff car battery, RC Ni-cad cells, RC internal battery, regular power cells
Head Phone: It is not so important and necessary often used in optional but good to have
Data recorder:
 For complex system-may record on continuous graph (hard copy)

 May store on computer disk
Camera Trapping:
 Camera traps are an important tools used in researching rare, shy, or nocturnal animals
 A camera traps is an automated camera used to capture photographs of wild animals
 Installed in a site that a rarely seen animal is expected to visit
 When a motion or infrared sensor detects the presence of an animal, a photo is taken
 They generally do not disturb wildlife, although flashes may cause some animals to relocate.
 Sometimes, cameras can be damaged by the animals or damaged, removed by human
Experiences in Tiger census:
 Placing of camera on both side of the trail

 Cameras can be infrared active or passive model
 One station to another 1.5 to 2km and are place for 15 days
 Height of cameras 45cm from the ground
 Minimum of 10 sets of cameras should be used at once
 Capture recapture model to estimate the population.
Camera Trapping – Individual Identification
1. Body stripes
2. Facial Marketing
3. Tail Marking
In Short:
A back-up method to pug mark census method, that has found increasing support particularly from the scientific
communities, is the camera trap method. It involves the use of infrared cameras. These traps (cameras) are placed tied
to trees at height of two to three feet (3 feet). When tigers move in front of the camera, it intercepts the infrared ray that
constantly gets emitted from the camera. The moment it intercepts, the camera flashes light and takes a photograph
automatically. Periodically the cameras are removed to collect the photographs and finally these are analyzed for
identifying the numbers of tigers.
Assumptions;
1. Each tiger has unique strip pattern on its skin. This uniqueness can be identified from the photographs.
2. Number of tigers identified gives the minimum number of this animal in the area of census.
Limitations;
1. Since cameras have to be placed at several places, high cost of cameras becomes a constraint.
2. The cameras are likely to be damaged by trap happy animals and also likely to be stolen.
3. Even though the cameras are primarily meant for tigers, any animal passing in front of the camera gets
photographed.
Now-a-days may scientists are suggesting the use of cameras be extended to most of the tiger countries. The cameras
would be placed at different angles along water sources and also near the known tiger trails. Photographs of the same
tiger taken at different angles would assist in identifying each and every individual. So far no interest has been shown
in carrying this out due to the very high costs. At the end of the census period reports are sent for collection and a final
figure arrived at. The documents may then be analyzed by a committee and will go on to be used for developing
wildlife management strategies in the area.
Conventional Collars Use Radio Signals v/s Satellite Collars has Stronger Signals:
Conventional radio collars, sometimes called VHF transmitters, emit radio signals at frequencies between 132-175
MHz, and can be heated from about 10+ miles away under ideal conditions. The maximum possible distance that the
collar can be heard depends on a number of factors.
1. Elevation of receiver-airplane/helicopter
2. Strength of signal
3. Age and type of collar
Radio signals transmit by line of sight, so if the transmitter (Collared animals) is in steep mountainous terrain, it might
not be heard until you were directly overhead, whereas a collared animal out on the coastal plain would probably be
heard from a quite a long distance away. Each collar is set up with a different radio frequency. Biologists use special
antennae tuned for the frequencies of the collars they are listening for, which are mounted under the wings on airplanes
when tracking.
When tracking for conventional collars, the plane usually flies transects across the range (i.e. back and forth following
lines of latitude or longitude) until a collar‘s signal is heard. If the collar signal sounds close by, the plane may break
off the path to obtain a specific location.
Satellite Collars have Stronger Signals:
A satellite collar can send a signal in the dark of night and even in the middle of a blizzard. Two satellites that orbit the
earth from North to South Pole 14 times each day. These satellites orbit the earth over 500 miles up (cover 800km).
They scan for the collars signal and with the aid of computers on board; locate the animal within 1000 meters of
accuracy. The collars on the animal are programmed to transmit a signal for few minutes to days or month (we can set
it per as researcher‘s need)
The satellite collars have two activity countries, short and long term-one tells us the number of seconds within the past
minutes that the animal has moved immediately before that particular transmission, and the other tells us the number of
seconds within the previous hour that the animal has moved.
Unit-3
Habitat Evaluation and Management

3.1.1 Evaluation for specific management objectives: food production, cover, edge, indicators species, and
condition of individual‘s animals
3.1.2 Evaluation of natural communities
3.1.2.1 Species diversity
3.1.3 Standard evaluation procedures
3.2 Habitat management
3.2.1 Adjustment of seral stages
3.2.1.1 Setting back and advancing succession
3.2.2 Manipulation of edges
3.2.3 Mitigation
3.3 Management techniques
3.3.1 Food production (fruits, fodder, flowers)
3.3.2 Water hole development (natural & artificial)
3.3.3 Wetlands improvement (shallow marshes potholes)
3.3.4 Cover management (protective nesting)
3.3.5 Grassland management
3.3.6 Fences 7 trenches
3.3.7 Predation management & control
3.3.8 Fire as a tool management
Habitat evaluation and management:
Wildlife Habitat:
 A habitat is a space or environment to which a species is suited

 It is sum total of environmental factors: Food, Cover, and Water; that a given WL species needs to survive and
reproduce in a given area
 A habitat requirement of WL varies from species to species.
 Therefore a habitat can share and support only those species that are suited to it and can fulfill the specific
habitat requirement of the species.
 NICHE: a habitat can shared by many species, however each of these species use that habitat in ts own way
and play unique role called Niche.
Habitat Component:
To understand how habitat affects wild populations of animals, one must examine its components
The four basic components of habitat are:
1. Food
2. Cover
3. Water
4. Space
1. Food:
 The most obvious component of habitat for any animal is FOOD.

 Availability of food usually changes with seasons (temperature)
 Food may be plentiful in one season and critically short in another
 Energy flows unidirectional, can be stored temporarily
 Food for growth, maintenance and reproduction
 Carbohydrate, protein, fats, enzymes for metabolic activities
 According to the feeding behavior: WL may be classified as:
1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores
 Herbivores spend much less energy in search of food than carnivores.
 Herbivores spend much time in eating food than carnivores.
 Herbivores need low energy content food than the carnivores.
 The metabolic requirements of carnivores is much higher because they have to spend much time in locating,
capturing and killing the prey animals.
Food types according to the feeding behavior of Browsers/Grazes):
 Preferred first choice contains all essential elements more frequently grazed, usually the terminal shoot.
 Staple: second choice but provide all essential nutrients.
 Emergency: fulfill short term nutritional needs.
 Stuffers: nutritionally poor but ingested apparently to relieve from hunger, cause malnutrition problems.
2. Cover:
 Nutritional requirement is met by the food.

 Structural requirement is met by cover and vegetation (physical structure)
 Cover is defined as ―any variation in the habitat that provides protection from weather or predators or that
offer vantage point‖
 Protection against severe weather conditions such as heat, cold, wind, extremes of temperatures, storm, rain,
hails, hurricanes, snow etc.
 Resting place while animals are inactive (Loafing cover)
 Place to lay eggs, give births, rear young.
 Hide for protection against predators and hunters
 Better vantage:
1. To predators-to-locate prey, hide to reach close enough to prey to make a kill
2. To prey-to know the presence of predators.
 Types of cover:
1. Escape cover
2. Roosting cover
3. Nesting cover
4. Ambush cover
3. Water:
 For internal metabolism and to make body cool (eg Wallowing)

 Home range size depends on availability of water source nearer.
 Seasonal migration to nearby water available areas during dry season
 First preferred surface water for consumption. When surface water is not available, some species can sustain
themselves by, taking in morning dew (shrews) or by ingesting the water contained in succulent plants.
 Water may be a limiting factor in arid zone
 Artificial water hole for improving water condition-Guzzlers.
 Kangroo, Oryx-don‘t drink water but fulfill through metabolic process.
4. Space:
 Individual animals require varying amounts of space in which to find enough food, cover, water, and to locate
mates (pair of animals/birds)
 The amount of space or suitable habitat depends upon size of the population desired;
 Size of species: generally the larger the animal, the lager the area required.
 Its diet: Carnivores require larger areas that the herbivores
Trophic Level:
 Ladders at which animals are placed

according to the general mode of
obtaining food or having reserved Super carnivores
energy/productivity
 Aquatic eco-system may contain 10 or
more TLs Carnivores
 Terrestrial community-more than 4 TLs,
some have 3
Herbivores
Producer
II Law of Thermodynamics:
―Energy cannot be transferred from one form to another form without enormous loss in the form of dissipated heat‘
 The main and ultimate source of energy to the Eco-system in the SUN
 The amount of energy stored in the producers in always greater than the herbivores and herbivores store more
energy than the carnivores
 The amount of energy contained in the lower tropic level is always greater than higher tropic level because
huge amount of energy is always lost during energy transfer from one to another tropic level.
Habitat evaluation is fall into two categories:
1. First type of evaluation is done for specific management objectives, specially involving the assessment in
term of needs of a single species.
2. The second type of evaluation is broader, aimed primarily at determining habitat values for several species or
even entire biological communities.
1. Evaluation for special management objectives:
1. WL managers often evaluate habitat for specific objective such as estimating habitat quality for a particular
species.
2. In such cases, food production, availability of cover, and amount of edge is 3 important measurements.
3. Experienced field-workers can often estimate the population of herbivores in relation to the CC by checking
the condition of key plats as indicator species
4. Other methods estimate habitat quality from:
1. Blood chemistry
2. Parasite loads
3. Bone marrow condition in individual animals, and
4. Reproductive success.
Techniques:
1. Food Production:
2. Cover
3. Edge
4. Indicators
5. Condition of individual animals
1. Food production:
 All plant materials consumed by WL are collectively known as forage

 It includes grasses, the narrow-leafed herbaceous members of the family Graminae
 Forage also includes broad-leafed herbaceous plants called-forbs.
 Seed consumed by wild animals are termed as Mast: fruit consumed called soft mast and nut (usually large
hard-shelled seed consumed)
 Some habitat evaluations require sampling of all forage available to the animal
 To do this, biologist clip and weigh all grass, forbs, and browse with in small sample plot as high as the
speciesunder study can reach: 1.5m for deer, 2.75m for moose for moose, 6m for Giraffe
 This method is expensive, laborious procedure, required more time
 Faster forage inventories can be made through visual estimates of forage weight, confirmed by clipping and
weighing forage from a small fraction of the plots, randomly
 Soft mast is estimate = by clipping and weighing
 Hard mast is estimate = by using Mast trap.
2. Cover:
 The distribution of cover types can be measured by cover mapping

 Depending upon the region, cover types might include trees, shrubs, pasture, cultivated fields, marsh etc.
 Cover types are determined through aerial photographs, field surveys, or both, they are then delineated on a
map of the study area.
 Dot grid and/or planimeter
 Density of cover is measured by:
1. Vertical density: a rating scale (e.g. 1 through 10)
2. Horizontal cover, using photoelectric devices, these tools measure the amount of light admitted
through the forest or shrub canopy cover in comparison with that recorded in full sunlight.
3. Edge:
 Patton devised a simple and effective techniques that related the amount of edge in a given area to the
perimeter
4. Indicator species:
 Indicator species allow assessment of habitat conditions in relation to a herbivores population

 Preferred or staple foods that occur at low to moderate frequently can serve as indicator species.
 Sometimes exclosures are constructed around sample plots to exclude herbivores
 The indicator species protected within the exclosure may; after a given period of time, be compared with those
outside the exclosure.
 Measure of grazing and browsing intensity.
5. Conditions of Individuals species:
 Indirect method of habitat evaluation through the condition of individuals animals

 Capture and handling: in hunter check station to examine freshly killed game animals (by physical condition)
 It tells about quality, quantity of food, diseases frequency, parasite levels and various types of stress-all of
which relate to habitat quality
 Weight of animals varies with habitat condition.
 In the deer family, antler size, including diameter and circumference of the beam-relates directly to quality and
quantity of food.
 Amount of fat deposited (Kideney fat) is a good indicator of nutritional condition, which when seasonally
adjusted, serves as a sign of habitat quality.
 Femur marrow: the marrow consist of fat, water and nonfat residue
 When an animal is under nutritional stress, the marrow fat is depleted and the relative amount of
water increases, color of marrow becomes Pink or reddish
 The marrow of healthy animals has a whitish appearances and a waxy feel (low water content)
 Poor nutrition, brought on by poor habitat quality, can lead to increases in parasitism and disease (parasite
level is another index of habitat condition)
 Parasite (abnormal) in deer found that deer from population below CC-had low parasite loads, while those
from populations exceeding CC-had heavy loads
 Blood samples analysis can reveal a great deal about habitat conditions in some species : blood chemistry,
hormones (relate to protein and energy intake)
II. Evaluation of Natural Communities:
(Habitat value for several species or for even entire biological communities)
Species Diversity:
Environmental assessments of this sort require examinations of entire biotic communities, not just the few
economically important species e.g. Game species.
The measurement of species diversity is important in assessing the biological value, Natural richness and Uniqueness of
an area. The most basic and objective measure of species diversity is simply the number of species within a particular
group (birds, for example) found per sample. But used alone. This measurement, called species richness, can be
misleading. The greater the number of species and the more even the distribution, the higher the diversity value.
Level of species diversity;
1. Alpha diversity; diversity within specific communities or habit types

2. Beta diversity: diversity between habitat types
3. Gamma diversity: diversity over large regions
Important term used in studying diversity:
1. Species richness: The number of species per sample is a measure of richness. The more species present in a
sample, the ‗richer‘ the ‗richer‘ the sample.
2. Species evenness: relative abundance of the different species of an area. Population size of each of the species
present.
While measuring community‘s diversity, the two main factors taken into account when measuring diversity are richness
and evenness.
Assessment Procedures;
1. Standard Evaluation Procedure:
All habitat evaluation procedure ranks certain characteristics, including physical and biological properties, for each
proposed area. Rankings area usually made on a scale of 1 to 10. The different procedures vary according to the
characteristics measures and the relative importance given each.
Nature conservancy in Britain (Gold Smith, 1975):
1. Extent (E): area or for linear features: length

2. Rarity (R): recorded for each habitat type and calculated from R = 100% area per candidate area.
3. Plant species richness (S): the number of following plant species in a 20 by 20meters sample plot.
4. Animal richness (V): assumed to relate to vertical stratification on a 1 to 4 scale (grass land to wood land)
Where, Index of ecological value (𝐼𝐸𝑉) = ∑(𝐸 × 𝑅 × 𝑆 × 𝑉)
2. Habitat mapping using Remote sensing: (infrared and land sat):
3. Simpson’s Diversity (D) Indices;
𝐷 = (𝑛/𝑁)2 Examples;
Where, Species Numbers (N) n(n-1)

Rhino 2 2
N = The total number of organisms of all Tiger 8 56
species Leopard 1 0
n = the total numbers of organism of all species Sloth bear 1 0
Dear 3 6
∑𝑛(𝑛 − 1) Total (N) 15 64
𝐷= 𝑜𝑟, 𝐷 = 64/15(14)
𝑁 (𝑁 − 1)
D = 0.3 (Simpson‘s Index) With this index, 0 represents infinite diversity and 1, no diversity.
That is, the bigger the value of D, the lower the diversity
Then Simpson‘s Index of Diversity 1-D = 0.7
4. Shannon-Weiner Index:
𝐻′ = − 𝑝𝑖 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑖 Species Abundance Pi 𝑝𝑖 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑖

𝑖=1
A 50 0.50 -0.347
B 30 0.30 -0.361
Where,
C 10 0.10 -0.230
D 9 0.09 -0.217
Pi is the proportion of individuals found in the
ith species and In is the natural logarithm. E 1 0.01 -0.046
Total: 5 100 1.00 -1.201
A worked example from a community
containing 100 trees distributed among 5 H‘ = 1.201
𝐻
species: 𝐸= where, S = 5 For E (evenness); 0=abundant, 1 = 0
𝐿𝑛𝑆
abundant
 Value of the Shannon diversity index for real communities
typically fall between 1.5 and 3.5
 H is higher means, all species are equally abundant.
5. Brillouin Index
𝑙𝑛𝑁! − ∑𝑙𝑛𝑛𝑖! 23.95

𝐻𝑛 = = ln 25 ! − = 1.362
𝑁 25 Species No. Individuals ln n
1 5 4.79
2 5 4.79
3 5 4.79
4 5 4.79
5 5 4.79
S=5 N = 25 ∑=23.95
Interpretation is same as of Shannon-Weiner Index
Habitat Management:
Definition:
 The art and science of creating, maintaining or enhancing conditions on landscape to meet specified objectives
for population of wildlife
 The stability; increase or decline of wildlife species/or population deepens directly on the quality and extent of
available habitat.
 Wildlife management is the art and science of making decisions and taking actions to manipulate wildlife to
achieve specific human objectives.‖
Basic consideration of Habitat Management:
1. Habitat inventory: What the habitat consists of?

2. Habitat evaluation: How good is the habitat for study?
3. Animals/or conservation objectives?
4. Habitat monitoring: is the habitat improving or deteriorating?
5. Food: Adequacy of food supply, proper kind, available in sufficient
6. Quality at each season and stage of the animal cycle
7. Water: it is crucial, available as open water, dew drops or at succulent plant parts, some are water dependent.
8. Cover: essential factor-escape cover, reproductive cover, roosting cover, ambush cover for performing other
behavioral activities.
Once the habitat within a given area has been evaluated, the manager must decide what, if any, manipulations are
needed to fulfill the management objectives. Some of the options might be:
Adjustment of seral stages:
 The most common form of habitat management is adjustment of Seral stages or successional stage so the
management area becomes better studied to the desired species.
Setting back succession by fire:
 It is the least expensive method of habitat management. It is most natural and universal way of setting back
succession in terrestrial habitats is fire. Although fire is often popularly regarded as destructive and harmful to
wildlife, ecologist has long recognized the importance of fire in the perpetuation (make continuous) of many
wild plants and animal species, particularly those-best adopted too early to mid-successional stage.
 In other word fire is helpful to manage setting back succession by continuous firing (control fire) in adopted
species and wild plants. But it has some drawback. Moreover fire is not always beneficial to WL. Burns that
are too hot from combustion of too much fuel or fires occurring at the wrong time of years can have serious
consequences for local WL population.
 Deer population often increases in the years following fires. Burned areas have been observed to have
produced about three times the herbaceous forages per unit area than unburned areas and deer made greater
use of the burned areas
 On the other hand, fire reduces WL population of species best adapted to late-successional condition. Intense
fire in a Boreal forest region in Alaska resulted in a 60% reduction in the breeding population of Alaska spruce
grouse, and number on unburned areas remained same.
 Bendell found that bird and mammals diversity showed only a slight increase in grass land and shrub land
regions following fires, and a slight decrease in forested regions.
Grazing:
Livestock grazing sets back succession. Some cattle are kept on refuges under grazing leases because they help retard
succession and maintain better feeding areas for water fowl.
Logging:
The cutting of forest sets back succession. Deer-cut over forest produce considerably more browse (types of forage)
than do nature forest.
Mechanical treatment:
Much more expensive than fire, many treatment are safer, outcomes are more predictable, set back through bulldozers.
1. Disking: commonly used in agricultural lands to set back succession. It is particularly useful for breaking up
dense stands of sod forming (Chappra) perennial grasses to favor the food-rich annuals.
2. Mowing: is a good create Edge
Herbicides:
Chemical herbicides offer a relatively inexpensive and potentially highly selective means of manipulating succession.
Herbicides can be sprayed, injected or even painted onto undesirable plants.
Advancing Succession:
 Succession will advance naturally

 Principal means of advancing succession is the exclusion of disturbance such as fire, grazing, logging and
mechanical or chemical disturbances
 The main problem with advancing succession for management objective is time.
How?
1. Planting:
 More expensive but fast and more predictable results

 Woody perennials: provide food, stabilizing soils thus reducing erosion
 Annuals: It gives more seed in short period this it provides sufficient food than do perennials.
2. Construction of cover:
 This approach can add many species including rabbits and quail
 Artificial Nest Boxes, Nesting platforms, brush piles.
Manipulations of edge:
 Another common type of habitat management

 It is done by setting back and or advancing the succession
 The manipulated habitat becomes a mosaic of smaller patches providing a larger varieties of habitat types per
unit area
 By mowing
 BY forest cut
 By planting
 Protection or preservation of mature woodland
Mitigation:
 It is a special and potentially very important form of habitat management

 Basically, it is a procedure for compensating for habitat losses caused by development
 This compensation is done by securing and improving similar habitats elsewhere
 The WL population losses in the developed area will be offset by population increases in the mitigated area.
Fire as a management tool
Fire?
 Cheapest option for creating early successional habitat.

 Mosaic of habitat by fire.
 Breaking the seed dormancy, increased regeneration, reduce, prevents large fires
 Burn area-animals hub due to new sprouts
 Some species are intolerant of fire (pigmy hug)
Fire as tool:
 Frequency, intensity, seasonality is important

 Small area first-experimental basis
 Create a fire breaks
 Season, temperature, wind speed and direction.
 Canopy fire spread over a large areas than surface fire
 Crown fires in coniferous forests due to resin smaller needles, branches etc
Fire as a management tool
Effect of burning:
1. Remove accumulated, inedible phyto-mass

2. Stimulate the growth of fresh shoot
3. Reduce fire hazards
4. Prepares seed bed for desired forage species
5. Increase inflorescence production egindigofera
6. Reduce insect population
7. Influence the animal distribution in a range
Depending upon:
 low intensity: ground fire-short term effects

 High intensity: crown fire-long term effects
Case study:
1. Claude Martin-1975: Barsingha in Kanha:
 Extremely high grazing pressure by chital, quick loss in post burn regeneration, severe food shortage,
regeneration in plant community.
 Burning was stopped- Animal numbers continued to increase-kept grass height low-woodland
invasion increased.
 Suggested periodic hunting
2. Addrew laurie-1976: Rhino in Chitwan&Kaziranga
 Unburned patches: not used by rhinos

 Immediately after burning: rhinos started to eat
3. Eric Dinnerstein-1979: Herbivores community in Karnali-Bardiya WLR

 annual fires induces grass growth at a time when grazing conditions are least favorable
 Strongly advocates burning for herbivores
4. Johnsingh-1976: Herbivores in Bandipur:
 Fire: growth of tender grass-influenced movement of elephant & gaur and frequent use of burned
patches.
 Post fire situation witnessed dramatic increase in group size of chital
 Frequently burned areas-predominance of thorny species
 Suggested patchy but periodic burning of grasslands
3.3 Management Techniques;
Food production: as previous
Water hole management;
 Constructing a pond on your property is a relatively simple and inexpensive way to attract a wide diversity of
wildlife.
 Water holes can provide you and your family with endless enjoyment and educational opportunities, while
providing for species that are in need of water to fulfill life requirement.
 Wildlife habitat is comprised of three requirements: food, water and cover. By constructing a water hole, or
pond, you can provide one.
 If not all, of these requirements for many species of wildlife that will visit your property.
 Many birds and mammals will use the water hole as a place to find food and water, including small mammals,
deer and turkeys. If you provide a shallow area, birds will use it as a bath.
 Amphibians such as frogs, toads, newts and salamanders will also be drawn to the water. Toads, salamanders
and some frogs may only use the pond for reproductive purposes, whereas, some frogs will stay year round.
 In addition to all of these large inhabitants, many aquatic insects and invertebrates will use the pond, providing
the base of the food chain for many wildlife species.
There are four basic pond categories: earthen, preformed, cement and lined. Choosing which type is best depends upon
your individual needs and property characteristics.
Earthen Pond:
 Good habitat consists of two permanent water sources for every square mile. A pond 1-10 acre in size and 5 or
6 feet deep will suffice in providing permanent water resources.
 If you live in an area where the water table is close to the ground surface, or the soil will hold water, you can
simple dig a hole, and it will fill with water.
 One precaution – if the water table fluctuates during the year, or the soil type does not hold water well, your
pond may dry up during periods of drought.
 A seasonal pond will support certain wildlife species, but it will not attract as many species as a permanent
pond, and of course, it will not provide water during periods of drought when wildlife most needs it.
 If you are digging a water-table pond, then you will need to put the pond in low area of your property where
the water table should be closest to the ground surface.
 If you are providing water on a ridge, you can build a levee at the head of a ravine of draw, or build a levee
around a shallow dug pond.
 If you dig deep into the soil, there is the possibility of hitting bedrock making the pond unable to hold water.
Always check the soil type to make sure your location will hold water.
 Levee and dams should always be kept free of trees and brush. If you notice muskrat activity in your pond,
you should trap the muskrats to prevent erosion problems and potentials loss of the dam.
Preformed Ponds;
 Preformed ponds are available in a variety of shapes, usually constructed using fiberglass or molded plastic.
 These ponds can be placed above or below ground and are almost indestructible.
 The hardiness of these ponds makes them desirable, although, they limit your creativity in designing a pond
and even the largest preformed ponds are relatively small.
 There disadvantage are somewhat overcome by the fact that more and more shapes and sizes are becoming
available as interest in backyard ponds increases.
 Another drawback for performed ponds is the cost. They are about twice as expensive as the flexible liners.
Cement Ponds:
 A cement pond is fairly simple to construct. After digging the pond, line the inside with cement to seal it.
 The cement should be at least 4 inches thick and reinforced with chicken wire or hardware cloth.
 The pond liners are flexible, and like cement, allow for almost unlimited design creativity. After the pond hole
is dug, the liner is stretched across the top, and filled with water.
 The fact that the liner conforms to the hole you dig makes the possibilities for shape and design almost
limitless.
 The main disadvantage is that the liner can be punchered.
 If, after the hole is dug, there are root stubs or jagged, rocky edges, old carpet can be laid down prior to
applying the liner, to help protect against puncture.
Providing habitat in the pond:
 A healthy pond has some earth on the bottom and emergent vegetation such as rushes, sedges or cattails.
 There is usually no need to plant vegetation in earthen ponds. Plants will naturally colonize the pond edge and
provide food, and cover for wildlife as well as needed substrate for invertebrates.
 If, however, you wish to provide some additional plants beneficial to wildlife, they may be purchased from
aquatic nurseries.
 Wildlife will almost immediately begin using the pond. Once there, the animals should return yearly to your
pond to breed, and their presence will attract other wildlife.
 Wildlife has to survive all year around your pond, and only insect eggs can withstand freezing. Toads require
loose soils (sandy is best) in which they can dig down below the frost line and over winter.
 Most small frogs (spring peepers and chorus frogs) prefer leaf litter. To give added cover for small frogs and
tadpoles, put some leaves and branches in your pond.
 Some frog and toad species need a substrate on which to attach eggs. Branches and leaves will provide
structure, as well as add shallow water, and healthy vegetation, nutrients for small tadpoles and frogs.
 Piles of rocks placed in are also important to provide perching places for frogs and birds, and other pond life,
such as dragonflies.
 Artificial houses for wood ducks, purple martins, bats and other birds and mammals may be provided near the
pond.
 If the pond is large enough and the landowner wishes, a small island or nesting structures for Canada geese
may attract a nesting pair.
Buffer Zones (for protecting the water holes)
 To prevent your pond from filling with soil and receiving too many nutrients, it is important to prevent direct
runoff from the surrounding areas.
 This can be achieved by providing a buffer strip but not moving the grass directly surrounding the pond.
 The grasses act as filter system to remove sediments from the water before it reaches the pond.
 For a buffer strip that provides even greater habitat benefits, plant native warm season grasses around the
perimeter.
 This not only improves the pond water quality, but the entire wildlife habitat as well as, by providing good
cover for wildlife year round.
 In addition to keeping soil and excess nutrients out, chemical run-off into your pond is something else you
want to consider when you are deciding where to build your pond.
 Herbicides have relatively little affected on amphibians, but all insecticides, and most fungicides, are fatal
even in tiny doses.
 The habitat in most areas can be improved by providing a water sources for wildlife.
 Even small water holes can be beneficial to variety of wildlife species, and can add to the enjoyment of
viewing wildlife on your property.
Wetland improvement (management)
The values of wetlands
Wetlands have been called the kidneys of the landscapes, because they can filter out sediments from surface water
runoff and absorb surplus chemicals. Wetlands also replenish groundwater supplies and serve as water retention basins,
thus contributing to flood water control. Wetlands are particularly important to wildlife.
Descriptions of wetlands habitat
Defining wetlands have been the subjects of great debate. However, most wetlands can be identified easily by three
basic characteristics. First is the presence of water. Water levels may range from just moist or saturated soil to water
depths greater than three feet. Wetlands receive their water from three primary sources: surface runoff, ground water
discharge, and direct precipitation. Water conditions shape the character of any wetland.
Second, wetlands are defined according to soil type. Wetlands soils, in their undrained state, are usually saturated,
flooded, or pounded long enough during the growing season to develop conditions that favor the development of
wetland vegetation
Third, wetlands are defined by the types of vegetation growing in them. Plants such as cattails, sedges, and bulrushes
that prefers water conditions ranging from moist to pounded are commonly associated with wetland habitat.
Wetlands types are classified according to plant composition and water depth. The following are the most common
types of wetlands which are given here.
Wet woods: Wet woods are dominated by trees taller than 15 feet. Tree species such as green ash, swamp white oak,
pin oak, hackberry, red maple, and silver maple are prevalent. Soils are usually saturated orpounded with less than three
inches of water.
Scrub/Shrub wetlands; These wetlands are dominated by shrubs such as silky, gray and red osier dogwood,
buttonbush, common alder, willow, and elderberry and hardwood trees less than 15 feet tall.
Wet Meadows: Wet meadows have water depths of less than six inches for a exerted period during the growing season.
Vegetation consists primarily of passes and sedges. Forbs can also be found. Annuals such as beggars –stick barnyard
grass, and smartweed commonly pioneer disturbed areas and mud flats.
Shallow Water Marsh: This type of wetlands has a water depth between 6 inches and two feet for an exerted period
during the growing season. Some open water is usually mixed with vegetation such as cattail, bulrush, arrowhead, bur
reed, and water plantain.
Deep Water Marsh: A deep water marsh wetland has an estimated water depth greater than two feet for an exerted
period during the growing season 9but is not a pond or lake). The area is primarily open water, sparsely vegetated with
floating and submergingplants such as water lily, lotus, and pond weed.
A single wetland area may be composed of two or more of these types. Such a composite is called a wetland complex.
Which is preferred wetland situation for wildlife?
Wetlands are subject to change in plant composition a structure as water depths fluctuates due to natural causes, such as
drought. Man-made alterations such as excavation, draining, and filling can also induce severe changes in the makeup.
Although natural and artificial changes in wetlands can be beneficial, most changes disrupt the complex water cycles
and impair the wetlands ability to attract and sustain wildlife populations. Existing wetlands should be restored.
What attract wildlife to the wetlands?
 The use of wetlands by wildlife is influenced largely by three factors: water levels, mix of cover and open
water, and the height, arrangement, and density of wetland plants.
 The last two factors are directly connected to the first. Plant occurrences and distribution are determined by
water depth, and in turn dictate the types of animals that will use the wetland.
 Wildlife will select the vegetative zone created by the water depth that best provides for their needs, such as
food, and nesting.
 Dividing ducks feed on submergent vegetation in the deeper, more open water areas; dabbling ducks feed off
the surface in the more shallow zones; shorebirds use the exposed mud flats; songbirds seek out the cattails
and shrubs.
 The ideal type of wetland for wildlife is a hemi-marsh, one that is 505 open water and 50% vegetation.
 Hemi-marshes are mixture of open water with submerged vegetation and emergent zones that contain plants of
variables heights and densities
Selecting sites:
Certain physical characteristics identify land that is suitable for wetland creation or restoration. Because water depth
and flooding duration are critical to plant zone development, it is important to look for land that will produce the water
regime that will create the wetland habitat most accommodating to the greatest diversity of wildlife. The best potential
site for developing wetland impoundments is where former wetlands have been converted to agriculture. Use the
following criteria for determining whether a site is suitable for wetland development.
1. Topography: The slope of a wetland can be relatively flat or gentle rolling. The site should have irregular,
uneven contours that create subtle breaks in elevation. Sites with sharp relief, steep slopes and deep draws are
not suitable for creating shallow water wetlands. Crop fields that have low digressional basins that are
positioned to intercept surface water but have poor or narrow outlets lend themselves well to wetland creation.
Keep in mind that topography influences water depth, and in turn vegetation patterns. It is important to select a
site that will promote natural changes in water levels. Choosing a site with good topography will reduce the
cost of restoration
2. Soils: Soils formed under wet conditions are known as hydric soils. These soils should have low permeability
and have the capacity to store and sustain desired water levels. Hydric soils provide the best opportunities for
wetlands restoration, although some nonhydric sols are suitable wetlands development. hydric soils allow
more rapid established of wetland vegetation. Also watershed size and hydrology can affect while selecting
the site for wetlands developments.
Wetlands Design and constructions:
An attractive wetland for wildlife is the result of proper planning and construction. The primary objective of wetland
creation is to restore the natural features of the wetland, especially shallow water. Water depths are determined by
natural topography, excavation, and height of the dike. To achieve this objective and restore a quality wetland for
wildlife, follow these steps:
Survey:
The site must be surveyed to establish the water line (pool size), the dike location and size for embankments type
wetlands. The field survey data will also be used to draw up an engineering plan.
Type of Impoundment:
There are must basic methods for impounding water: embankment, dugout, tile cut, or ditch plug. The site determines
which method should be used.
Embankment, Dike, or Levee: (mounded and compacted soil). The embankment method is used when the topography is
either a relatively wide, shallow draw or a low, depressed area with a narrow water outlet between two high spots in the
land. The dike is placed between the two knolls and intercepts the water and impounds it on the upstream side. A dike
should have 3:1 slopes and, to maintain shallow water condition, be less than four feet high. It is always necessary to
install a structure (pipe) and/or spillway that will efficiently handle excess water during flood stages. Emergency
spillways can be built as a principal or supplemental outlet during high water. Generally, the bottom of the spillways is
constructed at the desired water level or at least 6 to 12 inches above the outlet pipe. Watershed size determines the size
of the pipe. Sites with watersheds of less than 15 acre usually require a six-inch trickle tube (PVC pipe)
Dugouts are used in flat areas. They are the most expensive shallow water wetlands because they are crates entirely by
excavation. This method can achieve the best water levels for the development of vegetative zones that are ideal for the
desired wildlife.
Tile cuts involve pinching off, plugging, cutting, or removing subsurface tile that drains the area tobe impounded. An
upright or riser pipe is then installed and attached to a functioning tile that will drain the water off when it reaches the
desired level. This impoundment method will generally create wetlands that are on average 6 to 12 inches deep. Tile
cuts are very inexpensive.
Ditch plugs involve placing fill material into an existing drainage ditch. The fill blocks the water flow and creates
pounded area on its upstream side. An outlet pipe and /or spillways serve as an overflow to handle excess water during
the spring.
Wetlands design specifications:
The following special features can be incorporated into almost any wetland design plan. Refers to figure given below:
Different water depths. A wetland should have a mix of water depths. The ideal goal is; 40% of the area at a water
depth of 1.5 feet; 30% of the area at to 0.5 to 1foot; 10% at 3 to 4 feet; and 20% of the area should be exposed mud
flats. Avoid designs that confine the deep water to the middle and the shallow water to the perimeter of the wetland.
Work with the topography.
Irregular shoreline. Wetland edges should be irregular in shape, with bays, inlets, and peninsulas.
Variable side slopes. Wetland should be soft and gentle, ranging from 10:1 to 16:1
Use of excess spoil: Excess spoil form the pool area can be used to create elevated nesting areas around the wetland or
to build submerged islands in it. Islands raised above the water level in the pool area should be constructed only if the
wetland is larger than 10 acres. Submerged and raised islands should must have a settled height of no less than two feet
above water level and should be planted to a waterfowl nesting grass.
Water control structures are optional and require time and effort to monitor and maintain. The ability to control
unwanted plants and manipulate plant composition is an advantage of water control structures.
Unit-4
Population Estimation and Analysis
4.1 Estimation of animal abundance (Direct & indirect count)

4.1.2 Transect surveys
4.1.4 Pellet-group counts
4.1.5 Roadside counts
4.1.6 Water hole counts
4.1.7 Road kills
4.1.8 Scent station surveys
4.3 Application of population genetics to wildlife management
Census:
It is defined as an actual count which includes details as to Sex, Age etc of a given species for a given area. True census
is a count of all individuals on a given area. As such it means direct or total count in areas of concentration. Aerial
photographs can be used for counting concentrated populations
Examples:
 Deer or antelope on a open country (Black buck in Khairapur)

 herds of water buffalo (in KoshiTappu)
 Water fowl in wintering ground (migratory water fowl in Koshi Barrage)
Estimates:When complete census is nt practical, samples are used to estimate population of the species
groups/individual in a given area.
Indices: Indices are census or estimates of animal populations from counts of animal signs, call etc.
Things to be considered when choosing techniques:
1. Size of an area to be covered

2. Species to be dealt with
3. Habitat it occurs in:
 Visibility of animals
 Case of access by researches
4. Activity patterns:
 daily movement
 seasonal concentration
5. Social structure:
 Solitary or in group
 may be count groups rather than individual
 cannot easily use track counts, if animal is in large groups
6. Level of precision required:
 What do you need the number for? if you need only a rough estimate of population size, do not waste
time and money on a complex techniques
 Accuracy: how close as estimate is to the truth, what is the degree of human error
 Precision: it can be measured freedom from statistical or sampling error of an estimate. The smaller
the standard error, the more precise the estimate: 95% confidence interval (≅ 𝑋 ± 2𝑆. 𝐸. 𝐴)
7. Costs: both in time and money
8. Available personnel, facilitates, equipment
Objectives:
1. To determine the rate of increasing, stable and decreasing of animals

2. To compare density of WL for area before and after management intervention like burning
3. To compare density in different areas e.g. in core and in Buffer or habitats such as plantation and natural
forest.
4. Exact count of wild animals is not possible in nature
Which species to count:
1. Generally it is possible to count all the animals in an area and probably it is not required.
2. Those species which are importance in the view point of management.
3. Species which are of international importance
4. rare endangered (Threatened category of IUCN)
5. view point of tourism or research
Classification of census techniques:
1. Count animals (true census and estimate)

2. Count signs (Tracks, call etc)
Or,
Direct Method Indirect method
 Total count  The king strip census

 Drive count  Sight and Re sight methods
 Roadside count  Pugmark Census
 Waterhole technique  Sampling for Tiger and Other Carnivores Sign
 Pellet Group count Encounter Rate
 Camera-trap method  Sampling for Ungulates Encounter Rates
 Bird census operations
Assumptions:
 Loss rate (mortality and emigration) and recruitment (natality and immigration) during the period when data
are collected are negligible
 All the members of population have an equal probability of being counted
Total Count:
It involves counting of every animal available in the habitat. However chances of double counting as well as missing
some animals during the counting process always exits. It may not be possible to assess the magnitude of such errors.
Therefore, it is preferable to combine total count with some suitable sampling procedure for reducing such errors.
Direct visual counts are suitable for larger mammals like spotted, deer, samber, brasinga, huar, wild buffalo, blackbuck,
chinkara, chousingha, barking deer, mouse deer, nilgai, and wild dog, wild pig, jackal, wolf, hyena, macaques, langurs
and bear.
 Divide area into blocks and count in individual blocks

 Different counters can count simultaneously in different sections
In field:
Counting of animals is done on two successive days for four hours soon after the sunrise, during which the enumerators
should count the animals seen by them. Simultaneous counting is done by all the enumerators by starting from a base
line and maintaining a distance of 100meters between themselves, taking note of only those animals which are seen to
their left. The spacing between the enumerators may be adjusted as per the visibility in the area, since it is essential for
the enumerators to see eacg other during the count; aligning towards the correct direction of movement can be done by
marking the trees perpendicularly to the base line. During the count, details regarding approximate age, sex and other
related evidences should also be recorded; the figures are subsequently pooled and expressed for the area counted.
Disadvantages;
1. In large areas hard to discount double counting-how can you be sure you are accurate?
2. Near impossible for elusive, secretive those species in difficult habitats e.g. forest, caves
3. Expensive
Sampling;
1. Often you can only study part or a larger area

2. You then make generalizations about the whole area based on your sample
3. This will only work if:
 Samples are representative of the whole
 The samples and study area are defined
 Sampling may take place at more than one level.
Bias and precision:
1. It is rarely possible to count an entire population accurately, and it is usually therefore necessary to make an
estimate.
2. Want estimates to ideally be unbiased and precise.
Principles of sampling;
1. Target populations: the set of all individuals from True

which the data should come abundance
2. Sampling frame: area from which sample
collected
3. Sample: sub set of individuals measured
occurring outside of the target population frame Bias: LowLow High High
Precision: High Low High
Low
Replication and inferences:
Sampling fundamentally requires samples to be representative and replicated. Replicated samples have two important
properties:
1. They ensure that wild extrapolations are not made from a single a typical example. Samples should be located
randomly in order to avoid bias. As a general rule, sampling in systematic arrangements should be avoided
2. They enable the statistical confidence in the abundance estimate to be calculated. In order to improve
precision, taking many small samples is generally preferable to few large ones. Where there is known spatial
variation (e.g. habitat types_, precision may be improved by using stratified samples.
Replicate:
1. Increase precision and representativeness

2. Allows an estimate of the precision of the generalization of the whole study area to be measured
3. How many replicates? To have confidence interval must quadruple (4X) replicates
4. Other factors such as cost and time must be taken into consideration
Populations Estimating Techniques:
Extra: from book;
Techniques of Estimating Wild Animal Abundance
Abundance is the general term referring to actual numbers trends or both of wildlife population. There are many
reasons for deciding to carry out a census. It may be to determine the importance of site, the population size of species,
the habitat requirement of a species, the population change, the reasons of the species decline or whether habitat
management has been a success or to understand the population dynamics.
It is some time possible to count the animals or plants in the whole population of interest, for example, all deer in a
forestland. Such a complete count is a true census. Wildlife managers and researchers are not able to count an entire
population each year. If a wildlife species are large, conspicuous and gregarious, diurnal, characteristics and it is found
in homogenous and open habitat, easy access by road and normally occurs at high density that makes census sing
possible and easy, otherwise, it will be difficult the census in an entire area. More often one can study only part of
population through taking representative samples. This direct method applies to most population of medium to large
ungulates.
Species occurring low densities with cryptic behaviour should be censuses either carefully planned or by indirect
methods such as pugmark count in carnivores especially in tiger. Most indirect method is only suitable for obtaining
relative indices (is a measurement that is related to the actual total number of animals or plans) of population size and
only rarely yields a good estimate of actual population number. It is true that an index is sufficient for ones purposes; a
reliable index is preferable to an unreliable count.
Because of total counts are extremely difficult to make, one may have to make do with an index even when a count
would be preferable. Selecting samples area randomly and/or systematically for censussing is done and the results of
such sample are extrapolated for the entire area over which population estimate is desired usually does sample
censuses.
Before choosing a method, wildlife researchers must consider carefully the management objectives (to define ones
objectives), the characteristics of a species (to know as much as about the species and its ecology as well as biological
consideration), nature of the habitat and terrain and the time, cost and personnel available.
Most estimating techniques that produce abundance relay up on assumptions, which, often not met, offer very
inaccurate and unreliable estimates. In this case use as wide range of different techniques as possible that satisfy the
assumption. Therefore, wisest manager then should select, analyse and interpret results cautiously and carefully.
Despites these drawbacks, wildlife manager and researchers continue to use sample count and refine techniques to
estimate population abundance. All things being equal, simple methods are always to be preferred and taken.
Many more techniques are used to estimate the population abundance of wildlife. Here, in this report, different
personnel such as wildlife and game managers, researchers etc generally used given methods. The mark and recapture
method, transect survey, changes in ratio method and pellet group counts are normally used for sample census and
others roadside counts, road kills and scent station surveys normally provide indexes. These methods are silently
described below with examples.
4.1.1 Mark and Recapture (Paterson estimate)
While selecting the techniques of animal count by Mark and Recaptures methods, we should know the targets
population and its nature. Mainly there are t two types of populations which we will deal in this technique:
a. Closed populations: no individuals enter or leave the populations between the surveys
b. Open populations: individuals enter or leave the populations between surveys
Objectives
To estimate the population of the study area

Procedures:
 Whole area is divided into smaller plots

 randomly or systematically, samples are drawn from among the plots
 From these plots animals are trapped, they are marked and released
 After a certain time interval, another trapping is conducted in the same plots or different plots and then the
marked and unmarked trapped animals are counted separately.
 The populations id estimated by the ratio of marked to unmarked animals as follows;
Formula; Survey 1 Survey 2

𝑁 𝑛 n × M Mn
= 𝑜𝑟𝑁 = =
𝑀 𝑚 m m Catch several animals Catch ‗n‘ animals
𝑀 + 1 × (𝑛 + 1)
𝑁+1= 𝑜𝑟, 𝑁
𝑚+1 Mark all ‗M‘ animals Count recaptures (m)
𝑀 + 1 × (𝑛 + 1)
= −1
𝑚+1 Return animals to Return animals to
Where, population populations
N = Population size;
M = Number of marked initially,
n = total count in re trapped sample,
m = number of marked in re-trapped sample
Examples; Sample area = 200ha, trapped and marked initially (M) = 25, re-trapped (n) = 30, number of marked in re-
trapped sample (m) = 15, N (populations size) =?
According to formula,
n × M Mn 26 × 31
𝑁= = = − 1 = 49.37 individuals = 50
m m 16
Total area of samples is 200ha, therefore 1 individuals per 4 ha.
Assumptions:
1. Each individuals has an equal chance of being captured

2. There is no births or immigration into the study area during first and second trapping seasons
3. There is no differentials, mortality or emigration between marked and unmarked of the population
4. No marks are lost during the survey period
5. When would Peterson give us a bad estimate?
 Population not closed
 Marked animals likely to be re-trapped
 Marked animals likely to be die
 Marks fall off
Marking in Mark-recaptured Techniques;
 Must be able to recognize individuals you have captured before

 Some species may have unique marking you can use (can be applied to camera trapping)
 Mammals-clip fur
 Amphibians and reptiles-number of methods each with their pros and cons
Skin staining:
 Nail varnish or non-toxic paint can be used with reptiles but not amphibians
 For amphibians a dye can be sprayed into the skin with a dental (pan jet) injector (has caused injury)
 Inexpensive
 Can uniquely mark many individuals.
 Marks usually short livid
 Must ensure it does not compromise its survival
 A dye is sprayed into the skin with a dental (panjet) injector.
Toe clipping:
 Used in amphibians and reptiles-cut one or more digits from hands or feet
 Inexpensive
 Large number of individuals can be recognized
 Some number of individuals can be recognized
 Some discussion in literature that it reduces survival
 Digits of aureoles re-grow
 Only good for adults amphibians
 Cruel for arboreal reptiles or house with fleshy toes.
Advantages
 This method is applied all reptiles, all species of birds (preferred), widely used in fish, rabbits but large
animals difficult to handled.
Disadvantages
 Very time consuming, costly, risk more, requires trained manpower, harder to catch large animals and
difficult. If marked do affect the animal population estimates are seriously biased. It needs more than 30%
captured for precise estimate (SE of 10%). rarely possible except with small mammals. Hibernating or
aestivating during the studying time does not represent actual population. One-caught animals may become
either trap-shy reluctant (lower estimate) or trap happy (higher estimate
4.1.2 Transects Survey: (Strip)
 This methods is also known as strip census methods or line transect method and is applied to many conscious
vertebrates
 In this method, survey routes or transects are randomly or systematically place throughout the study area
 An observer then walks or flies in a light aircraft along each transect route at the same time of day, season and
weather condition, and count animals seen with in a constant distance of the survey line
 The length and width of the transects line provide estimates of the area samples and thus allow an estimate of
density
 It may be a meter when frogs are counted, 100m when large mammals are counted in heavy forest, or 500m
when animals of this size are census in grassland
 Also frequently used for monitoring population abundance
 This method is one of the rapid and relatively inexpensive means to estimate population density of many
conspicuous mammals and migratory birds
Examples:
10km of transect lines are randomly placed though a study area. The researcher‘s walks along the line, counting a total
of 11 Laguna with in 25m (0.025km) on either side of transect.
Average area of survey = Line Length × Twice the strip width

(10 × 0.025 × 2) km² or, 0.50km²
Therefore, density = 11 Laguna per 0.5km² or 22 Laguna per km²
So,
𝐴𝑍
𝑃=
2𝑥𝑦
Where,
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦,
𝑥 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝,
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑍 = 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛
Line Transects:
 Travel along a line recording all individuals on either side

 Strip transect
1. Draw a base line on the map of the area
2. Draw transects perpendicular to the baseline
3. Randomly select transects to sample
4. Can be used for mammals (conspicuous species) and for herpefauna
5. Spotlighting can be used at a night
6. The number of individuals counted within a given distance at a set speed will give in index of relative
abundance
7. transect data can be converted to density –distance
8. length and distance between transects depends on species, habitat e.g. km‘s for savannah mammals,
200m for stream dwelling frogs
9. For herpetofauna must decide the width of the transect n which you will be catching individuals
10. Counting efficiency decreases after 3 hours.
Advantage:
1. Simple
2. Cheap
3. Can be done in most habitats/terrains
4. Combined with mark recaptures to estimate population size
Disadvantages;
1. Will underestimate inconspicuous species

2. Will underestimate if individuals flee before counted
3. Transect route must be representative of area
4. Bias if there is a large difference in the surveyors ability
Distance sampling;
Rationale: The probability of detection decreases the further the individuals in away from the observer
True distance line transect Indirect distance measurements
Indirect distance measurements;
So if you were walking a transects and saw an animal 150m away at an angle of 38 the perpendicular distance to the
animal from the transect would be 92m.
Assumptions;
1. Animals on the point or line are detected without fail

2. Animals are detected at their initial location, before any movement in response to the observer
3. Distance and angle measurements are exact
4. Sightings of animals are independent of one another.
Which methods when?
Strip transects:
 Populations that occur in large, loose clusters (e,g, walruses)

 Stationary objects, at high density, and easily detected.
Line transects;
 Sparsely distributed populations for which sampling needs to be efficient (e,g, Whales, deer)
 Populations that occurs in well-defined cluster and at low or medium cluster density (e.g. dolphin or fish
schools)
 Populations that rare detected through a flushing response (e.g. grouse, hares)
Point transects:
 Populations at high density, especially if surveys are multi-species (e.g. songbirds)

 Populations that occur in patchy habitat
 Populations that occur in difficult terrain, or on land where access to walk predetermined lines is problematic
(e.g. bird populations in rain forest or on arable farmland)
(By BishnuDevkota)
Population
 A group of individuals of a species living in a certain area that maintains some degree of reproductive
isolation.
 A population is defined as a number of animals of a particular species inhabiting a common geographical area
at a given time.
Population Ecology concentrates mainly on the factors that affect how many individuals of a particular species live in
an area
Estimates: When complete census is not practical, samples are used to estimate population of the species
groups/individual in a given area.
Indices: Indices are census or estimates of animal populations from counts of animal signs, call etc.
How are populations measured?
 Count all the individuals in a population

 Estimate by sampling
Things to be considered when choosing a technique:
1. Size of an area to be covered

2. Species to be dealt with
3. Habitat it occurs in
 Visibility of animals
 Ease of access by researchers
4. Activity patterns
 Daily movement
 Seasonal concentration
5. Social structure
 Solitary or in group
 May be group count rather than individual
 Track counts cannot be easily used if animal are in large groups
6. Level of precision required
 What do you need the number for? If you need only a rough estimate of population size, do not waste time
and money on a complex technique
Accuracy: how close as estimate is to the truth, what is the degree of human error
Precision: it can be measured freedom from statistical or sampling error of an estimate. The smaller the standard
error, the more precise the estimate
7. Costs
 time and money
8. Available personnel, facilities, equipment
What is monitoring?
 To watch, to keep track of, or check for a specified purpose‘

 Populations, species, habitats
 Monitor a state variable over time to detect change
– Distribution
– Population size
– Species richness
– Species diversity
 Series of standardized surveys
Why monitor?
 Monitoring is needed to
 Assess the effectiveness of conservation measures
 Provide early warning of problems
 Results of monitoring should be fed into regional, national and global conservation targets
E.g. 2010 Biodiversity Target of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Conservation needs monitoring
 Knowledge of species abundance and

distribution is fundamental
 Conservation of threatened species
– Small populations
– Declining populations
 Management of pest species
 Managing harvested populations
Conservation needs monitoring
 Detection of growth rates of

populations is essential: If declining fast, can intervene before population becomes too small
 Science or evidence based Wildlife conservation and Management
Counting animals is not easy because….
 Threatened species rare and elusive

 Low density populations
 Dense and remote habitat
 Difficult field conditions
4.1 Estimation of animal abundance (Direct &indirect count)
Census
 It is defined as an actual count which includes details as to sex, age etc of a given species for a given area and
time. True census is a count of all individuals on a given area
 Census in wildlife deals with the estimation of abundance of animals (and plant) populations.
 It can be split into those dealing with observations on actual individuals and those based on other evidences, a
distinction sometimes referred to as direct and indirect census.
 Census can be based on qualitative criteria: none, few, many or based on quantitative measurements: 5, 10, 20
 Census operations can purely aim at determining trends or indices of population growth, and those that are
aimed at actual population numbers.
Example: Deer or antelopes on open area (blackbuck in Khairapur), heard of water buffaloes and gaur (koshitappu
and Chitwan), Waterfowl i(koshitappu), sweep count of Rhino (Chitwan)
Sample
 When complete census is not practical due to large area, low labour availability, low resources availability and
nature of species, samples are used.
 A sample count is one where a pre-determined portion of the area is searched usually in a number of small
proportion of the area.
 In sample estimates, sample techniques measure the population directly while other measure an attribute
(index) which is related to the population. For example: pellet group count, transect survey, call counts nest
counts, mark and recapture, mark and kill techniques, trapping etc.
Indices: Indices are census or estimates of animal populations derived from counts of animal signs, calls etc.
Classification of Census and Sample techniques: Census and sample can be classified into direct count, indirect
count based on their methods.
Direct Count: Visible Count all visible animals

Total count: Spatial Count (Drive method, visual method, aerial method)
Sample/partial count: Block Count, Transect count (road / road transect count, king transect count (king method or
king green method)
Indirect Count (Tracks, call, pug marks)
Count all sign in a given area

Track and trail method or pug mark count, dung / pellet count, hunting record count, call index or trend count
 The simplest form of this method is known variously as the Paterson index, the Lincon index and the Paterson
estimate.
 Mark-recapture models have been widely used by field biologists and ecologists
 In a typical model, the target population is sampled several times
 Marking or tagging is necessary because it would be almost impossible to count every animal
 Most often used in determining the populations of wildlife that cannot be reasonably counted
 Mark-recapture studies involve the initial capture of a random and representative sample of animals, which are
marked and then released back into the population.
 At a later time, another random sample is captured, and the number of animals previously marked is recorded.
 If certain assumptions hold, the ratio of marked animals to total animals in the second sample, together with
the known number of marked animals, can be used to estimate total population size
Time is then allowed for the marked individuals to mix with the unmarked individuals.
Then another sample is captured.
Assumption 1
 Closed population: During the interval between the preliminary marking period and the subsequent recapture
period, nothing has happened to upset the proportions of marked to unmarked animals (that is, no new
individuals were born or immigrated into the population, and none died or emigrated).
 You should also be aware that the length of the sampling period is very important. The shorter the time
interval between marking and recapturing individuals reduces the likelihood that this assumption will be
violated.
Assumption 2
 The chances for each individual in the population to be caught are equal and constant for both the initial
marking period and the recapture period.
 What would trap-shy and trap-happy individuals do to population estimates?
Assumption 3
 Sufficient time must be allowed between the initial marking period and the recapture period for all marked
individuals to be randomly dispersed throughout the population.
Assumption 4
 Animals do not lose their marks. This is an important factor for animals that shed or molt as they grow or as
they respond to seasonal factors.
 The population is estimated by the ratio of marked to unmarked animals as following
Total population (N) Total marked animal (M)


Total animal captured in second time (n) Total marked animals among recaptured (m)
Example: In an area the population estimation of rabbits is to be performed. Assume that the sample area is 52 hectares,
trapped and marked initially = 13. After a few days re-trapped 20 individuals of which 5 were the marked rabbits
earlier.
Hence
N = n X M / m = 20 X 13 / 5 = 52 rabbits with in 52 hectare

Population Density = 52 Number / 52 hectare = 1 rabbit per hectare
 This method can be applied to almost any vertebrates that can be caught easily.
 This technique is labor intensive and time consuming, so it is expensive
 It is not suitable method for large areas.
Camera Trapping
 In traditional capture-recapture studies, target species (fish, birds, reptiles, mammals) are usually marked using
artificial tags or bands.
 However, tigers have natural body markings in the form of stripes, which allow us to identify individually.
 Setting out camera traps within some area of interest
 Cover the area fairly completely
 In most camera trapping situations, it would be unwise to trap for only two sample period. Traps are set for
several consecutive days. Each day is considered as a sample period.
Tiger: Camera Trapping
 Placing of cameras on both side of the trail

 Cameras can be infrared active or passive model
 One station to another 1.5 to 2km and are place for 15 days
 Height of cameras 45 cm from the ground
 Minimum of 10 sets of cameras should be used at once
 Capture recapture model to estimate the population
Camera Trapping – Individual Identification
 Body stripes
 Facial Marking
 Tail Marking
4.1.2Transect surveys
 This method is also known as strip census method or line-transect method and is applied to many conspicuous
vertebrates.
 In this method, survey routes or transects are randomly or systematically placed throughout the study area.
 An observer then walks, elephant ride or flies in a light aircraft along each transect route at the same time of
day.
 Season and weather condition, and count animals seen within a constant distance of the survey line.
 The length and width of the transect line provide estimates of the area sampled and thus allow and estimate of
density.
 This method is one of the rapid and relatively inexpensive means to estimate population density of many
conspicuous mammals and migratory birds.
 For accurate and precise results replicate the census.
Number of Animals seen or observed

Density 
Length of transect  Width of transect (Average width of seen animals)
Total study Area (A)  Number of animals seen or observed (Z)

Population (P) 
Transect's Length (X)  Transect' s width  2
Example: 100 km of transect lines are randomly placed throughout a study area. The researcher walks along the line,
counting a total of 11 deer within 25 meters on either side of the transect.
Average Area Surveyed = line length X twice the strip width = 100 km X 2 X 0.0025 = 0.5 km 2
Observed Animal = 11 deer
Density = 11/0.5 = 22 deer per square km
Distance sampling:
 Distance from the transect line to the point where

each individual was first observed
 No animal movement before they observed
 Sighting should be individual events with the
animal distributed randomly throughout the study area
Assumption:
 Assumes probability of detection declines with increasing

distance
 Use a number of line or point transects to sample a
population
 Estimate detection probability by measuring distances
 These methods assume that all animals within the sample area are encountered, which in virtually all cases is a
practical impossibility.
 Because of this, classical transects nearly always underestimate animal density.
 Consequently, despite the much greater effort and expense required, mark-recapture studies have often been
employed when precision is important.
 This method is useful in a variety of circumstances where animals are selectively removed or added to a
population
 We designate two classes as X and Y (this could be colour, phase, sexes, age cluster or even two different
species) while conducting a census that will give a ratio of the two classes to one another
 First selectivity adds or removes one class from the population and again follows up survey and can estimate
the ratio again
 The population size at the time of the first survey is given by
N1 = Cx- (p2) C / p2-p1
Where,
N1 = population size at the time of first survey.

N2 = population size of 2nd survey.
P1= population of X-individuals in N1
P2= population of X-individuals in N2
Cx= no. of X-individual added (+) or removed (-) from the population between surveys
Cy= no. of Y-individual added (+) or removed (-) from the population between surveys
C= Cx+Cy
Example
Suppose, we are doing a study of deer reproduction and we are going to remove some females from the population, first
we estimate the proportion of the females in the population, P1 = 0.64
We collect a sample of 50 females (Cx = -50) and males (Cy = -10)

Second survey immediately after the sample estimates the proportion of females to be P2 = 0.51
N1 = Cx- (p2) C / p2-p1
= (-50)-(0.51) (-5—10)/0.51-0.64
= 382 deers of both sexes
Assumption
 The two classes are equally available in each survey. No natural mortality between surveys.
 All removals and additives are recorded.
 Population is closed not opened.
4.1.4 Pellet-group counts:
 This method is applicable where condition of terrain (location/land) and climate permits, population density of
large ungulates (hoofed mammals) are estimated by densities of fecal pellets and the rate at which they are
deposited.
 It is actually an indicator of animal presence, which can be used to establish trends and examine relative
abundance. It can be used as an index of abundance.
Example
Time 1 150 droppings per ha
Time 2 300 droppings per ha
Inference the population size had doubled
But, population size could remain unchanged and defecation rate could double??????
Procedures
 This indirect census technique, are generally used for terrestrial and semi aquatic animals
 Where condition of terrain and climate permits, researchers can estimates population density of large
ungulates by estimating the densities of fecal pellets and the rates at which they are deposited
 This is mainly suitable for cervids whereby number of faces deposited over a known time periods can be used
as an index to animal abundance.
 To collect the data, study area is stratified by habitat type
 Randomly placed plots are distributed with in strata based on size of the strata
 Plots should be permanent and cleared of all pellets. Size of plot depends on vegetation and ease of sighting
faces. The smaller the plot, the more we will need to use, too big we can‘t search effectively. Plots are
generally two types, circular (10-100 sq km) and strip plot (3 * 100m, 4 * 500 m, 2 * 500m) are common size.
 In the survey area a series of sample plots are cleared of "old" pellet group and then counting the number of
fresh pellet groups after a number of days. Later the pellet group density can be converted into an estimate of
population density.
 In an unit area, the number of pellet group discharged by the individuals of the particular species in a
particular time (generally 1 month or 30 days) is found out and then dividing this numbers by standard
defecation rate, the density of the population is calculated and subsequently total population (by multiplying
density with the total area).
D = P/ t d a
Where,
D= population density
P = Number of pellet group observed or found
t = time interval
d = defecation rate
a = area surveyed
This technique, used to estimate deer density, requires 4 pieces of data:
1. Number of pellet groups deposited per day per deer (constant)

2. Period of time pellet groups are deposited (variable)
3. Number of pellet groups counted in plots (variable)
4. Area sampled by plots for pellet groups (variable)
Example: If in 50 sample plots, each having 0.006 ha (30 m X 2 m = 60 m2), the number of pellet-groups of deer has
been found 135 in 30 days, then the number of deer in each km2 is to find out (supposing one deer in one day makes 15
pellet groups). And also find the population in a terrain having the area of 10 km2.
Solution:
Area (a) = 50 sample plots of 60 m2 = 0.003 km2

Number of Pellet Group observed (p) = 135
Time interval (t) = 30 days
Average defecation rate (d) = 15
Density of Animal (D) =?
Applying formula:
D= p/tda = 135 / 30 X 15 X 0.003 = 100 per km2

Assumption
1. It is assumed that animal deposit on an average pellet group each day.

2. Pellet group persists long enough to be counted. Groups can be found and counted accordingly a deposition
period can be delineated. Group found can be aged relations deposition.
Potential problem:
 Correct identification of pellet groups recognition and separation of different groups of droppings???
 Nilgai, samber, chital individual pellets looks similar, chital pellet is small but adult chital Vs young nilgai?
 Latrin pellet (Nilgai) deposited in large heaps but some time individual groups of pellet may also be nilgais
and could be confused with samber
 Separation of different groups is based on thought and experience.
 How carefully does one search for pellet? As this is for relative abundance, therefore make sure intensity does
not change during the survey
 Sample plot should be design to allow easy searching
4.1.5 Road side count:
 It is also a procedure to obtaining trend indices of game animal.

 It is used to detect population trend
 Roads are traveled for the specific purpose of counting of the number of individual of the species, which are
then related to distance traveled
e.g. 20 km census route and 10 rabbit seen then census index would be 10/20 = 0.5 rabbit per km.
Advantage of this method: large area can quickly and easily traversed
The factor affecting the road side counting:
 Activity of the animals are affected by hours, day, food supply and weather
 Condition of roadside cover
Procedures:
1. It is common methods because it is rapid, inexpensive and is suitable over large area however it is merely be
used to detect population trends from season to season or year to year.
2. This simple methods, the sampling units is transect, a strip like area with a narrow width and the road running
down the long axis
3. The width of transect depends on the visibility of the target animals
4. Two types of transects (open and closed) are used. In both transect open width is preferred
5. Sampling area not less than 2.5% of study area. Recorded the animals seen per km of road driven or walked at
the fixed speed constant time of day (usually early morning or late evening) and a constant time of a year
6. The number of animals counted divided by the number of miles or km gives an animal index figure as
Index (i) = x number of animals observed / miles or km walked
Assumption:
 Habitat should be in homogenous. Roads should be passed from different habitat.

 As with all samples, transects counted must be representative for the stratum (area eg core, buffer or habitat
example grassland forest) being sampled.
 Activity of the animals is assumed in normal in some time. Seasonal behaviour, time and daily use food water
supply are in normal condition.
4.1.6 Waterhole count:
 A census technique where large animals are counted from a hide as they visit waterholes is in widespread use
in the drier parts.
 The technique is used where all dry season water sources are known, when such sources are not too numerous
and where water sources are distinct localities widely scattered in the census area.
 The method does have value as an index count, but the large number of untested assumptions means that there
is no validity for its use to estimate actual population size.
Assumptions:
 There is linear relationship for each animal species between the number of animals seen drinking per time
period and the number of animals seen in area.
 Field staff are able to record an unbiased estimate of animal numbers drinking at a waterhole, i.e staff remain
awake, are literate and that their presence in a hide does not deter animal from drinking.
Procedures:
1. The survey should be undertaken at the time of year with the least availability of water. This is often during
mid April to late May.
2. A prior survey should locate all water sources in the entire census area. Simple access to the water points
should be opened and a machan/hide constructed.
3. Machan construction should be for at least two people and whilst allowing for adequate visibility should be far
enough away from the water that animals are not deterred from using the water sources. Machans should be
complete a few days before the census period.
4. A census period during full moon should be chosen.
5. Field staff should be selected well in advance, using one experienced literate person plus one helper for each
machan. Staff should check their machan suitability before the census operations.
6. Staff should be trained in methodology and in using the proforma, by a trial run sitting at a waterhole for a few
hours, and they should be aware of the objective and importance of the census. They should take food, water,
clothes etc. with them for the full census period. Binoculars and watch should be available to staffs.
7. The census should continue for a full 24 hours after data collection begin.
8. The proforma should be filled with its details.
9. Compile all the forms from different waterholes and analyze the data.
4.1.7 Road Kills:
Assumption
 Animal population is normal in study areas. The animals kill in only in accidents not intentionally.
Procedures:
1. The frequencies of road killed animals used to estimate as index to population trends
2. It is not standard method. Researchers used the frequency of road killed in continuously monthly, quarterly,
yearly and so on
3. It may be more in reproduction and dispersal time. Road kill rate did not correlate daily traffic volume but did
correlate with average vehicle speed
4. If the vehicle speed standardized, road kills could provide a useful index of population trends. The following
index can be used.
I = number of killed animals/time of month or year or seasons
Road kill is an animal or animals that have been struck and killed by motor vehicles.
Mammals are the animals most likely to be recorded as road kill
4.1.8 Scent station survey:
Tracks detected at scented baits (scent stations) have been used for decades to index abundances and monitor
distributions of carnivores (Cook 1949, Richards and Hine 1953, Wood 1959)
Scent-stations are a low-cost, time-efficient method to determine the relative abundance of canied species. They are
particularly suitable for jackals, which travel roads for territory marking purposes. They also allow the detection of
presence/absence of secretive species such as the brown hyena, black-footed cat, etc.
Secretive habits of most carnivore species and the low density of most carnivore populations preclude accurate, precise,
and inexpensive estimation of population size. Hence, indices of relative abundance often substitute.
How to run scent stations
Equipment:You will need the following tools: And the following materials:
1. Shovel, 1. Cotton pads,

2. Broom, 2. Nails,
3. mall bucket, 3. Water (~1.5 l per station),
4. Fine sieve, 4. Very fine sand or dust (~6 kg p. s.),
5. Softbrush, 5. Synthetic fermented egg solution (or other
6. Watering can , smelling agent)
7. Hammer,
8. Eyedropper,
9. Calliper
Site:
 Depending on area of interest, establish a series (e.g., 3-6) of transect lines randomly throughout the site
 Preferred sites for transects are long, straight unimproved roads or trails. Each transect should consist of min.
10 scent stations, spaced at least 0.5 km apart
 Along each transect, place scent-stations next to the road, so animals traveling roads can readily visit them
 Alternate the scent-stations between both sides of the road
Choose a season that is not windy or rainy. Check the forecast-weather should ideally be uniform for all station-nights.
Winter is preferable, because all animals should be adult size, and yearlings should have dispersed (leaving only
resident animals).
Making the station:
It takes about 5-7 m/scent-station.
 Clear a 1-m circular space. Level the ground and remove all vegetation using the shovel. With the broom
sweep away small rocks and excess sand. The surface should be as hard and smooth as possible.
 Sift a thin layer of sand on top of this cleared surface. Even it out with a soft brush.
 Pour water over the top, evenly, making sure that no water marks are left. Wait for the water to soak into the
ground.
 Nail the cotton pad in the centre of the station. Make sure it cannot be easily removed.
 Sift more sand on top of the station, leaving a layer of fine dust.
 Bait the station. Using an eyedropper, put 1 ml of the scent solution on the pad.
 With the soft brush, clear away the area immediately surrounding the station. This could provide additional
data (the animal‘s path, stride, etc.).
 Approach carefully, noting any additional tracks or sign leading to the scent station.
 Examine each station carefully, as some tracks are very light. Record whether or not the station was operable,
as tracks could have been obliterated by wind, rain, excessive use by other animals, etc. Record the tracks of
each species present. Measure and photograph if necessary.
When finished, brush away the tracks, and sift more sand on top of the station. If pad is missing or seriously
damaged, replace it and add more scent solution. If possible, sweep the ground immediately surrounding the
station.
Run stations for 1-5 nights in a row.
 Population analysis involves the study of population dynamics: the change that occurs over time and the
causes of these changes.
 The analysis deals with why that many individuals are present-not more-not fewer-and what governs the
number.
 What prevents the population from growing infinitely large? What keeps it from becoming extinct?
 For species that are economic pests, ways of reducing numbers are sought. For game species, managers desire
to maintain populations at levels that provide surpluses for harvest. For threatened species, the goal is to
increase their numbers to avoid extinction.
 Meeting the above objectives requires an understanding of the species population dynamics as the first
priority.
 For a population, it makes sense to speak for a birth rate, a death rate, a sex ratio, and an age structure (Cole
1957), concepts that lack meaning for lower levels of biological organization (individuals) or higher levels
(communities or ecosystem).
 The subject of population dynamics includes the number of individuals in a population and the factors that
affect population size:
1. The survival of those individuals

2. Their reproduction
3. Their movement into and out of the population (immigration and emigration)
 If all factors were known for a population, understanding its dynamics would be straightforward. But this is
never achieved, and biologist is forced to make decisions based on an incomplete understanding.
 Population analysis often requires modeling of some sort, especially to bridge gaps in knowledge.
 A model may be complex mathematical beast, incorporating thousands of variables and equations and
requiring hours of mainframe computer time to analyze.
 Or it may be a simple heuristic concept, such that deer produce more fawn when browse is ample than when it
is scarce.
 Models of population may vary in attributes; in discrete time models, events such as births, occur only at
certain times, such as short breeding season within a year. In continuous time modes, events occur throughout
time.
 Time jumps in a discrete model, flows in a continuous model (Starfield and Bleloch, 1986).
 In a deterministic model, parameter values are fixed and the results from the model depend only on the values
of the input variables.
 In a stochastic model, certain parameters vary randomly; their statistical distributions rather than exact values
are specified.
 If the variation of the system is important, stochastic models are usually more suitable than deterministic ones.
 The availability of usable estimates often dictates the kind of model that can be constructed, so modeling and
estimation go hand in hand.
Population growth:
 The change in population size over time can be calculated by adding birth (B) and number of immigrants (I) to
the original population at time t (Nt), and subtracting the number of death (D) and emigrants (E) to give a new
population size at the time t+1(Nt+1).
Nt+1= Nt+B+I-D-E
 For a particular set of conditions, an individual has a maximum potential for reproduction which is its intrinsic
natural rate of increase, r. This is the theoretical maximum that may be reached in a given environment if the
population is not resource limited.
log (average number of offspring per individual )

r
generation time
ln R o

T
Density independent population growth:
Unlimited growth of this kind is described by a continuous population model and expressed in terms of the rate of
change in population number at time t.
Rate of change of population size at time t  Intrinsic rate of increase  Population size
dN
 rN
dt
Density dependent growth- the logistic equation:
 The logistic equation describes the growth of a simple population in a confined space, where resources are not
limited.
 In the early stages resources are abundant, the death rate is minimal and reproduction can take place as fast as
possible allowing the individual to attain their intrinsic rate of increase.
 The population increases geometrically until the maximum number of individuals the environment can
sustainably support is approached. This maximum number is called the carrying capacity (K).
 The population growth rate declines to zero as the population becomes more crowded and the population size
stabilizes. This can be described as the logistic equation.
Rate of change of population size at time t  Intrinsic rate of increase  Population size  Population dependent factor
dN N
 rN (1  )
dt K
 When the population size N is small, as in early stages of population growth, the quantity N/K is also small
and the dampening effect is negligible because (1-N/K) is close to 1. The population increase is essentially
given by rN and is geometric.
 However, as N grows large, the dampening effect increases, until when N=K, the quantity (1-N/K) becomes
(1-K/K), which is zero. At this point the population growth rate is zero and the population reaches equilibrium
at a stable and constant size.
Estimating Survival and Mortality
Primary distinction between survival and mortality is:
1. Annual survival rate for a given age-class is estimated from measures of the numerical abundance at the same
calendar date in two successive years.
If there are Ni animals of age i alive today, and Ni+1 (of age i+1) one year later, then the annual survival rate is:
N i 1
5
Ni
2. Mortality is often measured by the no. of animals killed by legal harvest or found dead in the surveys.
Life table:
 Life table is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population (first developed by the insurance
industry)
 Constructed by following the fate of a cohort (age-class of organisms) from birth to death.
 Life table built by determining number of individuals that die in each age group and calculating the proportion
of the cohort surviving from one age to the next.
 Data for life tables hard to collect for wild populations.
Age in years (x) Number in Number of death (dx) Mortality rate Survival rate
population (nx) (qx) (sx)
0-1 42 22 22/42=0.52 20/42=0.48
1-2 20 10 10/20=0.50 10/20=0.50
2-3 10 7 7/10=0.70 3/10=0.30
3-4 3 2 2/3=0.67 1/3=0.33
4-5 1 1 1/1=1.00 0/1=0
A cohort or dynamic life table is used to track the fate of a group of individuals born at a given time. These individuals
are followed from birth to death
Modified version: A dynamic composite life table constructs a cohort from individuals born over several time periods
A time-specific life table is a distribution of age classes during a single time period
Several assumptions are made in this approach:
 Each age class was sampled in proportion to its numbers in the population
 Age-specific mortality rates (and birthrates) are constant over time
Survivorship Curves:
 Data in a life table can be represented graphically by a survival curve.
 Curve usually based on a standardized population of 1000 individuals and the X-axis scale is logarithmic.
Survivorship curves can be classified into three general types
Type I curve;
 Type I curve typical of animals that produce few young but care for them well (e.g. humans, elephants).
Death rate low until late in life where rate increases sharply as a result of old age (wear and tear, accumulation
of cellular damage, cancer).
Type II curve:
 Type II curve has fairly steady death rate throughout life (e.g. rodents).
 Death is usually a result of chance processes over which the organism has little control (e.g. predation)
Type III curve:
 Type III curve typical of species that produce large numbers of young which receive little or no care (e.g.
Oyster).
 Survival of young is dependent on luck. Larvae released into sea have only a small chance of settling on a
suitable substrate. Once settled however, prospects of survival are much better and a long life is possible.
4.3 Application of population genetics to wildlife management:
 Most of wildlife management is a number game, the success of which is measured by population changes in
relation to management objectives.
 Only recently have long term genetic changes began to receive from wildlife managers.
 Now for the long-term perpetuation of wild populations far into the future, we must think not only in terms of
numbers per unit area, but in terms of preservation of gene pools
Why genetics:
There are at least three reasons to believe that genetics can be the basis of important and critical areas of wildlife
conservation
1. First the fundamental theorem of natural selection tells us that the rate of evolutionary changes in a population
is proportional to the amount of genetic diversity available
2. Second there isconsensus among population geneticists that heterozygosity, or high genetic variation within
populations is positively related to fitness.
3. Finally the global pool of genetic diversity represents all of the information for all biological processes on the
planet
Population genetics can thus be used in wildlife management to deal the problem of severe reduction of gene pools
through genetic drift which have greater susceptibility to a number of deleterious genetic effects such as inbreeding and
out breeding depression, unequal sex ratio, population bottlenecks etc.
Prescription for conservation:
 Large genetically effective population sizes are better than small ones because they will lose genetic variation
more slowly
 The negative effect of genetic drift and inbreeding are inversely proportional to population size. Thus avoid
management for unnaturally small populations
 Management of wild population should be consistent with the history of their genetic patterns and processes.
Gene flow among historically connected populations should continue at historical rates.
 Low genetic diversity is not cause for alarm, however sudden and large losses of diversity in natural and
captive population are always cause for concern
 Avoid inbreeding
 Avoid introduction of exotic alleles into wild and captive populations.
 Maintenance of genetic diversity in captive stocks is no substitute for genetic diversity in the wild
Unit-5
Wildlife Damage and Control Techniques
5.2 Damage assessment
5.3 Control techniques; physical, chemical & biological
Introduction:
 Wildlife damage takes many forms including to cultivated crops, domestic stock and even injury to human.
 Sometimes animals damage their own habitat when they are under heavy pressure (loss of traditional range or
get limited cover and food in their habitat)
 For devising solution, we/manager should understand the exact nature of the problem through: device
 Assessing dimension of the damage, and
 Exploring associated causes of that damage
 Animal damage control is one of the many tools of resource management (like as a prime objective)
 Example:
 A manager doing bird control to protect agricultural production to meet the increasing needs.
 A biologist controlling depredating species (harmful species) to give an endangered species an edge.
 The human-wildlife related conflicts are increased with increasing human population for resolving conflicts,
must be able to identify those species who are basically causing the problems first.
 WL caused damage is primarily associated with feeding activity, and to a lesser extent, related to denning,
nesting or roosting behavior.
 Animal‘s damage control is complex; there is no ―cookbook‖ guide to tell when control is needed.
5.2 Damage Assessment:
 While assessment of damage and the determination of the responsible species may be rather simple for one
with experience (means it is so difficult task to anyone)
 In examining the damage, one must look for ―clues‖
 Obviously, the best clue is actually observing the species doing the damage, but the investigator may have not
this opportunity
 Therefore, ―signs‖ such as tooth marks, trails, burrows must be sought
 Identifying the species is difficult at times, since similar types of damages can be caused by more than one
animal. At that time, we must have in-depth knowledge on species and their specific behavior.
 Predation caused the death of an animal –often can be decided by checking for sign on and around the kill.
 Size and location of tooth marks often will indicate the species causing predation.
Species Attacking on Attack to

Coyotes Thoracic, hind legs, flanks (side of the body between ribs Large deer, calves, sheep
dog and hip)
Wolves Thai, breast Deer (on entrails)
Bears Head, neck (slapping)
Fox neck Rabbits (carried some distance from the
kills)
 Extensive bleeding usually is characteristics of predation

 Animals that die form cause other than predation normally do not show external or subcutaneous bleeding
 Once the guilty species is determined, the next step is to decide if the amount of damage justifies the
exposures and effort of control
5.3 Frequently used control methods available to the manager include:
1. Habitat modification
2. Biological Control
3. Mechanical barriers and repellents
4. Trapping and transplanting
5. Controlled killing (culling)
(To achieve maximum effectiveness, they should be applied in combination)
Important things to be considered when planning control:
1. Control decisions should not be made independently

2. Management objectives and plans should be developed co-operatively with others having management
responsibilities and talents from many disciplines
3. Input of accurate data is essential
Two approaches can be used to accomplish control:
1. Extension methods: giving knowledge to \individual to solve their own problems

2. Professionals: technical implication by experts….. It may be project.
Control Techniques:
1. Habitat Modification:
 All animals are dependent on food and shelter, therefore elimination of one or both of these
requirements will force them to move from the immediate area.
 This method of control usually has the most permanent effect in stopping damage problems
 Many rodents and small mammals may be discouraged from using damage areas by removal of brush
piles, weeds, old lumber piles, and other debris
 Regular cultivating the area, cleaning the site by cutting (mowing) and or burning discourage to
rodents, small mammals as well as other species.
 Also do discourage to animals by removing surface shelter/cover such as stumps, logs etc.
2. Proofing and Screening (or barriers):
 It includes several types of barriers which prevent access into areas and prevents a specific animal
form damaging a specific object.
 Usually it is costly, correctly done, it does afford prolonged protection.
 This is done by:
 The doors are kept tightly closed
 Cover all air vets and openings
 Close unnecessary openings which concrete or sheet metal
 In small orchards-wrapping trees with hardware cloth.
3. Fumigants:
 To use special chemicals, smoke or gas to destroy the harmful insects or bacteria or burrowing
rodents in a place.
 Calcium cyanide (be handle with caution) released deadly hydrocyanic gas upon contact with
moisture
 A tablespoon of the compound should be inserted into the burrow and entrance carefully sealed with
oil, sod or rocks.
 Some of the other registered fumigants are: carbon disulfide, chloropicrin, methyl buromide, ethylene
dibromide, ethyl dichloride and sulphur dioxide
 Foot pump may be used to dispose calcium cyanide dust into burrow system
 gas or smoke cartridges may also be used it causes death by suffocation
4. Toxicants:
 Poisonous chemicals work as anticoagulants

 These compounds inhibit (reduce) blood coagulation thus causing the animal to bleed to death
internally or from externally or from external wounds
 These anticoagulants may be obtained in prepared baits
 The baits should place where the rodents feed, water, or travel.
 We have 2 types of toxicant which are frequently in used:
 Multi dose toxicants: these chemicals generally must be ingested for to 14 days
consecutively to be effective. Some of the recommended Multidose toxicants are : warfarin,
pival, fumarin, diphacinone, prolin
 Single dose toxicants: it requires only 1 feeding to be lethal.Zinc phosphate is one of the
most commonly used single dose poisons.
5. Traps:
 Live traps (box traps)

 Leg hold traps (steel traps)
 Snap traps
 Snares (in Nepali paso)
6. Chemical repellents:
 Para dichlorobenzene
 Thiran (Arasan)
7. Shooting:
 Most selective means of eliminating individual pest animals
 By shotguns, rifles, air guns
Unit-6
Human Population Growths & Wildlife Conservation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Wildlife law enforcement
6.3 Economic and social perspectives including the scope of tourism and recreation
6.4 Public policy issues in wildlife conservation
6.5 Resolving conflicts between park/people
6.1 Introduction:
 Evidence of wildlife conservation dates back as early as the time of emperor Ashok of India (252 BC) who
passed as edict for the protection of animals, fish and forests.
 In 1084 AD king Willium of England ordered the preparation of the Domesday Book: an inventory of wildlife
for rational planning.
 First National Park; Yellowstone is the US was established in 1872; a milestone in the evolution of wildlife
conservation as we know it today-since then wildlife conservation is regarded as resources for people rather
than simply locking up in parks.
 The various underlying aspect/factors are associated with wildlife conservation having both positive and
negative impacts and issues of conflicts:
a. Cultural and spiritual aspects
b. Socio-economic aspects
c. Direct and indirect competition aspects
d. Utilization of wildlife (Consumptive and non-consumptive) aspects
e. Forestry and development works aspects
f. Policy aspects
Trend wildlife management;
Global Trends:
 Species to ecosystem to landscapes

 Preservation to conservation
 Protective to collaborative
Situation Prior to 60s:
 Untouched lush sub-tropical forest

 Magnificent games for sport hunting.
 1846-Prime Minister Jung BahadurRana declared ―Rhino‖ as a royal game and introduced wildlife protection.
Hunting Records:
 His Excellency the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgorw: Hunting duration 68 days

 Tiger 120, Rhinoceros 38, Leopard 28, Sloth bear 15
 Crocodile 11, Elephant 1 (Captured live)
 Prince of Wales (1921): Tiger 17, Rhinoceros 10, Leopard 2, sloth bear 2
 King George V (1911): Tiger 39, Rhinoceros 18, Sloth bear 4
Reasons for decline: Major policy shift:
 1950-Malriya eradication and Govt. settlement policy in Terai

 Situation changed with the advent of development
 Habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation
 Poaching and
 Other industries human influences
Attributes:
o Rapid population growth

o Poverty
o Heavy dependence on forest
o Mass migration of hill people to Terai for settlement after malaria eradication
o Encroachment
o Fire
Result:
o Some wildlife species to the verge of extinction

o Some critical habitats particularly in Terai were destroyed or fragmented
o Uphill task
Chronological of NPWC development:
1959: E.P. Gee Mission from Fauna Preservation Society

 National Park, north of Rapti
 Rhino Sanctuary-south of Rapti
1961: GaidaGasti formed
1964: Land Settlement Commission (22,000 resettled)
1969: 6 Hunting Reserves in Terai and 1 in mountain established
1970: Late King Mahendera approved conservation program (Chitwan&Langtang)
1972: NPWC Section under the department of forests
1973: HMG approved a Comprehensive Conservation Scheme and separate NPWC office
1980: DNPWC established
Protected Area System:
Protected Area Categories: of the six categories given by IUCN Nepal has legal provision of Four (SNR-1, NP-11, and
WLR-IV WLR P IV/BZ-VI)
The wildlife conservation at ground with the establishment of Chitwan National Park in 1973 and more national parks
and wildlife reserves were established in the mountain and Terai in 1976 subsequently. This trend continued and
protected area coverage increased tremendously and new categories of protected areas such as conservation Area and
Buffer Zone were introduced. Today, there are 10 NP, 3WLR, 1HR, 6CA and 12 BA areas.
National Parks, Wildlife Reserve, Hunting Reserve and Conservation areas of Nepal:
Protected Area Year Area Buffer Zones

of est. (Sq.km) Declare Area Distric VD HHs Total User User
d year (sq.km) t Cs Pop. group committee
Chitwan NP 1973 932 1996 750 4 37 3619 223260 1486 21
3
Bardiya NP 1976 968 1996 507 2 17 1529 103806 182 15
0
2010 180 1 4 31 4
Khaptad NP 1984 225 2006 216 4 21 5311 33272 418 16
Rara NP 1976 106 2006 198 2 9 1898 11685 127 8
Shey PNP 1984 3555 1993 1349 2 11 2263 11598 90 17
Langtang NP 1976 1710 1993 420 3 34 1122 61413 325 21
0
Makalu B. NP 1991 1500 1999 830 2 12 6000 32000 88 12
Sagrarmatha NP 1976 1148 2002 275 1 3 1288 5896 28 3
Shiva Puri NP 2002 159 - - - - - - - -
Banke NP 2010 550 2010 343 4 15 4861 35712 - -
Sukla p. WLR 1976 305 2004 243.5 1 12 1700 100953 388 9
6
Parsa WLR 1984 499 2005 298.17 3 11 7228 43228 345 11
Koshi T. WLR 1976 175 2004 173 3 16 1069 77950 531 8
3
Dhorpatan HR 1987 1325 - - - - - - - -
ACA 1992 7629 - - 5 57 - 120000 - 57
Manasalu CA 1998 1663 - - 1 7 - 9050 - -
KCA 1997 2035 - - 1 4 968 5254 81 7
Krishnasar CA 2009 16.95 - 4 1
Api Nampa CA 2010 1903 -
Gaurishankar CA 2010 2179
Dhorpata H R 1987 1325
Total areas 28313.9
5
Buffer zone Area (sq.km) Year declared Districts Households Population Number of
VDCs
CNP 750 1997 4 36193 223260 37
BNP 507 1997 3 11504 1200000 21
LNP 420 1998 3 12509 54326 34
SPNP 1349 1998 2 2263 11598 11
MBNP 830 1999 2 6000 32000 12
SNP 275 2002 1 1288 5896 3
SWLR 243.50 2004 1 17006 100953 12
KWLR 173 2004 3 10693 77950 16
PWLR 298.17 2005 3 7228 43238 11
RNP 198 2006 2 1898 11685 9
KNP 216 2010 4 5311 33272 21
BNP 343
Total 5602.67
6.2 Wildlife law enforcement:
The goal of PA management cannot be achieved without sound legal framework:
Preliminary Considerations:
 Existence of adequate legal strategies and institutional arrangement are the most vital elements for the
implementation of a successful wildlife management.
 The law should take into consideration the traditional or customary or religious sentiments.
 PA legislation is backbone for the successful accomplishment of planning and management for wildlife
conservation
Important considerations:
1. Legislation should authorize a competent authority to enforce law

2. Legislation should be based on through understanding of international agreements
3. Conservation and development objective should be compatible.
4. Existing institutions should be used as much as possible
5. High level of national and local public participation should be encouraged
6. Planned approach should be adhered as much as possible.
7. While defining the regulation of use: Consideration should be made for enforcement of regulation outside the
PA and regulation inside the PA.
The wildlife Conservation Legislation in Nepal:
It is governed by NPWC Act, 2029 with the following features:
 Declared/designed different categories of protected areas: so far 16 have declared

 Listed 26 species of mammals, 9 species of Birds, 3 species of reptiles as protected species of Nepal.
 The Warden o Conservation Officer has executive powers for:
Hunting regulation
Penalties
Rewards
NPWC Act, 2029 (2029-1-28)
 1st amendment (2031-16-30) Ci, 18-as prescribed in lieu of 6 month

 2nd amendment (2039-9-8); Define wildlife, NP and WR in lieu of NP, controlling problem animals, forest
products, reward Rs5000, penalty Rs 5000-25000, 1-5 years imprisonment, protected species list amended.
 3rd amendment (2046-6-11): conservation Area and handover of management
 4th amendment (2048-2-16): buffer zone, revenue sharing, compensation
 5th amendment: wildlife farming, international obligations, management plan
Employment of the Nepal Army since 1975 for park protection:
 Unique conservation modality in the world

 Not all Pas are guarded by the RNA
 Joint patrolling by the RNA and the park staff
 Anti Pocahing units
 Sectors and posts
 RNA confiscates and the park stall does the court proceedings.
6.3 Economic and social perspectives including the scope of tourism and recreation:
Global trend;
 Fashion, medication, Perfumes, displays, research

 Show affluence and pride (Japan, Arab, China, US)
Traditional uses: medicine, religious etc.
Consumptive:
 Sustainable use: ivory, African elephant, corals

 NPWC act- regulate hunting of surplus animals
 DhorpatanHundting Reserves-grand slam/super slam-game records
 District hunting
 barking deer, chital, wild boar, leopard, birds, serrow, goral
 Ibex and markhor hunting in Pakistan (greater than 70 revenue goes to community)
 Buffer zone regulation- hunting provision in community forest)
Non-Consumptive:
 Eco-tourism-PA as major destination

 major income from tourism to the park & to community
 Bagmara CF &Kumrose CF
 Breeding Center at Kasara&Khorsor
 Bird watching in Koshi
 5th amendment of NPWC Act-wildlife farming
 The tourists visiting Nepal in 1999 was nearly half a million
 In Nepal, almost half of the tourists visiting the country visit Pas.
 Total revenue generated by Nepal form Tourism was US$ 168 million
 On average 95% revenue earned by Pas is based on tourism
6.4 Public policy issues in wildlife conservation:
The conservation policies are grouped into three categories such as:
Acts and regulations

Plans and Strategies
Convention and Treaties
Brief description of each of the policies is described below:
1. Acts and regulations:
 National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973 and its 4 amendments in 1975, 1983, 1990, 1993
 Regulations pertinent to the parks and for regions
 King MahendraTrsut for Nature Conservation Act of 1982
 KMTNC Rules 1984
 Buffer zones management regulations, 1996
 Buffer zones management guidelines, 1999
 Conservation Area management regulations, 1996
 Conservation Area management Guidelines, 1999
2. Plans and Strategies:
 Periodic national Development Plan (5 years). Almost all the five-year national development plans of Nepal
have stressed on the conservation of biodiversity
 National Conservation Strategy for Nepal, 1988: Conservation in Nepal is guided by the NCS which is again
guided by the World Conservation Strategy (WCS 1982). The National Conservation Strategy for Nepal 1988
has formally shaped conservation efforts in the country. It has emphasized on the sustainable use of land and
natural resources.
 Master Plan for the Forestry Sector, 1988: The master Plan for the Forestry Sector, 1988 has identified the
conservation of ecosystem and genetic resources as one of its long term objectives. The plan has stated that
meeting the basic needs of the people is a pre-requisite to reduce park people conflict.
 Nepal Biodiversity Strategy 2002: HMG/MFSC, with the cooperation of GEF and UNDP, has prepared the
NBS to fulfill CBD commitment which is now a major strategy for biodiversity conservation.
 Other more specific and precise plans and strategies concerning biodiversity conservation are as follows:
1. management Plan
2. Buffer Zone Management Plan
3. Tourism Plan
4. Strategy to Combat Poaching
5. Tiger Action Plan (1998)
6. Rhino Action Plan (2003)
 In 2003, HMG/N has formulated four major policies in biodiversity conservation as follows:
1. Strategies on wildlife farming, breeding and research
2. Policy guidelines on PA management by NGOs & other organization
3. Policy on domestic elephant management
4. Policy guideline on biodiversity documentation
3. International Commitments:
 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl habitat, 1971

 Ramsar Convention endorsed in 1997
 KTWR: Ramsar site in 1987
 Bishajari Tal, Ghodaghodi Tal, jagdishpur reservoir declared, 2003
 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972
 World Heritage Convention (established in 1972 under UNESCO) endorsed in 1978
 Functions through: WH Bureau: World Heritage Committee
 State Parties: 167 Conferences of the Parties (COP)
 Total WH properties: 721
 Categories: Natural: 144: cultural: 554; Mixed: 23
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 1975
 155 State Members; 35,000 species of plants and animals are protected
 Trade in wildlife, and products made from it, is big business-worth up to $20 billion a year. A quarter of this is
thought to be illegal.
 Much of the trade is from developing countries, which contain most of the world‘s biodiversity.
 US are the beigest market for traditional Chinese medicine.
Convention on Biodiversity, 1992:
 Conservation
 Sustainable use
 Fair and equitable sharing of benefits
GEF-financial mechanism-co-financing only

Ministry of Finance-Political focal point
Global Tiger Forum, 2002:
 Range states initiatives to protect tigers in the region

 Current Members: Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Vietnam, Australia
Transboundrycooperation between Nepal and India
 Terai Arc Landscape linking 11 protected areas in Nepal and India.

 Apart from the international conventions and treaties, the global affiliations pertinent to biodiversity
conservation and sustainable development that Nepal has been affiliated with are the World trade
Organizations (WTO) and the World Conservation Union-IUCN
 Nepal has also followed the spirit of the World Conservation Strategy 1980 and the World Charter for Nature
1982. Similarly, the government officials and representatives of nongovernmental organizations used to
participate in the global forums such the World Park Congress.
Policy Issues:
 International Commitment pertinent to CITES implementations such as transboundary cooperation between

Nepal and India on control of illegal wildlife trade has not yet been satisfactorily achieved since the CITES
bill has not been endorsed.
 There are obstacles in implementing the recently formulated policies such as wildlife farming and NGO
management of Parks, since there are no specific legal provisions in the current acts and regulations.
 There are no specific policies on compensation for wildlife damages and causalities caused by problem
animals such as rouge elephants, marauding rhinos, ―man eater‖ tigers, and crop damaging ungulates
 The Acts and Regulations need to be reviewed and revised to address the issues of pollution in the rivers
bordering the parks.
 There in a policy gap in the management of the orphan animals.
 There is a policy gap in the regulations of the increasing number of visitors and their activities, and operations
of hotel/lodges in and around the parks.
 There is no clear policy interpretation on the landscapes level management and biological corridors that link
the protected areas.
 There is not a defined strategy of ant poaching operations that involves the park management, protection units
and the local communities.
 There is no clear research protocol and policy of the DNPWC
6.5 Resolving conflicts between the park-people;
 Adequate and appropriate policy and legislations (considering conservation and wise use approach)
 Ecosystem/Landscape centered wildlife conservation program
 Pro-people poverty reduction focused program: reducing vulnerability, enhancing the livelihood through
access and entitlement to capitals.
 Generate funding and commitment of international community for the conservation of the global commons.
 National Park and Wildlife conservation Act, 1973: people exclusive model-fences and fines approach:-failed
and it gives rise to:
 Himalayan Park Regulation 1979: Fulfillment of people‘s needs
 Terai: provision of fishing and 10 days kharkhadai
 Mid 1980: Conservation area was established and it regulation was enacted in early 1990- great lessons
learning for participatory management of biodiversity
 1994: Buffer Zones Management provision enacted in the NPWC Act and its regulation enacted in 1996. This
allows 30-50% of park income in local conservation and community development through the BZUCs.
Buffer Zones:
Issues: Measures:
 Resources use conflict  Coordination meeting (local, district, zonal level)

 Firewood & timber  Annual grass cutting in Terai Park
 Fodder  Himalayan Park Regulation 2036
 Livestock grazing  Khaptad National Park Regulation
 Rising human – wildlife interface  Conservation Area Regulation
 Crop damage  Buffer Zone Regulation
 Human-Wildlife encounters
 Lack of alternatives resources
 Inadequate environmental awareness
 Poverty
Objectives:
Active Participation of local community in protected area management for long-term sustainability and sustainable
management of resources in buffer zone. Some specific objectives are;
 To alleviate Park-People conflict

 To raise conservation awareness among the buffer zone community
 To promote community participation in biodiversity conservation
 To institutionalize and strengthen community based organizations
 To reduce dependency on Protected Areas resources
 To create alternatives resources in the buffer zone to meet the local needs
 To initiate income generation activities to diversity opportunities for socio-economic uplift men of the local
community
Achievement:
 Fourth amendment of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2029 in 1993 to include buffer zone and
sharing of 30-50 of park revenue. Mainly focused on sustainable use of resources for meeting local needs and
conservation of biodiversity.
 Enactment of Buffer zones Management regulations 2052 in 1996
 Enactment of Buffer Zone Management Directives 2055 in 1999
 Declaration of Buffer Zones for six National Parks
Unit-7
Buffer zones & Land Use Management
7.1 Human population growth

7.2 Forest management and wildlife
7.3 Wildlife on croplands
7.4 Range lands and wildlife
7.5 Buffer zone management concepts and practices
7.1 Population Growth and Wildlife conservation
Problem: Incredible manipulation by human being

 Human food print is every where
 More than 80% of the globe bear our footprint
 90% of the fertile land used by human
 Overall somewhere between 20-32% of earth resources are for human use.
 Around 60% of fresh water production
 It would take 4 earths to support the world‘s population at the current level of consumptions level of US
citizens
 The land available to each person on earth has been ―shrinking‖
 1900: 7.91ha
 2005: 2.02 ha and
 2005-2050: 1.6ha (projection)
 Dramatic decline of abundance of other species
 We are living in the in a time of unprecedented mass extinction
Level of threat- sixth mass extinction:
1. Human beings are currently causing the greatest mass extinction of species since the extinction of the
dinosaurs 65 million year ago. If present trends continue one half of all species of life on earth will be extinct
in less than 100 years, as a result of habitat destruction, pollution, invasive species, and climate change.
2. According to IUCN Report
 21% of all known mammals
 30% of all known amphibians
 12% of all known birds, and
 28% of reptiles
 37% of freshwater fishes
 70% of plants
 35% of invertebrates associated so far are under threat.
Landscape causes:
1. Built area: buildings, roads, drainage etc.

2. Open green space such as public parks
3. Street trees and home gardens
4. Water bodies-pounds, river
5. Urban ecosystems differ with natural one in several respects- in climate, soil, hydrology, species composition,
population dynamics, flow of energy and matters.
Impacts of Population Growth:
1. Human alteration of Earth is substantial and growing. Between one-third and one-half of the land surface has
been transformed by human action
2. The future of earth‘s ecosystems is increasingly influenced by the pace and patterns of urbanization
3. Cities are both drivers of, and driven by ecological processes within and beyond their boundaries.
4. Urbanization change natural habitat and species composition alters hydrological cycle and modifies nutrient
cycles and energy flow.
Urban Population trend:
 Urban population will reach 60% by the year 2030 (4.9 billion)
 Just over half the world now lives in cities but by 2050, over 70% of the world will be urban dwellers.
 By 2050, only 14% of people in rich countries will live outsides cities and 33% in poor countries.
 Nepal has now 58 urban centers located in various district of Nepal with a total urban population 14% in 2001
which will be nearby 50% by 2050.
 Nepal‘s urban centers increased from 16 in 1971, 23 in 1981, 33 in 1991 and 58 in 2001
 By 2050, most of the population growth expected in urban areas will be concentrated in the cities and towns of
the less developed regions. Asia, in particular, is projected to see its Caribbean by 0.2 billion.
Global Urban rural populations trend (1950-2050)
Global urban rural populations trend (1950-2050)
Buffer Management types (some example)
 Nepal-Buffer Zone Management Program

 India-Eco Development program
 Zimbabwe-CAMPFIRE
 Many African Countries-Community Based Conservation Program
Basic principle in all programmes-Benefit sharing and recognizing the role of people in conservation
Buffer-Zone management Program:
 Buffer Zone Management Program: It refers to the process of formulating and carrying out a course of
conservation an development actions in the buffer zone area with the active participation of people both men
and women living in the buffer zone in all stages of program implementation.
 Community: People both men and women living in the buffer zone having common socio-economic
conditions, development needs, and dependent on each other for their livelihood and face similar problem for
their livelihood.
 Users Group: Users Group (UG) or a community organization is an organization of the people who in the
same proximity, share same interest and resources for their livelihood.
Community Organization structures for BZ Management in Nepal:

Forest management & wildlife
“Forest for the People” Central theme of the 1978 World Forestry Congress in Jakarta: Providing forest products for
local people. NTFPs like Wildlife, medicinal plants, fibers, fodder, thatch, edible wild fruits, mushrooms, honey even
the production of clean water harvested in a sustainable way can often exceed the values of timber
Legal Provision and practices of BFZ management in Nepal:
 Handlin over BZF to the local communities

 Selling of timber within BZs communities people
 Promote mixed plantation than monoculture spp for timber, fuel wood, fodder species and NTFPs
 Promote NTFPs (rattan, bamboo, kurilo, beletc)
 Restoration & conservation of wetlands in the BFCF area and promote wise use of wetland resources for IGA
to the STG (Chatyatal, edge of koshi river, wetlands of Barandabharetc)
 promote eco-tourimsactivites for wildlife viewing (Bagmara, Chitrasar&Kumroj BZCF in Chitwan,
Bhadeli&Chitkaiya BZCF in Bardia)
Buffer Zone Forest:
 Handling over to the BZ-CFUG with tri-parties agreement (PA-UC-UG)

 Consideration of demand and supply for the forest resources
 Production & harvesting of forest products like timber, fuel wood & forage, however, forestry practices can
have serious efforts on WL species.
 Becoming a extended WL habitat
Pre-requisite provisions:
 Clear felling & plantation of exotic monoculture affects impacts to the WLs
 Normality, creating natural forest and promote indigenous/local species than introduction of exotic species
 Use of heavy tractors, chain saws are destructive to WL
 Selective felling system than clear felling system (need to leave old and hallow trees to the WL habitat rather
than 3-D trees like from other forests)
Range land:
 Range land: refers to expansive, mostly unimproved lands on which a significant proportion of the natural
vegetation in native grasses, grass-like plants, and shrubs,
 Range land also consists of areas seeded to native or adapted introduced species that are managed like native
vegetation.
 Range lands include natural grasslands, savannas, shrub lands, many deserts, tundra, alpine communities, and
wet meadows. Rangeland is generally arid, semi-arid, or otherwise unsuitable of cultivation.
 Rangeland Management is the science and art of planning and directing range use so as to obtain the
maximum livestock production consistent with conservation of the range resources.
Rangelands & wildlife:
 Most of the Pas, any kinds of grazing of domestic animals are strictly prohibited,
 However, grazing by domestic animals with in some Pas may be allowed: traditional grazing to the local
herdsmen, mobile herdsmen/shedding (singhenawa) and traditional transportation in remote areas (mule/horse,
sheep/goats)
 Increase degree of livestock damage during the singhenawa,
 Pressure of domestic animals promote soil erosion,
 Heavy grazing and browsing decrease habitat components (f-w-c-s) for WL
 Transfer disease to the wildlife
Some of the effects of grazing by domestic animals on the ecological process
1. Natural succession
2. organic production & decomposition
3. Nutrient circulation
4. Water circulation
5. Soil development
Ultimately, overgrazing prompting habitat degradation which results in habitat modification & loss of WL or declining
WL population.
Wildlife in Crop lands:
Most of the wild animals are playing vital role to the useful service for the neighboring agricultural areas.
 Birds help control levels and pests
 Bees perform vital pollinating functions
 Bat control insects &pollinate many tropical fruits.
However, many WL species enters to the croplands and creating havoc by damaging all types of agricultural crops,
Rhino, Elephant, Wild buffalo, Wild boar, monkey, rodent, deer, parrot, and crow are among the main culprits.
Crop damage
Major wild animals which cause crop damage:
Park/Reserve Wildlife (>90% of the damages)

KTWR Wild buffalo
PWR Deer and wild boar
CNP Rhino and deer
BNP Elephant, deer and wild boar
SWR Deer
In CNP:
 Intensity of crop damage is high within 0.5km from the park boundary
 About 88% settlement reported cereal damage
 Out of 37.4 VDCs loss 200-700 ton crop every year
 Farmer living close to the CP lose about 800kg crop annually
Mobility frequencies towards croplands (shivapuri and Thakurdwara VDC, Bardia 2002)
Wild animals People‘s responses

Always Almost Sometimes Remarks
Wild pig 84 12 6 1
Chital 65 24 13 II
Elephant 60 13 29 III
Others 47 30 25 IV
People’s reactions/blaming:
 Mainly to the wild pig for their damage (seed sowing to harvesting time
 Fence and trench do not control completely
 Farming and hunting demanded
People‘s perception on wild animals (matrix made from field study carried out under the Rufford Small Grant project
entitled ―Sloth Bear Conservation Project CNP Nepal‖)
Total loss of crops caused by wild animals, CNP

(in 100 kgs)
wild animals Area
Close to park Close to forest Far- forest Total
f % f % f % f %
Rhino 216.32 56.7 259.54 61.8 160.03 62.2 635.89 60.1
Wild pig 119.74 31.4 108.08 25.8 57.91 22.5 285.73 27.0
Chital 45.41 11.9 52.03 12.4 39.18 15.3 136.62 12.9
Total 381.47 100 419.65 100 257.12 100 1058.24 100
Proportion of loss (%) to total production of crop, CNP
Crops Area
Close to park Close to forest Far from forest Average
Paddy 12.26 8.99 6.38 9.32
Maize 30.98 26.01 19.23 24.28
Wheat 29.58 25.86 17.69 25.61
Oilseed 11.86 19.29 19.77 17.82
Average 15.79 12.92 10.90 13.20
Unit-8
Zoo Management
8.1 Definition
8.4 Core maintenance and welfare of captive wild animals
8.5 Enclose designer and barrier
8.6 Isolation/quarantine ward and postman facilities
8.7 Visitors facilities and safety
8.8 Breeding animals in captivity
8.9 Animal handling, restraint 7 veterinary facilities
8.1 Definition
 Zoos or zoological gardens are places where animals are kept for exhibition and it offers aesthetic beauty,
educational and recreational opportunities
 Zoo is a peaceful place where man can escape from the pressures of civilization and acquire peace and solitude
for a few hours with the wildlife
 Zoo management is a complex practice of maintaining a large variety of wild animals ex-situ and its
successful breeding; based on deeper understanding of biological and ecological requirements of wild animals
Zoo statistics
 Special sites where a wide range of animals are collected and kept for exhibition
 Maintain ca 500,000 individuals of terrestrial vertebrates of 3000 species of mammals, birds, reptiles and
amphibians
 About 10,000 zoos exist in the world
 Six hundred million people visit annually
 About two billion dollars spent annually in operation
 Oldest zoo in the world – Schönbrunn, Vienna established in 31July, 1752
 Askaniya Nova zoopark in the Ukraine spans over half a million acre – largest zoo in the world
Historical Aspects
Animals were kept for:
 Symbols of wealth and power by kings, head of state and wealthy individuals
 For zoological interest
 For recreation
 Emperor Weng Wang of China, before 1000 BC named his zoological garden as ―Garden of Intelligence‖
 In King Solomon‘s time zoos in the Royal courts of Asia and the near East were kept mainly for display
 4th Century BC, the Greeks had city zoos for study
 Roman collected animals for zoological interests
 During 14th and 15th Century, zoos sprang up in Europe, South Africa, Russia, India and Egypt
Modern Zoo Concept
 Modern zoo has evolved from a solely entertainment phase into a multipurpose institution for the purpose of
education, scientific research and conservation of wildlife
 WCS 1993 defines zoo as an institution that manages and exhibits collection of living specimens of wild
animals
 Evolved as ex-situ breeding center for endangered species
 Centers for dissemination of conservation information
 Centers for recreation
 Samuel P. Jonson of Smithsonian National Zoological Park (Washington) in 1895 gave emphasis on breeding
and reintroduction to the wild
 Hamburg zoopark changed the dull image of zoo (cages and bars) to an interesting world where animals really
lived
 The link between wildlife conservation and zoos only gained real momentum after WW-II and the estb of
IUCN in 1948
Zoo Characteristics
World Zoo Conservation Strategy defines two characteristics of a Zoo:

1. Zoos possess and manage collections that primarily consists of wild animals of one or more species, that are
housed so that they are easy to see and to study than in nature
2. Zoos displays at least a portion of this collection to the public for at least a significant part of the year, if not
throughout the year
Origin of Zoo:
 Zoo are not recent phenomenon

 Their existence in one form or other for over 4,000 yrs.
 Animals‘ collection was for amusement and power.
 First public zoo was set up in Paris 1794
 This was followed by London and Bristol in 1828 and, 1836 respectively
 By 1860 zoos land been established in Duublin, Berlin, Frankfurt
 These were menageries (small zoo, animals are kept in cage)
 The first zoo for scientific study was initiated only after the establishment of zoological society of London was
established during late 19th century.
Evolution of Zoos
1. 19th century: Menagerie
Living Natural History Cabinet:

 Theme: Taxonomic
 Subjects: Diversity of species, adaptations for life.
 Concerns: Species history, Species propagations
 Exhibit: Cages
2. 20th Century: Zoological Park
Living Museum:
 Theme: Ecological
 Subjects: Habitats of animals, Behavioral biology
 Concerns: Cooperative species management and professional development
 Exhibit: Dioramas
3. 21st Century: Conservation Centre:
Environmental Resources Centre:

 Theme: Environmental
 Subjects: Ecosystems survival of species
 Concerns: Holistic conservation and organizational networks
 Exhibit: Immersion exhibits
Names associated with zoo:

1. Samuel P. Johnson: Secretary of Smithsonian institute in 1895 gave emphasis on breeding threatened species
for re-introduction to the wild.
2. Mr. Carl Hagenbeck: an animal dealer of Hamburg in 1907-Changed dull zoos (with cages and bars) and
introduced bar less moated enclosures.
3. IUCN 1984: the link between wildlife conservation and zoo.
4. Bernhard Grzimek developed one of world‘s leading zoos in Frankfurt. Showing how conservation could be
promoted by education and research programs.
The main objective of the zoos:
 To complement and strengthen the national effort in conservation of the rich biodiversity of the country,
particularly the wild fauna.
The Specific objectives:
 Supporting the conservation of endangered species

 An opportunity to admire the wildlife for zoo visitors and developed and awareness and understanding of the
conservation of natural resources.
 Providing aesthetic and recreational opportunities
 Providing educational and scientific studies
In short some are the general activities/objectives:
 Exhibition of wild animals to visitors

 Provide aesthetic beauty and recreation
 Educating the public
 Research
 Preservation of endangered species
 Captive breeding
 Serve as wild animal‘s bank (ex-situ gene bank)
 Ultimate aim of CB is to restore back the wild population
 Economic benefit
 Specialization and cooperation (limited species, special species. Maintenance through good cooperation with
other zoos and or institutions)
General overall objectives;
 Provide aesthetic and recreation opportunities

 Provide opportunities for conservation related education and training (major)
 Provide opportunities for research
 Provide opportunities for ex-situ conservation
 Provide seed animals for re-introduction endangered species
 Establish captive breeding program of rare and endangered animals
 Establish viable populations of rare wild animals
Planning of a Zoo  Enough space for waste disposals

 Adequate equipment and necessary drugs
 Strategic planning  Adequate trained human resources
• Visionary/policy level  Well-equipped lab facilities –
 Master planning quarantine/postmortem
• Management level  Adequate trained human resources
 Clear policy and guideline  Provision for research facilities
 Adequate space with provision of expansion  Provision for laboratory and clinics
 Suitable natural environment to accommodate diverse  Animals‘ safety
animal communities  Visitor facilities and safety - information
 Water rich areas centers
 Proper enclosure design – feeding, holding and hiding  Attractive
sites and flooring Sustainability
 Provision for different wings – mammals, birds,
butterfly, reptiles, insects etc.
1. Planning should be long term based on adequate amount of capitals and resources (zoo mgt is a costly affairs)
2. Government legislation must forbid profit motive zoos.
3. Zoos should be in isolated places, far from center of town-good link road is necessary-should have buffer area.
4. Numbers should be based on animals behavior and ecology (keeping adequate no of species and individual for
sustainability)
5. Provision for maintaining natural habitat. Sections for birds, terrestrial and aquatic animals should be
according to their biological and ecological requirements: Natural looks, perennial water supply, ponds, and
natural shade/tree lots.
6. Locating national and international funding for CB program and trainings
7. Require a visitor center (for additional information on animals and their importance) and extension materials
(information labels, guide books)
8. Equipped with skilled Zoologists, ecologists and other needed personal i.e. guard, doctor, animal rescue team.
9. Maintain animal safety (shape and size of enclosure) and also maintain Visitor safety (viewing places, labels)
10. Ensure animal welfare-spacious enclosure, balanced diet, regular medical checkup, Breeding facility
11. Donation box at a suitable place (to benefit zoo management)
8.4 Care, maintenance and welfare of captive wild animals
Anti-zoo lobby group that it is fundamentally cruel to deprive wild animals of its natural freedom
Reacting to this, prof. Hediger had said that ―in every good zoo the animal does not feel itself in any way a prisoner: as
in the wild, it feels more like owner of a piece of land‖
1. Importance of Fresh air-e.g. tropical animals have survived at – 20 degree c in open air.
2. Animal diet-feeding behavior of animal must be taken into account, feeding all the time (Bear), Tigers
(irregularly), Hyenas consume all, Jackals and leopard prefer carrion, Lions and Tigers prefer fresh meat. Low
caloric food are used in zoo: high energy food intake may retard breeding activities due to excessive fat
deposition (gorilla)
3. Importance of carefully designed enclosure natural looks, comfortable
4. Care for new arrival-preventive medicines, zoo hospital, and personal keeper.
5. Hiding Places: Empty drums, trees, shrubs if animals want to keep out of sight of each other (for separating
trouble makers and sick animals from the main group. In zoo, the more socially inferior must have places to
hide)
6. Social needs of animals: Whether an animal is solitary or colonial must be considered in advanced (have to
have information on social needs of animals)
a. Primates: Chimpanzees should be kept in colonies with representative sex and age distribution
b. Elephants: Herd animals and intelligent/active animals-to-stop then becoming bored, should be
introduced occupational therapy (without training animals health is found to suffer)
c. Rhinos: Have strong social life isolation cause death; it is very gentle animals in zoos-almost tamed.
7. High safety standards: carefully designed the water ditches. Traditional barriers sterilization, water spray
against dust.
• Extensive monitoring of individual animals

• Continuous attendance
• Regular health examination
• Maintain proper and hygienic diet
• Maintain natural environment
• Maintain cleanliness
• Enrichment – varies from animal to animal
• -Mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians etc
• Careful handling of animals
• Animal safety
• Visitor safety – sign posting and barriers
• Improve and upgrade visitors facilities – resting places, children park, picnic spots
8.5 Enclosure Design and Barrier
A. Flooring:
 The floor of enclosure must be tailored (adopted) for different species. (Rhino-soft ground and Giraffe and
Zebra (have hooves)-hard and abrasive ground)
 Slippery and freezing floors, dangerous for hoofed animals.
 Grassy surface harbor parasites and microorganisms lethal for the animals
B. Feeding Sites:
 Food and water container fix in one place appropriate position according to animals
 Desert animals should not be given frequent drinking water
 Foods and drinks are given on the walls
 Rhinos are maintained with the same time and feeding containers.
C. Shelter Hiding and Sleeping Places;
 Shelter needs for shielding animals from harsh environment

 Social inferior needs hiding places such as empty drums, broken hills, shrubs and tress
 Sleeping boxes in higher places for primates, Dens for carnivores.
D. Building and Houses:
 Houses should give a natural looks
E. The barriers:
 Ditches/water filled ditches (moats)
Enclosure Design
• Enclosure should include – exhibits and holding pens
Goal:
• Meet needs of animals

• Meet needs of keepers
• Meet needs of publics
• Natural looks
• Consistent and pleasant look
• Cost effective
Planning the enclosure
• Types of animals (mammal, bird, reptile)
• Determine the goal
• Determine enclosure elements needed to meet goals
• Design within budget – prioritize
Enclosure elements
• Barriers
• Play structures/toys
• Bedding,feeders and drinkers
• Platforms/perches, Creeps, Shelters, Substrate
• Feeding/hiding/resting sites
• Pools/ponds
• Squeeze cages
• Holding areas
• Gates, doors, locks
• Plants, trees and logs
Barriers
Type of barrier depends on the animal in captivity, space available, and safety and comfort of visitors
• Physical:
• Ditches/Trench – dry or water filled (moats)
• Wire mesh fence
• Iron rod fence
• Wooden fence
• Electric fence
• Wall
• Glass (most modern barrier are one sided view)
8.6 Isolation/quarantine ward & post mortem facilities
• Aminals are kept in isolation/quarantine ward after bringing from the wild to do thorough check up and
making them disease free
• New animals are kept in isolation until accoustomed to the new environment
• Isolation is necessary to control aggressive animals living in herds e.g. during mating season deers, rhinos,
elephants
• Post-mortem or necropsy (Gr. viewing death) is based on pathology that deals with the nature of disease
• Objective of post-mortem: determine cause of death or sickness, health status, relationship between age,
nutritional state, parasatic load, relative size of internal organs, effect of natural or experimental factors on the
animal, and collect specimen for research
8.7 Visitors’ Facilities and Safety
Visitors’ Facilities
• Information / visitor centers – multi-linguistic

• Publicity and advertisement
• Guide books, maps and brochure
• Display maps and sign/label (cage label)
• Library/reading areas and documentary shows
• Zoo guides
• Organized tours and animal shows
• Gift shops
• Canteens/cafeteria
• Rest rooms (toilets)
• Picnic sites and children parks
• Resting place
• Special arrangement for handicapped people
Visitors’ Safety - Hazards, Risks and Control
1. Dangerous animals – risks of being bitten: Warning signs, safety barriers, feeding of animals prohibited
2. Contact with animals and animal artifacts – risks of disease contractions and accidental injuries: wash basins,
warning and advisory sign display, feeding animals prohibited
3. Deep water at lake, water in fountains and water features - risk in water: vegetation and fixed wooden poles
4. Climbing on railings, fencing, walls, seating, raised garden areas, pillar, posts and sculptures – Risk of injury from
falling: safety notice where relevant
5. Electric fencing around some enclosure – Risk of injury from electric shocks: physical barriers between the public
and electric fences
6. Animal rides, zoo vehicles – risk of falling and hit: notice
7. Lost and found service and vigilant guards and animal keepers
8.8 Breeding Animals in Captivity
• Captive breeding as a conservation tool for endangered animals and it is one of the main objective of modern
zoo
• Successful breeding indicates correct zoo condition
• Captive breeding helps to halt extinction
• Successful captive breeding requires:
– Animal care/welfare, diet, enclosure design/accommodation
– Correct population size for reducing the risk of inbreeding
– Animal shift from herd to herd and zoo to zoo to achieve optimum breeding groups
– good understanding of the animal courtship, mating and gestation or incubation
– Breeding at the correct season when conditions are best to rear the young
Successful Captive Breeding
• European bison: from 46 left during WW-II in Polish-Russian border was build to 320 in 72 Zoos
• Przewalski (Mongolian) wild horse: from 50 in 1959 to 252 in 1980s initiated by Prague and Munich Zoos
(extinct from wild in 1950)
• Pere Davids deer: from 16 left in European zoos in 1901 to 800 deers in 89 zoos (native of China)
• Arabian Oryx: <15 animals in 1962 to 75 in 1980s in Arizona zoo (animal of Somalia, Ethiopia, MiddleEast)
• Black buck: 2 to 90 in Central Zoo Nepal
• Gharial in Nepal and India
• Giant panda in China
• Elephant breeding in Nepal
• Siberian tiger
• Primates: very difficult to breed
Objection to Captive Breeding
• Objection to the role of zoo and captive breeding program from wildlife biologist, ecologist, conservation
groups and animal right groups
• Very limited success (out of 629 rare and threatened species of mammals - only 140 species are held in zoo)
• Expensive (50 times costly to keep elephant and rhino in zoo than to manage in wild)
• Focus on a few, charismatic species
• Difficult to maintain genetic diversity
• Changes in behavior
Opportunities, Challenges and Sustainability
Opportunities
• Research (Biological study of illusive animals, genetic study, behavioral, ethological (social) study, testing of
drug
• Ex-situ conservation
• Conservation education
• Perennial source of seed animals
• Recreational center
Challenges
• Area/space
• Confined in urban area
• Eutrophication
• Financial constraint
• Perception (negative - animal rights)
• Visitors attitudes (consider zoo as a recreation center)
• Perception – negative among animal right groups
• Highly politicalized
• Not easy to collect animal (also animal trapping expensive)
• Zoo system is not included in over all biodiversity policy
• Demand of high specific knowledge, skill and experience
• All time work
• Different animal are kept in one environment
• Inadequate awareness among visitors
• Poor knowledge on wild animals medication (particularly birds)
• Increasing pollution
Sustainability
• Financial
– Fee from visitors

– Donor
– Membership
– Sponsorship
– Adopting individual animals
– Income from seed animals
– Animal exchange
– Involvement of private sector (toyota)
– Income from selling manure and other resource (fish)
• Information sharing
– Research and database

• Networking
– Exchange of animal
– Training (HRD)
8.9 Animal handling and restraint
• For the purpose of zoos (medical exam, tagging or research, movement) after a suitable trapping method is
applied the animal handling and restraint is cruicial
• Well being of the animal and the safety of the trapper
• Relationship and social bond between the keeper and animal
• No actions to be permitted to frighten the animals
• Use of mechanical restraining devices: for small mammals – fish bag ½ inch mesh; medium size mammals –
wire cones 1 inch mesh; large mammals – hobbled into catchnets after trapping; carnivores and bears – held in
steel traps
• Use of drugs in restraining: many advantages over the mechanical means because avoids damage to animal,
elimination of excitement, and ease of measurements
• Choice of drug – should have wide margin of safety, quick in action and with a safe antidote
Unit-9
Wetland Management

9.4 Problems of wetlands
9.5 Sustainable use of wetland, its conservation and management
9.6 Status of Nepal‘s RAMSAR site and other wetlands
9.7 Institutions in wetlands management in Nepal
9.8 Hydropower development and its impacts
 Global aquatic ecosystems fall into two broad classes defined by salinity: freshwater ecosystems and saltwater
ecosystems.
 Freshwater ecosystems, the study of which is known as limnology; are conveniently divided into two groups;
 Lentic or standing water habitats.
 Lotic or running water habitats.
Characteristics of Wetlands:
1. the presence of water at or near the surface;

2. soils that differ from those of adjacent uplands; and
3. vegetation adapted to wet conditions
 Additionally, wetlands are a halfway world between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and exhibit some
characteristics of each.
 More often than not, attempts to define wetlands involve less science and more politics and economics.
 A piece of land classified as a wetland becomes off-limits to development.
 Drawing a line between upland-wetland-aquatic habitats is often difficult.
Definition of Wetlands:
1. A widely accepted scientific definition is presented by (Cowwardin et al. 1979:
Wetlands are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water tables are usually at or near
the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands must have one or more of the following three
attributes:
a. at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes;
b. the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and
c. The substrate is nonsoiladnis saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during
the growing season of each year.
2. A regulatory definition is used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1984):
The term ―wetland means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency
and duration sufficient to support, and under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation
typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and
similar areas.
Location of wetlands along a soil moisture gradient (After Tier 1991):
1. The Ramsar Convention (RC secretariat 2006) has defined as ―Areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water,
whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or
salt, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.‖
2. Nation Wetlands Policy of Nepal (2003) has defined wetlands as ―Perennial water bodies that originate from
underground sources of water or rains. It means swampy areas with flowing or stagnant fresh or salt water that
are natural or man-made, or permanent or temporary. Wetlands also mean marshy lands, riverine floodplains,
lakes, ponds, water storage areas and agricultural lands‖.
3. Generally wetlands means river, lakes, reservoirs and forests, and water logged lands in and around human
habitation. The Neplai term for wetlands is Simsar, which means lands with perennial source of water.
Swampy rice fields, water logged areas and ponds are also understood as wetlands in the country.
Types of Wetlands:
Wetlands most commonly occur in three topographic and hydrologic situations. Many developed in shallow basins
ranging from uplands topographic depressions o filled-in- lakes and ponds. These are basin wetlands. Other wetlands
developed along shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams. These are riverine wetlands. A third type
occurs along coastal areas of larger lakes and oceans. They are known as fringe wetlands (e.g. mangroves).
Wetlands may have deep or shallow water of occupy soils that are water-saturated to various degrees. Wetlands
dominated by emergent herbaceous vegetation are marshes. Wetlands dominated by woody vegetation or forested
wetlands, are commonly called swamps. Wetlands decayed organic matter is peat lands or mires.
Type Site characteristics Plant and animal populations

1.
2. Fresh Meadows
3. Shallow fresh
marshes
4. Deep fresh marshes
5. Open fresh water
6. Shrub Swamps
7. Wooded Swamps
8. Bogs Soil waterlogged; spongy, covering of mosses
The Ramsar Convention has recognized six major wetland types (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2006):
1. Marine (coastal wetlands including coastal lagoons, rocky shores and coral reefs)
2. Estuarine (including dealtas, tidal marshes and mangrove swamps)
3. Lacustrine (wetlands associated with lakes)
4. Riverine (wetlands along rivers and streams)
5. Palustrine (meaning ―marshy‖-marshes, swamps and bogs); and
6. Human-made wetlands (fish and shrimp ponds arm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, salt pans, reservoirs,
gravel pits, sewage farms and canals)
1. Hydrological functions
2. Biogeochemical functions
3. Ecological functions
Function Process maintaining function

1. Hydrological Functions Water quantity functions
a. Flood water detention a. Short term storage of overbank flood water due to backwatering or
velocity reduction
b. Long term storage of overbank flood due to impeded outflow.
c. Detention of surface runoff water from surrounding slopes
b. Ground water recharge a. Infiltration of flood water into the wetlands surface followed by
percolation to a significant aquifer
b. Upward seepage of groundwater through the wetland surface.
c. Groundwater discharge a. Net storage of fine sediments carried in suspension by river water
during overbank flooding events
b. Net storage of fine sediments carried in suspension by surface runoff
from other wetland units or the contributory area.
2. Biogeochemical functions
a. Nutrient retention a. Plant uptake of nutrients (N and P)
b. Storage of nutrients (N and P) in soil organic matter
c. Absorption of N as ammonium
d. Absorption and precipitation of P in the soil
e. Retention of particulate nutrient
b. Nutrient export a. Gaseous export of N
b. Nutrient (N and P) export through land use management
c. Export of nutrients (N and P ) through physical process
c. Peat accumulation a. In situ C retention
3. Ecological functions Habitat functions
a. Ecosystems maintenance a. Provision of overall habitat structural diversity
b. Provision of micro sites (fish, herpetiles, birds, mammals
c. Provision of plant and habitat diversity
b. Food web support a. Biomass production
b. Biomass import via physical processes (watercourses, overland flow,
wind transport)
c. Biomass import in biological process
d. Biomass export via physical
Values of wetlands:
 Wetlands principally mangroves, swamp forest, rivers and marshes provide valuable resources such as fishery
and timber product, water supply, flood and erosion control and support high biodiversity
 The position of wetlands are after the tropical rainforest, among the richest ecosystems on planet
 Freshwater wetlands through cover only 1% of the Earth‘s surface hold more than 40% of the entire world‘s
species and 12% of all animal species.
 Of the 20,000 fish species in the world, more than 40% live in freshwater
 A large number of migrating waterfowl visit wetland sites to and from feeding and breeding sites.
 Important reservoirs of genes e.g. rice, a common wetland plant is staple diet of more than half of humanity
 Wildlife rice continues to be important source of genetic material for developing disease resistant new verities.
According to the Hussain 1994 values of wetlands can be grouped into 2 broad categories (NBS 2002):
1. Ecological value of indirect use values derived from the functions of wetlands as wildlife habitats, and from
their essential contribution to the maintenance of ecological valance in the immediate area and beyond; and
2. Economic value or direct use values derived from the use of wetlands as production system for sustainable
harvest of their resources.
3. Use value: Wetland inventory of Nepal Terai (IUCN Nepal 1996) states that fishing occurs at 94% sites,
animal grazing at 70%, irrigation 69%, plant harvest 59%, domestic use 32%, fuel wood 20%, wildlife use
13%, religious use 11%.
1. Wetlands of Nepal range from the torpid ponds of the subtropical Terai to the glacial lakes of the High
Himalayas which indicates the diversity wildlife species supported by them.
2. Wetlands of Nepal constitute and important ecosystem that harbors a large number of endemic wildlife
species, many of which are on the brink of extinction.
3. It is estimated that about 750,000 ha (nearly 5% of the total surface area of the country) of wetlands exist in
Nepal.
4. Of the 27 recognized global freshwater wetlands types, 20 are found in Nepal.
5. Some 240 wetland sites are known to exist in Nepal of witch, IUCN, has already inventoried 163 in the Terai
region.
6. It is believed that 190 species of water fowl-including resident species, migratory species and uncommon and
rare resident species-habitat these wetlands.
7. In addition to this, numerous other mammals, fishes, reptiles, and birds are found in these habitats. At least
two crocodile found in the wetlands of Nepal have now become threatened.
8. Nepal‘s wetlands support diverse flora and fauna including threatened species.
9. A total of 91 globally threatened plants are found in Nepal, of which 11 are dependent on wetlands
10. Of 862 birds species in Nepal (BCN 2006), 193 are known to be dependent on wetlands
11. Of 89 globally threatened and 74 near threatened animal species in Nepal 59 and 35 are dependent on terai
wetlands for all or part of the year.
12. Of 20 endemic vertebrate animal found in Nepal. 17 are wetland dependent and 10 of these are from Terai
13. Of the 61 ethnic communities found in Nepal, 21 (accounting 17% of country‘s population and 90% of Terai
origin) are traditionally dependent on wetland resources
9.4 Problems of wetlands:
 The most important threat are hunting and associated disturbance, expansion of human settlement,
encroachment/landfill and drainage for agriculture
 Challenge of increasing population pressure and globalization of the economy with respect to the
unsustainable use of the resources.
 Political instability and armed conflicts affect several tropical countries, hindering wetlands research and
management.
 Detailed wetland inventories are missing in most countries, as are plants for a sustainablemanagement of
wetland in the context of a long-term integrated watershed management
 Policy deficiencies, deficient planning concepts, limited information and awareness and institutional weakness
are the main administrative reasons for wetland degradation
 Many fragmented and weak laws creating a lot of confusion on wetland management (no legal basis for
implementing National Wetland Policy, 2003)
 Inadequacy of basic information about wetlands of Nepal.
 Inadequacy of coordination among different government and loss of wetland resources
 Widespread prevalence of alien invasive species of plants
Issues in the management of wetlands:
No unified approach exists for the sustainable utilization of wetland resources. Basic issues plaguing planners and
implementers of wetlands management programs are:
1. Ownership of wetlands: No law exits for a single institution to claim priority over wetlands. A wetland in a
forest is under the jurisdiction of three different agencies: fisheries, water resources, and forestry.
2. Lack of Awareness: Wetlands are not legitimized as a valuable ecosystem, nor are they recognized as a
significant component of the ecosystem. They are converted into agricultural land as soon as access to them is
claimed.
3. Impacts of Externalities: There are always adverse impacts from externalities such as fertilizer and pesticide
runoff from agricultural land that pollutes rivers, lakes, reservoirs, creeks and ponds. Deforestation and
industrial development in the catchment areas cause serious siltation of wetlands
4. Lack of policy: No definite policy on wetlands exists in Nepal
5. Lack of a responsible institution: No institution in Nepal has a program with a single focus on wetlands
management
9.5 Sustainable use of wetland, its conservation and management:
The wise and sustainable use principle is also applicable to wetlands to protect the natural heritage of ecosystem for the
wellbeing of human race. The techniques of wise use of wetlands are applied in the conservation and management of
the Ramsar Sites of other. The policies on the sie use of wetlands emphasize on rational, thoughtful and judicious use
of wetland resources adopts the following aspects of wetland conservation.
1. Prepare a national level inventory of wetlands

2. Identify the importance and benefits of wetlands by collecting basic information and statistics on management
practices of wise use of wetlands.
3. Recognize and prioritize important wetland sites on the basic of their social, economic, religious, cultural and
historical significance.
4. Allocate funds for projects that promote wetlands conservation and the sustainable use of wetlands resources.
5. Conserve flora and fauna without allowing misuse or overuse of wetlands resources.
6. Make provisions for environmental impact assessment according to prevalent laws prior to approving
development programs and activities around wetlands.
7. Ensure environmental protection by regularly monitoring development programs and activities around
wetlands.
8. Recognize people‘s participation in planning, management and benefit sharing.
9.6 Status of Nepal’s Ramsar site & other wetlands:
Milestone of wetlands Activities in Nepal:
1976: KTWR established and gazette as a habitat of Asian Wild Buffalo

1987: KTWR nominated for inclusion in the Ramsar List.
1988: Designation of KTWR as the first Ramasr site of Nepal.
1992: Establishment of an informal wetland group under IUCN Nepal.
1993: National Workshop on wetland management in Nepal
1994: Publication of a treatise ―safeguarding wetlands of Nepal‖
1996: An Inventory of Nepal‘s Teria Wetlands (Interim report)
1998: Setup of wetlands Database in IUCN
1998: Revision of aquatic Life Protection Act of 1961
2003: Endorsements of the national Wetlands Policy
2003: Designation of three Ramsar sites
2001: Publication of the Inventor of Glaciers and Glacial Lakes.
2006: Publication of monograph on high altitude wetlands
2007: Designation of four high altitude wetlands in the Ramsar list
2008: Designation of Mai Pokahari as the 9thRamsar list
An overview of Ramsar Sites of Nepal:
S. N. Name District Area (Ha) Altitude Ramsar Designation

date
1 Koshitappu Wildlife Reserve Sunsar 17500 90 17-12-187
2 BishHazari Tal Chitwan 3200 286 13-08-2003
3 Ghodaghodi Lake Area Kailali 2563 205 13-08-2003
4 JagdishpurReseroirs Kapilbastu 225 197 13-08-2003
5 Gokyo Lake Complex Solukhumbu 7770 975 23-09-2007
6 Gosainkunda Complex Rasuwa 1030 4380 23-09-2007
7 Rara Lake Mugu 1583 2990 23-09-2007
8 SheyPhoksundo Dolpa 494 3612 23-09-2007
9 Mai Pokhari Illam 90 2100 27-11-2008
9.7 Institution in wetland management in Nepal:
 No sole institution is responsible but wetlands are arranged with partial and overlapping responsibities of the
following institutions:
 Wetlands classification for management (Nepal NWP 2003):
1. Wetlands that lies within PA or BZ

2. Government or public wetlands that lie outside the PA
3. Wetlands that lies in private lands
 The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation through it 4 department has a major responsibility towards
wetlands management
 The Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology formulation and implementation of policies, plans and
programs pertaining to environment pollution control, environmental conservation and balance.
 The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives through its2 departments is responsible for an agricultural
development including rice cultivation and aquaculture, conservation of wild varieties and wild relatives of the
rice plant.
 The Ministry of Local Development: represented by DDC, VDC, Municipality and Metropolitan Authorities
have growing influences over wetlands through a systematic shift towards decentralization of powers under
the Local Self Governance Act, 1999
 The Home Ministry: CDOs enforce the Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1961 at the local levels, provision
made by the amendment of this Act in 1999.
 The Ministry of Water Resources now the Ministry of Energy and Ministry of Irrigation: has mandate to
conserve, control and develop water resources, Management of production of energy for the expansion of
industrial and economic activities, development of irrigation.
 Also the Department of Water Induced Disaster, IUCN Nepal, WWF Nepal, UNDP Department under MFSC
and their roles in wetlands conservation.
Departments Roles
Department of WL and NP  Management of wetlands within Pas and their BZ
 Captive breeding and reintroduction of aquatic fauna.
 Focal point for Ramsar Convention and CITES implementation.
Departments of Forest  Management of wetlands outside the protected areas
Department of soil conservation  Support land use planning (including watershed and sub watershed
and watershed management management planning), land productivity conservation, infrastructure
protection and natural hazard prevention.
 Technical service provider for land use development.
Department of Forest Research  Research and survey of forest resources in watershed area.
& Survey
Department of plant resource  Research and development of plant resources in Nepal.
Wetland legislation and convention:
1. The jalacharSanarchan Ain-2017 (aquatic life Protection Act, 1961): is Nepal‘s oldest legislation
recognizing wetlands and aquatic life values. It prohibits the use of poison and explosive substances in water
bodies, but remains ineffective no agency was specified to ensure the Act.
2. The National Park and Wildlife conservation Act 1973: Provides a legal basis for Nepal‘s consecration
program inside Pas, Soil and Water conservation Act, 1982. Water Resources Act, 1982, Electricity Act, 1992,
Nepal Environment Policy and Action plan 1998, Nepal Biodiversity Strategy, 2002, and National Wetlands
Policy 2003.
3. Three most important conventions concerning wetlands conservation: 1 Convention on wetlands of
International Importance, (Ramsar Convention), signed 17 Dec, 1987, 2) Agreement on the Network of
Aquaculture Centers in Asia and The Pacific, signed 8 Jan, 1988, 3) Convention on biological Diversity
(CBD), signed 15 Jan, 1992.
4. Nepal is also signatory to IUCN, the WWF, CITES, Nepal has not yet joined the convention of the
Conservation of Migratory Species (MS) of wild Animals (the Born convention)
9.8 Hydropower Development and its impacts:
Dams alter aquatic ecology and river hydrology upstream and downstream, affecting water quality, quantity and
breeding grounds. They create novel and artificial types of aquatic environment for the life span of the dam.
Ecological impacts
• Barriers to aquatic life migration
• Submersion
• Eutrophication/release of GHG
Socio-economic impact
• Threat of inundation
• Loss of agriculutre opporutnity
• Hardship to the fishing community
• Loss of cultural heritage
1. Water quality and physical changes:
Upper reaches of the reservoir may not be affected very much as the original condition is still retained in most Nepali
reservoirs. Downstream of the dam the flow rate in the river will depend on the amount of the compensation flow.
Water volume is considerably reduced during the dry season. As a result the downstream may change to pools
alternating with dry stretches for about nine months rise from November to Jane. Due to decreased water discharge,
water temperature will rise in daytime and decline sharply at night. Rooted plants will grow in the riverbed due to
decrease in water volume.
2. Impact on fish
Fish such as snow trout, catfish and loaches may be pulled into the intakes and get killed. Even riverine fish adapted to
fast current may be lost. Fish food organisms will be highly affected by reduced flow rates and new species will invade
areas with a slow current. Golden and copper mahaseer are known to be affected directly by the changes in their
habitat, which leads to stunted growth, diseases and parasite infestation and increased mortality.
3 Effects of impoundment
Installation of a weir on the Tamur River and MewaKhola has changed 200 m and 100 m Long River stretches,
respectively, into two small reservoirs. DudhKoshi is now turned into a reservoir of 687.4 mm3 storage, of which 442.1
mm3 is live storage. The riverine habitat of 53.1 km will be converted into a 1989 ha reservoir by the West Seti
hydropower dam. Similarly, the Karnali dam will create a 7.0 km long reservoir of an average width of 90 m. Another
reservoir will be created upstream of a dam at LikhuKhola, flooding a 700 m long river stretch and having an 18 m
daily water level fluctuation.
Water in the reservoirs may become thermally stratified. This will depend on a number of factors, especially on the
water retention time and the depth of the reservoir. As the water uptake for turbines is usually in the hypolimnion, cold
water will be discharged downstream during the operation of the power station. The hypolimnion may become
deoxygenated, and discharge of such water downstream may negatively impact the aquatic fauna in the river below the
dam. The reservoir itself may undergo eutrophication as happened for example in the Indrasarovar reservoir (Pradhan
and Swar, 1988). Lacustrine conditions of the reservoir will differ from those of the river and this will also have an
impact on the original fish fauna. Some fish species may disappear, other will adjust by changing from stenophagous to
euryphagous. Omnivorous or planktivorous fish may adapt to the reservoir conditions. But Garralamta,
Glyptosternum,Coraglanis, Puntiussp,Glyptothoraxpectinopterus, G. cavia, PsilorhynchusandPseudecheneis do not
like lacustrine conditions. Anguilla bengalensisand Schizothoraxrichardsonii have been also known to decline abruptly
in reservoirs. Snow trout, once abundant in the Kulekhani River, became rare after the river was dammed. The same
happened to mahaseer after the impoundment of Phewa and Begnas lakes in Pokhara Valley.
Neolissocheilushexagonolepis, on the other hand, is a common fish in reservoir conditions (Swar, 1992). Carp minnow
(Bariliusbendelensis), stone loach (Nemacheilusbeavani) and stone roller (Garragotyla) find reservoir conditions
favorable, and reservoir conditions are ideal for rapid colonization by hardy fish such as murrels and catfish
(Heteropneustesfossilis). Shoreline erosion and rapid and intensive drawdown are other problems faced by fish as they
affect spawning and egg incubation.
4. Effect of dams on fish migration
A dam will fragment and isolate upstream resident fish such as stone carp and catfish from downstream. The resident
species may congregate in the tailwater release site. Fish from upstream will occasionally sweep downstream during the
monsoon, stay in the tailwater or swim further downstream. A dam will obstruct the route of the long and mid-distance
migratory fish. Upstream migrants will arrive at the dam site during the flow phase. Long distant migrants such as Tor
sp., Bagarius, Pseudeutropius, Clupisomaand Anguilla, and mid-distance migrants N. hexagonolepis and Labeo species
are most affected by a dam. These species will abandon the original pool and colonize deep pool regions downstream
or upstream. Populations of snow trouts are less affected, as they make a small-scale migration to tributaries to breed in
clear and cool water during the monsoon and return to the main stream during the low flow period (Shrestha, 1995).
5. Socioeconomic impact of dams
A large number of fisher communities are dependent upon fishing for livelihood. These fisher communities are
classified as full time, part time and occasional fishermen depending upon the intensity of fishing (Table 7). Full-time
fishers devote 200-230 days/year to fishing, part-time 60-65 days/year and occasional about 25-30days/year (EIA-
Tamur, 1998). They belong to different ethnic groups: Bote, Majhi, Sarki, Badi, Raji, Gurung, Magar, Chhetri, Kami,
Damai, Tamang, Brahmin, Sahi, Gharti, Thapa, Malla, Danwar, Bhujel and some others. The fish catches have been
reported to decline due to the high fishing pressure, use of chemicals, dynamiting, electro-fishing and the use of small-
meshed nets.
Table 7Fisher communities recorded in EIA studies
Type of fisher Tamur* Melamchi* Upper Karnali* Bheri* Babai* Sun Koshi**
Full-time 15 8 - 15 10 45
Part-time 86 175 - 43 8 211
Occasional 102 8 - 57 10 500
Total 203 191 45-65 115 28 756
* Source - EIA Reports, **Source - Yearly Progress Report (2055/56)
Reduction of riverine fisheries will influence the livelihood of many fishers. Professional full-time fishermen have to
seek alternatives to fishing. Some may respond by migrating to new places. There will be intense competition for the
permanent jobs created by the project. Social interactions between the local communities and power station employees
will have both positive and negative impacts on the traditional culture and values of local communities. Public safety
concern is a problem and it may include accidents from sudden peak releases downstream in the dry season. Flooding
of land to create a new reservoir also leads to the need to relocate fisher families as well as a permanent loss of arable
land and hence of agricultural production,. On the other hand, the relocated fisher families may be provided with
electricity and perhaps receive some other benefits arising from the presence of the dam and the reservoir, such as
development of local tourism, catering services, and the use of reservoir for fisheries.
Unit-10
High Altitude wildlife management

10.2.2 Poaching
10.2.3 Random use of pesticides
10.2.4 Wildlife diseases, pests and predator
10.3.3 Game ranching
10.3.5 Tourism and wildlife conservation
10.4 Wildlife farming.
High Altitudes Wildlife management;
Schaller (1977) states that high altitude animals are those forms confined to cliffs and alpine meadows above timber
line, though animals may penetrate for down forested slopes along avalanche paths and precipices.
How high altitudes differ from others?
1. Cold temperature: At higher altitudes, the cold is intense due to low density of air and its high transparency.
For every 1000m rise in altitude the temperature falls about 6.2 degrees centigrade, but at 4000m the lapse rate
becomes abrupt.
2. Low air pressure: With the increase in altitude, the atmospheric pressure falls and the density of the air is
also reduced. The oxygen tension at the timber line is about 68% that of the air at sea level and at 6000m
altitude in NW Himalaya only about 45%. The tensions commonly produced in warm-blooded animals are not
only due to oxygen deficiency, but also in great part to escape of bubbles of Nitrogen in the blood stream
(Mani, 1962).
3. High solar radiation: Since the air at high altitude is semi-rarefied and dry it can offer no protection for
which the intensity of solar radiation with UV ray increases with altitude.
4. Atmospheric aridity: The air high altitude is relatively dry and pronounced aridity occurs in spite of thick ice
and snow cover. This is mainly due to the fact that with an increase in altitude the air pressure decreases
resulting in lowering of water vapor tension in the atmosphere.
5. High wind velocity: With a rise in altitude, the wind velocity increases for which reason region above altitude
of 5000m generally have strong wind.
Fitness
 It is the measure of the ability of an individual to produce viable offspring and contribute to future generations.
 Individuals vary in their relative fitness, and this variation is due partly to genetic differences among
individuals and partly to environmental influences
Natural selection
 The individuals in a species which have the highest fitness will contribute disproportionately to the subsequent
generations.
 If fitness differences have a genetic component, then the genetic make-up of the subsequent generations will
be altered. This process is known as natural selection or ―survival of the fittest‖.
Adaptation
 Any heritable trait (one which is capable of being transmitted to the next generation), be it behavioral,
morphological or physiological, which aids survival or reproduction in a particular environment is an
adaptation to that environment.
 Adaptation is the result of natural selection acting on heritable differences in fitness.
 It may be noted that non heritable traits, such as the age of an individual, may also influence survival and
reproduction, but such phenomena have no effect on evolution.
 A biological adaptation is any structural (morphological or anatomical), physiological, or behavioral
characteristics of an organism or group of organisms (such as species) that make it better suited in its
environment and consequently improves its chances of survival and reproductive success.
 The process of developing adaptations occurs over many generations; it is a population phenomenon involving
genetics and is generally a slow process.
 Adaptations provide for the individual purpose of the organism—survival, reproduction, development,
maintenance.
 While adaptations often are seen as a static set of suitable characteristics, in reality the process of developing
adaptations is a dynamic process. The process of developing adaptations occurs over many generations; it is a
population phenomenon involving genetics and is generally a slow process.
 Adaptations are the main modification induced both by environment and genetics evidenced by existence of
animals pre-adapted to particular habitat e.g. Yak adapted not only to high altitude arctic and desert
conditions and tamed as one of the highest dwelling animals of the world.
Types of adaptation
Adaptations can be structural, physiological, or behavioral.
1. Structural adaptations are special body parts of an organism that help it to survive in its natural habitat (e.g.,
skin color, shape, body covering).
2. Physiological adaptations are systems present in an organism that allow it to perform certain biochemical
reactions (e.g., making venom, secreting slime, being able to keep a constant body temperature).
3. Behavioral adaptations are special ways a particular organism behaves to survive in its natural habitat (e.g.,
becoming active at night, taking a certain posture).
A. Structural adaptations in high altitude wild animals
1. Size 9. Moderator Band in the Heart

2. Shortening and Protrusion of Body part 10. Less number of sweat glands
3. Coloration 11.Shape and Size of Erythrocytes
4. Hair Insulation 12.Cellular Water
5. Fur Consistency 13.Subcutaneous fats
6. Long furry tail 14.Hooves
7. Large Nostrils 15.Position of eyes and ears
8. Limb Modification
1. Size:
 They are larger in size than their counter parts of lower altitudes (Bergman‘s Law). This means that larger the
size, less surface area in proportion to the mass and less dissipation of heat from the body.
 This adaptation is seen in the Himalayas Langur (Presbytis entellus ajax), Common Palm Civet
(Paradoxurushermiphroditusvelloroxus) and Woody Wolf (Canis lupus). High himalyan birds such as
Bearded Vulture and Golden Eagle are larger than their counterparts in the same family.
2. Shortening and Protrusion of Body Parts:
 In consonance with such a reduction in their body parts (neck, tail, ears and legs) have reduced the surface of
their body to enjoy the privilege of less heat radiation in acute cold.
3. Coloration:
 Animals confirmed to coniferous forest exhibit darker coloration to cope with increased humidity and frequent
ultraviolet radiation e.g. long eared bat, northern bat and brown fox.
 Animals living at and above the snow line have a lighter color of fur to match the surroundings for defensive
camouflage and to absorb less heat in the cold climate (Glober‘s law).
 It is, however, essential to remember that the bases of the hairs in all such light colored fur animals are darker,
which provide protection for them against frequent UV radiation at high altitudes e.g. Pika, Snow Leopard.
 This explanation further supports the fact that in small mammals especially burrowing and small cave
sheltering forms the surface fur is always soft and light in coloration or even without pigmentation as it needed
not directly protect the animals against UV radiation.
4. Hair Insulation:
 High altitude living animals have long, fluffy and soft fur and much wool, at least in winter. This hairy coat
not only retains the body heat by providing insulation against cold climatic condition, but also against
deleterious effects cosmic radiation including UV rays at high altitudes. The hairs on sole of feet in all in
habitats of rocky areas of high mountain elevation provide suitable traction for running on rocks.
5. Fur Consistency:
 With the progression of altitudinal zonation, the distribution of rough and hard hairs on mountain mammals
becomes less and sparser compared to thickly distributed soft and woolly fur and under fur of high altitude
mammals.
6. Long Furry Tail:
 Thick legs and disproportionately long tail of Snow Leopard are most suitable adaptation for coping with the
extreme cold of high altitude environment in the glacier of permanent snow inhabited by this fascinating cat.
The long tail rolls around the body like a blanket and keeps the animal warm and insulated. This tail also
functions to store fat from which it draws subsistence where food needed.
7. Large Nostrils:
 Large nostrils of Chiru are furnished inside with extensive air sacs quite obviously suitable adaptations to low
atmospheric pressure as they enhance breathing in rarefied air. Snow Leopard has large nasal cavities to utilize
more oxygen from the rarefied air. This factor explains why bats are absent above snowline (nocturnal habit
and membranous wings that is sparsely haired). A base wax like patch (cere) at the base of the upper part of
beak is prominent in high altitude predaceous birds such as Lammergeir and golden eagle.
8. Limb Modification:
 Animals like Snow Leopard have broader paws on their short legs suitable for adaptations as it presents
animals from sinking in snow. The paddled feet of Tibetan Wolf is highly advantageous over hoofed animals
for running swiftly on the snow. The forked and pointed hooves of musk deer are efficient tools for running
rapidly in snow. In Himalayan Tahr, hooves are well designed for gripping high altitude rocks.
9. Moderator Band in the Heart:
 A special structural modification in the heart is an oblique and well developed band of muscles called
―Moderator band‖ in ungulates (including domestic and wild sheep). The function of this muscular structure is
to prevent over distension of the heart to pump large amount of blood in high altitudes.
10. Less Number of Sweat Glands:
 They have fewer sweat glands and exhibit minimum respirations and evaporation. They conserve water in dry
air of tropic highlands and high altitudes and also adjust against high water loss from lungs.
11. Shape and Size of Erythrocytes:
 Each RBC layer large oval or elongated in shape to afford more surface for oxygen in some form such as
fishes and birds. In Vacunnas, RBCs are numerous but small in size to afford expeditions transfusion of
oxygen.
12. Cellular Water:
 The skin tissues are adapted to hold lesser amount of unbounded or cellular water (free water).
13. Subcutaneous Fats:
 Hibernating high altitude animals such as Snow Bear contain numerous fat deposits which serve as food stores
against inclement climatic conditions. These deposits also provide solar insulation especially against
ultraviolet radiation. In Snow Leopard the tail functions for food storage from which it draws sustenance when
food is scarce.
14. Hooves:
 High altitude Artiodactyls (even-toed hoofed animals) have splayed and pointed hooves (Himalayan Chiru)
that enables them to survive efficiently. This enables them to surpass their enemies in speed on steep and
rocky mountain. The Himalayan Musk Deer has mobile feet with long pointed central hooves that enables
animal to have confident foothold on slippery rocks and snowy slopes at high altitudes.
15. Position of Eyes and Ears:
 Small ears and eyes are placed high on head of Snow Leopard enabling animal to reconnoiter for prey location
with least exposure of its head. In Pallas‘ cat, short wide set of ears drops down on sides of head so that inner
side and upper margin hardly rise above the highly featured forehead. This enables to follow prey without
being exposed to its prey.
B. Physiological Adaptation in high altitude wild animals:
A number of adaptations in high altitude animals are the outcome of their physiological adjustment to cope with the
stern environmental stress. Some of the notable adaptations are:
1. Special superior thermoregulatory mechanism in most high altitude animals in High Himalaya, that lack in
some tropical mammals e.g. marsupials, chiropterans and primates. Changes in the circulation of heat are
remarkable adaptations to cold. A number of mechanisms for physiological adjustments the animals adopt
living in cold arctic conditions of high altitudes are:
a. Generation of body heat by the fast metabolic burning of food as fuel; metabolism is high to generate
more body heat affords, an effective mechanism against cold.
b. The use of insulation and other devices in accordance with Newtonian formula concerning the cooling of
warm bodies. Calculations reveals that an arctic mammals must generate ten times more heat than a
tropical one or clothe itself 10 times more effectively for insulation or employ an intermediate
combination of these two mechanism.
2. Adaptations towards low oxygen tension at high altitudes have resulted in fast circulation and pulse beat.
There is more heat weight in relation to body weight, as in birds and mammals.
3. Proliferation of RBCs occurs rapidly in high altitude animals to increase the oxygen carrying capacity of
blood.
4. Affinity of Hemoglobin towards oxygen in RBC of wild animals also increases with an increase in altitude
much more than in their counterparts inhabiting lowland biotypes.
5. The uptake of oxygen in lungs of high altitude animal is high as established by comparative experimental
studies on Yak and high altitude cows.
6. The lungs of high altitude animals are adapted to dry tropical air and hence the water lose through them is
greater than animals of moisture laden air in the lowland regions.
7. To economize the water level required by the body the excreta becomes firmed with progression of altitude. In
high altitude sheep and goats and the yak, the urine elimination is less in quantity. This water conservation is
one unique adaptation in high altitude animals.
8. The sense of smell is highly acute as in yak and small and single as in Himalayan bearded Vulture and golden
Eagle in high altitude animals.
C. Behavior adaptation in high altitude wild animals:
The ethological or behavior of high altitude animals is remarkably modified.
1. Large herbivores have adapted to keep reserve stock of food material to meet the challenges of adverse high
altitude condition. The food is stored in burrows and then in other refuges e.g. Pikas, excessive fat, in
particular yellow fat, is stored in body before hibernation. Others are Marmot and Snow bear.
2. Another interesting behavioral adaptation towards the shortage of food at high altitude and in tropical highland
is that large herbivores habitually graze singly and apart. In contrast domestic animals often graze in herds,
overgraze and damage grassland ecosystem of high altitudes.
3. The bite of Yak is quicker and nearer the ground than other species of meat cattle. This is the peculiarity
which equips them for short and scanty herbage (Schaller, 1977).
4. Restoring to winter migration is exhibited by several animals in the Himalayas e.g. Serow, Jharal, Marmot and
Snow Leopard. The animals descend from higher to lower altitudes in winter and return from lower to higher
altitude in summer.
5. The canidae of uplands and Himalaya (Wolves, Jackals and Wild Dogs) always move in packs to kill their
larger prey showing a social organization that rarely quarrels
 Rapid rate of urbanization in many parts of the Himalaya with explosion of human population has lead to
deforestation and disappearances of many rare and useful species of wildlife.
 Deforestation rate: high 2% per year
Cause:
 Slash and burns practice

 Agriculture encroachment
 Uncontrolled grazing
 Forest fire
 Timber, fodder and undergrowth cutting
Effect:
 Inbreeding depression: loss of genetic variation (genetic depression)

 Minimum area of intact habitat (home range): not available
 Increase of edge: size of patches may be smaller, corridor loss, no dispersal
 Barrier developed
10.2.2 Poaching
Illegal hunting
 Musk deer= musk lying on their pod, Pheasants and ungulates= meat
 Sloth bear and Himalayan bear= gall bladder, Snow leopard= skin
 Wild boar= meat, Tibetan antelope= skin
Trade of wildlife part:
 Skin= foxes, weasels, civet, lynx, clouded leopard, snow leopard

 Medicines= parts of mammals, birds and reptiles
 Dried blood of rhino
 Pet trade= birds of prey, owls, parakeets, mynas bunting, weavers
10.2.3 Random use of pesticides:
The function of a pesticide is to kill or harm some form of life.

―…a pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating
any pest.‖
―…a pest is any harmful, destructive, or troublesome animal, plant or microorganism.‖
- US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Classes of pesticides
1. Insecticides (kill insects)

2. Herbicides (kill plants)
3. Rodenticides (kill rodents)
4. Fungicides (kill fungus)
5. Fumigants (kill whatever)
Effects of pesticides in wild animals:
 Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to biota.

 Animals may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food after spraying.
 Widespread application of pesticides can eliminate food sources that certain types of animals need, causing the
animals to relocate, change their diet, or starve.
 Poisoning from pesticides can travel up the food chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat
insects and worms that have consumed pesticides.
 Some pesticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them
over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain.
 Pests may evolve to become resistant to pesticides
 Loss of bird species due to bioaccumulation of pesticides in their tissues
 Thinning of egg shells in birds
 Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life
 Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes in
fish that reduce populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease, and
increased failure to avoid predators
Some examples
 Random use of pesticides in agriculture can create toxicity to mammals and other vertebrates
 D.D.T. has damaging effect on reproduction of birds of prey
 People sometimes spread some pesticides over the carcass to kill the carnivore snow leopard
 Retaliatory killing of snow leopard by poisoning on carcass
 Dogs killed with poisoned bait and thrown haphazardly, kills vulture
 The major cause of vultures‘ mass mortality is diclofenac contamination of livestock carcasses (Swan et al.
2006).
10.2.4 Wildlife disease, pests and predator
 The subject of wildlife disease is an integral part of its conservation and management, but has unfortunately
received very little attention in High altitude Himalaya regions of Nepal.
 It is very difficult to diagnose and treat the disease in wild animals because they are free ranging animals and
diseased animals hide itself in remote or core area of jungle.
Diseases Causing Agents
 Bacteria
 Virus
 Fungus
 Parasites
1. External- ticks, mites
2. Internal- helminths
3. Protozoa
 Poisonings
 Toxics/Pollutants/Heavy metals/Pesticides
Some common diseases
1. Rinderpest
 It is seen in deer, wild buffalo and wild boars, yak, barasingha

 It is caused by a virus and is highly infectious and fatal to a wide variety of cloven-hoofed animals
Cause:
 From infected domestic cattle and buffaloes through grazed pasture
2. Foot and mouth diseases/viral infection:
 It is caused by Picorna virus, mostly among the hoofed animals

 It is an infectious disease followed by cattle grazing in the forest.
 Yak, gaur, sambar, nilgai, cheetal, wildboar mostly suffer from this disease
 The body temperature increases by 20 to 3o F, mouth an tounge are full of wounds and there is too
much salivation. The foot near the hoofs is affected.
 The casualty in young is more than the adults.
3. Rabies
 In wild dog, jackal, wolf, fox wild cat and mongoose
 The virus is normally passed on through infected saliva.
 Infected wild animals are usually noticeable by a profound change in their behaviour, e.g. they may
lose their fear of man and approach vehicles and buildings, etc.
4. Anthrax:
 This disease is caused by Anthracis bacteria called as Bacillus anthrasis

 There is enlargement of spleen in this disease in the mammals.
 In gaur and rhino
 Infected animals are usually found dead and commonly have dark blood oozing from any natural
orifices (anus, nostrils, etc).
5. Tuberculosis:
 Zoonotic disease
 TB infects Human, livestock and wildlife
 Presence of TB in Elephants
 Health risk for elephants
 Threat in conservation
6. External parasites
 Ticks feeding causes anemia (blood loss) and severe skin lesions
1. Political system is for bringing gradual change to ensure economic and political stability in the country
2. Power is distributed between the three branches of government – legislative, judicial, and executive (check
and balance)
3. Both personal politics and party politics influence policy decisions
4. Policy decisions are influenced by the power relations between public, experts and political authorities
5. Elected and appointed government bodies deal with pressure from special interest groups (lobbying)
6. Politicians (looking for being elected and re-elected) focus on short-term and isolated issues rather than on
biodiversity conservation (which is complex, time-consuming, and long-term problem)
7. Many politicians have too little understanding of natural system - how it helps all life, economies, and
societies
8. A good political and economic climate favors biodiversity conservation – law, regulation, and policy
formulation and enough budgetary allocation for high conservation costs
9. Poor political and economic climate in the country as faced by many developing nations, make biodiversity
conservation a very difficult task
a. Weak wildlife laws, regulations, policy and weak law enforcement

b. Lack of enough budget
c. Frequent change and transfer of staff
d. Political influence and pressure, corruption
e. Lack of adequate and trained staff
f. Poor and delayed decision making
g. Politicians are influenced by profit-making organizations – corporations and industrialists
h. Major focus on military and economic security, less national priority for biodiversity conservation
i. All leading to gradual decline in wildlife population – more species threatened and endangered
10. To influence environmental policy, we need to work together actively to improve local communities, we need
to be committed and bring about change from the bottom up by getting people to work together
11. International organizations such as CITES and IUCN are working on international cooperation to ensure a
future for the world‘s wildlife
1. Habitat protection is the most important activity in wildlife conservation and management
2. The NPWC Act 1973 prohibits several activities to protect wildlife habitat in PAs
3. In Nepal, Nepal Army are deputed for the protection of National Parks and Wildlife Reserves
4. Arrangements for habitat protection:
 Sectors, range posts, and guard posts

 The protected divided into sectors, range posts and guard posts as units for proper allocation of staff and
resources
 Patrolling – regular patrolling of the area and checking for any damages or signs of illegal activities,
special area patrolling (regular checking of special areas – water holes, breeding sites, special habitats,
special wildlife areas), patrolling on foot, on bicycles, on vehicles, on elephants, by boat or motor boat,
day – night patrolling
 Anti-poaching operations
 Watch towers – illegal activity and fire breaks
 Weeds and invasive species – if necessary taking necessary actions
 Pollution
 Surveillance/vigilance
 Communication – prompt action
 Barrier/ entry point checks
 Fire protection measures – fire line maintenance, fire fightingequipments
 Construction and maintenance of boundary fences, trenches as necessary
 Record keeping
 Education and awareness
10.3.3 Game ranching:
 Game ranching (of game farming) might be defined as the farming of wildlife under controlled conditions and
on a relatively larger areas for making profit on a sustained yield basis or a form of wildlife management for
controlled exploitation for commercial purposes
 The profit may be from:
1. Direct sale of wildlife meat or hides (obtained from periodic culling)
2. Allowing hunters to shoot trophy animals under license system
3. Or from fees from admission tickets for wildlife viewing
 Unlike most zoos, game ranches are relatively larger in area so that wild animals can develop into herds,
establish their territories and develop social patterns
 Commonly game ranches are carried out on private lands, using natural vegetation with some pastures and
supplementary feeding to increase herd size and carrying capacity
 Game ranches are usually fenced with game-proof fence (in a safe way)
 Provide important gene pool
 Inexpensive marginal lands can be used
 Provide direct benefits to landowners as incentives to protect wildlife habitat which could otherwise be
converted to other profitable use
 In Africa, where human population continues to grow and greater and greater demands are placed on natural
resources, game ranching can be the only way to justify survival of many species
 In some south African game ranches, wildlife safari (wildlife viewing) have been found more profitable that
from wildlife culling

Captive Breeding
 One of the components of conservation strategies-habitat protection, species protection, population mgmt.,
translocations, ecotourism and captive breeding.
 In some instances, habitat protection is not possible and significant populations of a species may only exist in
captive setting.
 The last remaining population may be removed for the purpose of captive protection, breeding and eventual
reintroduction.
 Successful conservation through this method is extremely challenging and quite controversial.
 In some instances, there is no other alternatives
 e.g. Guam rail (extinct bird), black footed ferrets, Mauritius kestrel (extinct in the wild, bird)
 There are many challenges and generally very high costs inherent in this strategy and many believe that its
success as an strategy is very limited.
Current breeding programs in Nepal:
Gharial Breeding Center

Tortoise Breeding Center
 Since 1978, 691 released till 2006
 1978 to 2006,10000 eggs collected for captive  Two species of tortoise conserved
breeding  Breeding is successful
 Released in Koshi, Narayani, Babai, Karnali,
Rapti and Mahakali rivers
 Survival rate 1% (natural) and 6 % (captive)
 Adult female lays about 11-60 eggs per year
Elephant Breeding Musk Deer Breeding
Elephant breeding- since 1986, very successful  Initiated in 2048 BS.

 Facilities at Godawari.
Objectives  Three deer captured and brought to the facility in
1994.
1. For Conservation of Asian elephants  One male born there.
2. To supply adequate number of elephants for  Last one died on March, 2008.
traditional and park management and tourism or  Now only Chital and Barking deer only.
sports activities.
3. Rescue work-human, tiger, rhino etc. Vulture Breeding Center
4. Forest management.
5. Preserve ancient techniques of elephant  Initiated in 2008
management e.g. training  7 pairs of breeding vulture
Target-25 pairs
10.3.5 Tourism and wildlife conservation:
 A well-planned tourism development, wildlife and local communities have symbiotic relation that is, they
provide mutual benefit to one another – wildlife increases tourism, tourism benefits local community, local
community support wildlife conservation
 People now are more aware and concerned about the environmental degradation, climate change, and loss of
biodiversity
 Wildlife conservation is linked with loss of biodiversity and more and more people are concerned about
wildlife
 More and more people are now appreciate wildlife and take part in wildlife tourism
 Tourism injects money into local economy and allows visitors to learn about the natural world
 Wildlife tourism stimulates local economy which can motivate local people to help protect and sustain local
wildlife
 Tourism provides a strong economic justification for protecting wildlife and much needed finance for wildlife
conservation
 Wildlife tourism activities (non-consumptive use):
 Viewing and observing insects, butterflies, fish, whale, sharks, turtles, crocodiles, animal breeding sites,
bird watching, bird and mammals (rare and endangered) vehicle safari, elephant safari, wildlife viewing
from hides and machans, or on foot, or on boat, etc.
 The lowland Protected Areas of Nepal are particularly very rich in wildlife
 Chitwan National Park has been internationally recognized as one of the most important tourist destination of
the world for wildlife viewing
10.4 Wildlife farming
Objective of the wildlife farming working policy:
To adopt process and programme in order to improve the living condition of the women, poor and disadvantaged
section of the society from biodiversity conservation by encouraging individuals, groups, and institutions in farming
and research of high value wild flora and fauna such as spotted deer, musk deer, samber deer, wild boar etc., and also to
increase opportunities for employment and income through conservation, enhancement and sustainable utilization of
wildlife
Working Policy:
1. Involvement of private sector in farming, breeding and carrying out scientific research and studies of
endangered and high-value wild animal species will be encouraged
2. Rare and endangered, and species that are at the verge of extinction will be conserved in natural habitat (In-
situ conservation) and ex-situ conservation will also be promoted
3. A policy will be adopted for gradually reducing the rural poverty by linking farming, breeding and scientific
research and studies with income and employment opportunities to the local people
4. The role of government will be developed as a Regulator, Promoter and Facilitator rather than a Controller in
wild animal farming, breeding and scientific research and studies
5. Appropriate legal and institutional framework will be developed to promote private sector participation in
farming, breeding and scientific research and study of endangered and other wild animal species while
remaining committed to regulate international trade on wildlife and plant species as well as to biodiversity
conservation as per the prevailing international laws
6. Utmost attentions shall be given to the national interest and welfare in wild animal farming, breeding,
scientific research and study.
Working Procedures:
A. Permit Required for study, research, breeding and farming
1. Parties shall abide by Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) provisions and similar other international laws.
2. Permission from the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation and DNPWC for the wild animals listed under
the protected wild animals in the given appendix.
3. The applicant should pay royalty as per rule and regulations get such permit.
4. The applicants (Individuals, Organizations, and Institutions) who apply at DNPWC should submit a detailed
work plan of the species intended for farming, breeding and research as mentioned in clause 2.
B. Seed Animal can be provided
1. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation may provide seed animal. The Department will
charge a fee for seed animal
2. The permitted parties shall keep an updated record (data, description and other information) of seed animals
obtained from the Department or imported seed animals and siblings produced from the seed animals, trophies
or other products, and shall submit report of updated information to the Department of National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation every six months.
3. Animals collected from the natural habitat or provided as seed animals will not be permitted to be exported out
of Nepal for any purpose.
C. Formation of Committee
1. Deputy Director General, DNPWC -Coordinator

2. Ecologist, DNPWC -Member
3. Management Officer, DNPWC –Member
List of wild animals species that are permitted for commercial farming
Protected Wild Animal Species Other Wild Animal Species
1. Gharial Crocodile 1. Barking deer

2. Black Buck 2. Spotted deer
3. Danphe (Impeyan pheasant) 3. Samber deer
4. Monal (Satyr tragopan) 4. Monkey (Rhesus monkey)
5. Cheer pheasant 5. Hog deer
6. Wild boar
7. Snakes
8. All kinds of birds
Revenue to be paid for getting wild animal farming permi

Protected Wild Animal Species Other Wild Animal Species
1. Gharial Crocodile NRS. 40,000/ 1. Barking deer NRS. 15,000/

2. Black Buck NRS. 25,000/ 2. Spotted deer NRS. 15,000/
3. Danphe (Impeyan pheasant) NRS. 10,000/ 3. Samber deer NRS. 20,000/
4. Monal (Satyr tragopan) NRS. 5,000 4. Monkey (Rhesus monkey) NRS. 15,000/
5. Cheer pheasant NRS. 5,000/ 5. Hog deer NRS. 15,000/
6. Wild boar NRS. 10,000/
7. Snakes NRS. 10,000/
8. All kinds of birds NRS. 5,000/
Fees for obtaining seed animals
Protected Wild Animal Species (per head) Other Wild Animal Species (per head)
1. Gharial Crocodile NRS. 40,000/ 1. Barking deer NRS. 15,000/

2. Black Buck NRS. 25,000/ 2. Spotted deer NRS. 15,000/
3. Danphe (Impeyan pheasant) NRS. 5,000/ 3. Samber deer NRS. 20,000/
4. Monal (Satyr tragopan) NRS. 5,000/ 4. Monkey (Rhesus monkey) NRS. 25,000/
5. Cheer pheasant NRS. 5,000/ 5. Hog deer NRS. 15,000/
6. Wild boar NRS. 10,000/
7. Snakes NRS. 5,000/
8. All kinds of birds NRS. 5,000/
Wildlife Conservation & Management (B. Sc. 3rd year 2nd half) Compiled By Shambhu Kumar Mishra Page 113

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Unit-1

1.1 History status of wildlife conservation in Nepal

2.1 Capturing wild animals (indigenous & modern techniques)

3.1 Habitat evaluation

4.1 Estimation of animal abundance (Direct & indirect count)

7.1 Human population growth

9.1 Concept of wetland and its type

10.1 Structural, physiological and behavioral adaptation in high altitude

1.1 History status of wildlife conservation in Nepal

Introduction to wildlife conservation in Nepal

Wildlife management in Nepal:

Conservation: Management/preservation/protection/sustainable development/wise-use/welfare

1. To protect the value

 WL conservation history is relatively new in Nepal

Development Phase in WL conservation:

1970s establishment phase:

 Complete protection was provided to species and conservation of habitat

1980s development phase:

 Public involvement, public demand, need identification was made

1990s development as well as maintenance phase:

2000s expansion of landscape level:

 Initiation of eco-region or landscape level concepts.

Era-1: 1960-1980s: Species preservation era.

1. Started regional level cooperation, eco-regional cooperation

Summary: WL Conservation Development in Nepal (After 1950):

Some success in conserving Wildlife in Nepal:

1.1 History Status of wildlife Conservation in Nepal:

History and Status:

B. 1951-1955 (King Tribhuvan Era):

C. 1st to 4th five year plans: 1956-1975 (King Mahendra era):

A Golden Era in WL Conservation/King Mahindra Era:

Flora and Fauna Diversity:

Summary Sheets of Protected area:

Protected Area Number Areas in km2

Protected Year Area Buffer Zones

1.2 Legislation concerning WL conservation in Nepal:

Long-Term Policy and Guide Lines:

Long and Short Terms Plans:

Policy and Program:

 Policy: NCS, NEPAP and 5 year plan

1. Policy and legal reform

NCS and NEPAP identify and stress;

National Parks and WL conservation Act, 1973 (Silent features):

 This is a main act related to conservation of WL and Pas in Nepal

It indicates two objectives:

1. Section 2: describes 5 different categories of Pas and BZ

Legislative documents for WL conservations:

Other related acts:

 Forest act, 2049 (1993)

List of flora and fauna in CITES appendices:

I-totally banded II-Permission from CITES III—can be exchange

S. N. Ramsar Sites Areas (ha) Location (districts) Zone Elevation

4. CBD 1992: Convention on Biological Diversity (Earth Summit):

1.3 Problems WL conservation in Nepal

There are so many problems appeared in WL conservation in Nepal, categories in 3 ways:

Following points cover all the sector of the above:

 Participatory approach is more effective than traditional approach

 Habitat loss and Degradation (fragmentation of land, introduction of alien species)

 Inadequate Intelligence networking

 Develop tourism as an industry with respect to protected areas.

Flora and fauna of Global and Nepal:

Group of organism Number of species Nepal representatives (%)