Needs46:4

Babel Assessment in Translation

289–299 © Fédération Teaching
Internationale des Traducteurs (FIT) Revue Babel 289

Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching

Making Translator Training
More Responsive to Social Needs*

Defeng Li

Introduction

As we are advancing (c) John

into the Benjamins
new millennium, changes are taking place in
translation markets andDelivered by becoming
technology is fast Ingenta omnipresent. In the face
of changes and new technology, translation programs and courses must
on: Sat, 13 May 2006 12:24:26
respond to the changing needs of the society. In the process of planning and
to: Chinese
restructuring University
translation programs to addressoftheHong Kong
changing social needs,
IP: 137.189.171.235
needs assessment is crucial. Rather than sitting behind closed doors charting
out possible needs of our students, which often are considerably different
from the actual needs of translators (Cheung, Xu, Chan and Yim, 1993), we
need to carry out needs assessment to find out what translators’ real needs are.
Even in the planning of an individual course, learners’ needs must be taken
into consideration and therefore needs assessments should also be conducted
in order to ensure that the course is relevant to students’ needs and the time
and resources are best used. Results from needs assessment can be used to
make decisions about internal programming and resource allocation. They
can also inform our decision about materials selection, curricular design and
teaching approaches.

* This study was supported by Direct Grant of Research (No. 2010186) of the Chinese
University of Hong Kong.
290 Defeng Li

Definition of Needs Assessment for Translation Teaching

Needs assessment has been defined in many ways. York (1982) stated simply
that needs assessment is a “measure of how much of what is needed.” For
McKillip (1987), needs assessment is a process of “ordering and prioritization”
of social/learner needs. Reviere et al. (1996) defines needs assessment as a
systematic and ongoing process of providing usable and useful information
about the needs of the target population — to those who can and will utilize it
to make judgements about policy and programs. Needs assessment, according
to Reviere et al., is population-specific, but systematically focused, empirically
based, and outcome-oriented. Needs assessment, then, is a form of applied
research that extends beyond data collection and analysis to cover the utiliza-
tion of the findings (p. 6).
So what is a needs assessment for translation teaching? First, it is a tool
that examines, from the perspective of the translation learner, what kinds of
translational competence the learner believes she already has, the translation
(c) John
contexts in which the translator livesBenjamins
and works; what the translation learner
wants and needs to know Delivered bythose
to function in Ingenta
contexts; and what the transla-
tion learner on:
expects Sat, 13 May 2006 12:24:26
to gain from the instructional program or a particular
course. Second,
to: Chinese University of Hongprocess
needs assessment is a decision-making Kong of ordering
and prioritization of translation learners’ needs when they are clearly defined,
thus influencing program IP:innovation,
137.189.171.235
curriculum design, materials selection,
and teaching approaches. Therefore, needs assessment for translation teach-
ing should be a continual process and take place throughout the instructional
program (Burnaby, 1989; Savage, 1993).

Rationale for Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching

According to Reviere et al. (1996), a well-planned, methodologically sound

needs assessment can and should be a powerful guiding force for change. As
a type of applied social research, needs assessment is meant to foster program
development and policy-making. The information gathered from needs as-
sessment can aid administrators, teachers, and tutors in developing curricula,
materials, skills assessment, and teaching methods.
There is general, though not universal, agreement among educators that
program and curriculum design and innovation should be based on learner
needs (Pratt, 1994: 35). However, I suspect that many of the translation
Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 291

programs in operation today were most probably not developed on the needs
of the learners; rather, they were the products of academics’ in-house theoriz-
ing and philosophizing based on their own individual experiences with lan-
guages and translation and also what they believe about teaching of translation.
That is, how translation programs and curricula should be structured has so far
been based mostly on translation teachers’ assumptions about translation and
translation teaching. But, unfortunately, such assumptions quite often do not
adequately reflect the reality of the world of professional translators. One
obvious reason is that many of us teachers have not been professional
translators ourselves although some may have been occasional free-lance
translators (but mostly, of literary texts). Even though some of us might be
professional translators before joining the teaching/training profession, our
knowledge and understanding of the translation world are out-dated after these
years of rapid changes that have taken place in the world. This divorce of
translation academics from the real world of professional translators have
actually been recognized by translation scholars too.
(c) John
As Gile (1995) observes, Benjamins
although many teachers of interpretation are
themselves practisingDelivered
interpreters, andby Ingenta
most of them understandably prefer
on: Sat, 13 May 2006 12:24:26
(need) to devote their time to their professional occupation rather than research,
“The situation is different regards written translation, with a number of full-
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong
time academics not engaged in the practice of professional translation doing
translation research. In IP:fact,137.189.171.235
many well-known personalities in the field of
translation studies have this particular background” (p. 4).
Consequently, the needs of our students charted out behind closed doors
by translation teachers are often considerably different from the actual needs
of translators (Cheung et al., 1993). For instance, Li (1999) finds in his study
of professional translators in Hong Kong that the training programs in opera-
tion today, at least in Hong Kong, were originally designed to train literary
translators and still have an obvious literary translation slant even after changes
made over the years, whereas almost all of the graduates get jobs of translating
non-literary texts. Also, in addition to complete translation, translators in Hong
Kong today are receiving more assignments of vetting, abstract translation,
summary translation and abridged translation. Yet in all the translation pro-
grams, students are taught how to do complete translation but little on how to
do selective translation. As a result, many subjects in Li’s study felt that they
were underprepared for their jobs.
Secondly, the changing world of translation and interpretation also war-
292 Defeng Li

rants needs assessment in translation teaching. For instance, with the introduc-
tion of information technology into translation, machine translation, web-
translation and teletranslation (O’Hagan 1996) have appeared in translation
contexts. Translators constantly have to face new challenges ranging from
translation of new terms and contents of different disciplines to new ways of
translation such as teletranslation. With challenges in translators’ jobs come
the changes in the needs for training. Needs assessment is then the tool to
constantly examine learners’ needs in order to keep the training programs
informed.
Social and political changes can also effect changes in the needs in the
translation market. Hong Kong is a case in point. As the result of the turnover
of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty, Hong Kong is enjoying a much closer
relationship with the Mainland today. This at least has changed the translation
tasks in two ways: contents and translation directions. Since the handover in
July 1997, Chinese has been in much wider use in Hong Kong. According to
the survey done by Li (1999), there are now more documents written in
Chinese both in government(c) John Benjamins
and commercial sectors. As a result, although
Delivered
they received more training by from
in translation Ingenta
English into Chinese, today
translators inon:HongSat, 13 May 2006 12:24:26
Kong need to translate more from Chinese into English,
contrary to what they had to do before when Hong Kong was under the
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong
British governance. They need to write better English than most of them had
IP: 137.189.171.235
thought before, thus making it necessary for them to change English from a
passive language into an active language.
Also, since the handover, actually since the signing, in 1984, of the Sino-
British Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong, Hong Kong has been
receiving more influence from the Mainland. There have been more businesses
connected with the Mainland today than ever before (Lie, 1995). Translators
today in Hong Kong have to translate more China-related documents. They
generally found such translation assignments challenging because “we really
don’t know much about the Mainland, especially its political-social systems…
we are not familiar with the terms that are used in the Mainland and therefore
it is difficult to put them into proper English” (Li 1999: 11).
All this has made translation today different from only a few years ago.
Prompt reflection of the changes of translation markets and hence translators’
needs in translation programs is invaluable to the teaching of translation, both
in designing programs and materials, and optimizing training approaches and
methods. Needs assessment is then a tool that can be used for this purpose.
Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 293

Needs assessments can be done at different stages of a program. Before

the development of a new translation program or restructuring of an existing
program, needs assessment can assure that a new program or innovated
program meets students’ needs. At the beginning of the program, needs
assessment might be used to determine appropriate program types and course
content; during the program, it assures that learner and program goals are
being met and allows for necessary program changes; at the end of the
program, it can be used for assessing progress and planning future directions
for learners and the program.
As pointed our earlier, needs assessment process can also be used as the
basis for developing curricula and classroom practice that are responsive to
learners’ and social needs. Burnaby points out that “the curriculum content
and learning experiences to take place in class should be negotiated between
learners, teacher and coordinator at the beginning of the project and renegoti-
ated regularly during the project” (Burnaby 1989: 20). Therefore, assessing
the needs, interests, and goals of learners is in fact an integral part of
translation teaching and(c)of John Benjamins
great importance in creating a “leaner-centered’
classroom. In addition,Delivered by Ingenta
within a particular level, each group of learners is
different, andon: Sat, 13 May 2006goals
the range of skills, interests, and 12:24:26
within a class may vary
widely from individual to individual and from group to group. The teacher,
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong
the individual learners, and the class as a whole need to be aware of these
differences so that theIP:course
137.189.171.235
can be adapted to the particular group of
individuals. Therefore, classroom needs assessment can assure a flexible,
responsive curriculum rather than a fixed, linear curriculum determined
ahead of time by instructors.
Again, needs assessment can be done at different points in the course and
for a variety of purposes. Needs assessment can be done early or midway in
the course or prior to each unit (pre-topic) in order to determine what students
already know and to help clarify their goals. Furthermore, it can assist the
teacher in selecting, prioritizing, adapting materials and curricula. Needs
assessment can also be done routinely as part of the course (on-going) in
order to insure that learner needs and goals are being met. In addition, needs
assessment can occur at the completion of a unit or course (final) to take
account of accomplishments and to help learners make decisions about
educational goals for the future.
To gather comprehensive and updated information, needs assessments
should also involve professional translators and employers of translation
294 Defeng Li

graduates in addition to in-program translation students. Since professional

translators and employers of translation graduates know well the translation
market, their perceptions on translator training can ensure that the programs are
informed of the needs and changes of the professional translation world. They
can then complement translation students in their perceived needs, which may
be incomplete or even somehow biased due to lack of knowledge of the real
translation world or misunderstanding of the translation market. However, it
may not be realistic to involve people other than translation students in the
design of one individual course due to time constraints.

Needs Assessment Methods for Translation Teaching

Needs assessment with learners in translation programs can take a variety of

forms, including survey questionnaires on which learners check areas of
interest or need, structured or open-ended interviews, and focus group method.

Surveys (c) John Benjamins

Delivered by Ingenta
Surveys are on:
amongSat, 13 commonly
the most May 2006 12:24:26
selected methods for conducting
needs assessments because they can
to: Chinese University of Hongvery easily and expediently
Kong generate a
significant amount of numerical or quantitative data. Surveys are a cost-
IP: 137.189.171.235
effective means of collecting information from a large number of individuals.
Because surveys can be efficiently administered to large numbers of respon-
dents, surveys are more likely to provide results that are representative of the
target population. Quantifying responses, such as attitudes, perceptions, and
the needs for services, is an important attribute of this method. Other meth-
ods, such as interviews, can also yield quantitative results. However, surveys
are better able to do so because they rely largely on fixed choice questions.
There is no one preferred survey method to use when conducting needs
assessments. Mailout surveys, telephone surveys, or face-to face surveys can
all be used for this purpose. When questionnaire surveys are used, they are
typically structured or at least semi-structured. The larger the number of
informants, the greater the reliance on structured or fixed-choice questions.
Fixed-choice questions allow responses to be tabulated quickly and the wide
range of possible responses from fixed or open-ended questions requires
more elaborate coding schemes to encompass most of the possible responses.
However, issues such as the data collection method and sampling require-
Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 295

ments need to be considered before undertaking a needs assessment using

survey methods.

Interview Methods

Interview method is another often used form of needs assessment. Interview

methods refer to the collection of information from respondents through “real
time” face-to-face or telephone contact. Because it requires direct contact,
this method is the most time consuming and therefore most costly.
There are three types of interviews: structured, semi-structured, and
open-ended. Structured interviews are similar to surveys in that it uses
questions with specific response choices. However, unlike most surveys,
questions are usually read and responses are noted by the interview-adminis-
tering personnel.
Semi-structured interview methods refer to the use of questions that offer
a fixed set of response choices but leave one or more unrestricted responses
open to respondents to (c) John
write Benjamins
in their own words. The advantage is that it
provides respondentsDelivered by Ingenta
with viable or realistic and convenient response choices
that they canon:selectSat, 13 May 2006 for
expediently, while allowing 12:24:26
unique responses to fall
outside of the fixed choices.
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong
Open-ended interview questions have no restrictions for respondents. In
IP:can
this interview, informants 137.189.171.235
respond in their own words and it also gives the
interviewer opportunities to ask respondents to clarify and expound on re-
sponses and reasons for their responses. This enables the interviewer to
obtain more complete responses. But analysis of data gathered through non-
structured interviews takes more time since the data will not be easy to code
and does not lend itself readily to quantification.

Focus Group Method

Focus group method refers to the collection of information from respondents

through organized group discussions. Focus groups usually consist of eight to
ten participants and a moderator or facilitator. The group can be smaller to
allow for more participation of individual group members. Optimal meeting
times range from 40 minutes to three hours, depending on the breadth and
depth of topics. The facilitator or discussion moderator typically prepares a
subject guide, a list of topics or questions that are to be discussed during the
296 Defeng Li

time. The advantage of focus group method is its obvious concentration on

the quality of information. It gives informants opportunities to express their
views with no restrictions and participants become engaged in the topics at a
greater level.
Information derived from focus groups can stand on its own merits or be
combined with existing quantitative data on the same topics. This method can
also be used to collect information needed to design more quantitative needs
assessment instruments. If conducted correctly, focus groups provide very
rich and comprehensive information that more structured methods, such as
surveys or questionnaires cannot provide. However, like all qualitative study,
the coding of data derived from focus group method will be considerably
more difficult than surveys and questionnaires.
The above methods are in general useful for both identifying needs for
the purpose of developing, innovating and restructuring translation programs
and for classroom needs assessment as well. In addition to the methods
mentioned above, there are several other methods which can also be used, but
(c) for
probably more appropriate John Benjamins
classroom needs assessment, such as checklist,
Delivered
rating scales or simply ask students toby
writeIngenta
a short essay on what they want
to learn. on: Sat, 13 May 2006 12:24:26
Three major factors can help us decide the method(s) to be used. They
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong
are time, resources (funding and personnel) and knowledge. Each needs
IP: in137.189.171.235
assessment method differs the time needed for implementation, the number
of people involved, the funding resources required, and the technical knowl-
edge needed. No method is perfect or inherently better than others. We can
choose one method or a combination of two or more most appropriate for our
purpose. Although these methods were considered independently, they can
be fruitfully used in combination in a single needs assessment.

Application of Needs Assessment Findings

In conducting needs assessments, plans should also be made to utilize the

information gathered for programmatic and curricular changes. Organizations
and teachers undertaking needs assessments need to think about the changes
they are willing and able to make based on the information obtained before they
gather new information. Description of learners’ and social needs is most
appropriately seen as a first step, and needs assessment findings should be
treated as essential means to an end rather than an end in themselves.
Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 297

The information gathered can and should be tallied and processed with
the group of learners so that both teacher and learners become aware of the
expectations of others in the class. When there are differences in expressed
needs and goals, the negotiation and compromise must occur. If learners are
to understand the purpose and value of needs assessment, the information
gathered must be applied in obvious ways during the course. Decisions about
course content and direction should reflect the results of needs assessment.
Teachers who ask learners to express their needs and goals must also be
willing to adapt their teaching so that learners feel that their needs are being
addressed.

Conclusion

Despite the absence of a single standardized methodology or cohesive body

of guiding theory, needs assessment has become increasingly popular
(Riviere 1996:1). Needs assessment can take many forms and can be carried
(c) John
out at different times during Benjamins
the instructional process. Whatever the focus and
format, the purpose isDelivered by Ingenta
to find what translation students need to learn and want
to learn. Whenon: Sat, 13 May 2006 12:24:26
curriculum content, materials, and teaching approaches match
social needs, student motivation and success
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong are enhanced.

References IP: 137.189.171.235

Burnaby, B. 1989. Parameters for projects under the settlement language training
program. Toronto, Ontario: TESL Canada Federation. 47 pp.
Cheung Y., Xu, Y., Chan, S. & Yim, C. 1993. Professional translation in Hong Kong:
How and by whom. Hong Kong: Centre for Translation Studies, Hong Kong Polytech-
nic. 105 pp.
Gile, Daniel. 1995. Mirror Mirror on the Wall: An Introduction. Target, 7/1: 1-5.
Li, D. 1999. Tailoring Translation Programs to Social Needs: A Survey of Professional
Translators. Presented at Translation in Hong Kong: Past, Present and Future. March
17-19, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. 25 pp.
Lie, Raymond S. C. 1995. Commercial Translation. In Chan, Sin Wai & David Pollard
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Translation, 95-109. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.
654 pp.
McKillip, J. 1987. Need Analysis: Tools for the human services and education. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage. 143 pp.
O’Hagan, M. 1996. The Coming Industry of Teletranslation: Overcoming Communication
Barriers through Telecommunication. Clevedon: Mutilingual Matters Ltd.. 120 pp.
Pratt, D. 1994. Curriculum planning: A handbook for professionals. FL, Orlando: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc. 487 pp.
298 Defeng Li

Reviere, R., Berkowitz, S., Carter, C. C. & Furguson, C. G. 1996. Needs assessment: A
creative and practical guide for social scientists. Washington: Taylor & Francis.
233 pp.
Savage, L. 1993. Literacy through a competency-based educational approach. In J. A.
Crandall & J. K. Peyton (Eds.), Approaches to adult ESL literacy instruction. Wash-
ington, DC and McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.
48 pp.
York, R. O. 1982. Human service planning: Concepts, tools, and methods. Chapel Hill,
NC: University of North Carolina Press. 229 pp.

About the Author

LI, Defeng, B.A., M. Phil., Ph.D., Assistant Professor in the Department of Translation,
Chinese University of Hong Kong, has taught English and translation in Hong Kong,
Mainland China and Canada. His academic interests include translation studies, transla-
tion teaching research and second language education. His present study in translation
focuses on translation pedagogy and curriculum and materials development in translation.
Among others, Translation Theory and Practice and An English Speaking Course for
College Students are two major publications he has put out in the last few years. He has
(c) John Benjamins
also written for leading international journals such as TESOL Quarterly and Teaching and
Teacher Education. Delivered by Ingenta
on: Sat,
Address: Department of 13 May
Translation, Chinese2006
University12:24:26
of Hong Kong. Shatin, N.T.,
Hong Kong.
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong
Abstract IP: 137.189.171.235
As we are advancing into the new millennium, changes are taking place in translation
markets and technology is fast becoming omnipresent. In the face of changes and new
technology, translation programs and courses must respond to the changing needs of
society.
It is argued in this paper that in the process of planning/restructuring/innovating transla-
tion programs to address the changing social needs, needs assessment is crucial. Rather
than sitting behind closed doors charting out the possible needs of our students, which
often are considerably different from the actual needs of translators (Cheung, Xu, Chan
and Yim 1993), we need to carry out serious needs assessment to find out what the real
needs are.
It is further argued that needs assessment should be a continual process and take place
throughout the instructional program (Burnaby 1989; Savage 1993), thus influencing
materials selection, curriculum design and teaching approaches. Major assessment meth-
ods for translation programs/courses are then described in brief for reference. The paper
concludes that (1) Whatever the format and focus of the needs assessment, the basic
purpose is to determine what are the real needs of our students: and (2) When curriculum
content, materials, and teaching approaches match social needs, student motivation and
success are enhanced.
Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 299

Résumé

Comme nous nous approchons du nouveau millénaire, des changements ont lieu sur le
marché de la traduction et la technologie devient rapidement omniprésente. Face à ces
modifications et à cette nouvelle technologie, les programmes et cours de traduction
doivent répondre aux besoins changeants de la société.
Dans cet article, l’argument est que lors du processus de planification/restructuration/
innovation des programmes de traduction celui-ci doit répondre aux changements sociaux
et qu’une évaluation des besoins est cruciale. Au lieu de se voiler la face en planifiant les
besoins éventuels de nos étudiants, qui souvent sont considérablement différents des
besoins réels des traducteurs (Cheung, Xu, Chan et Yim 1993), nous devons réaliser une
évaluation sérieuse de leurs besoins afin de trouver quelles sont les ‘véritables’ attentes.
On avance aussi que l’évaluation des besoins devrait être un processus continu et avoir
lieu pendant tout le programme d’enseignement (Burnaby 1989; Savage 1993), en in-
fluençant ainsi la sélection du matériel, la conception du curriculum et les approches de
l’enseignement. Les méthodes d’évaluation les plus utilisées pour les programmes/cours
de traduction sont donc décrites brièvement à titre de référence.
L’article conclut que (1) quels que soient le format et l’objectif de l’évaluation des
besoins, le but de base est de déterminer quels sont les véritables besoins de nos étudiants;
(c) John Benjamins
et (2) lorsque le contenu du curriculum, le matériel, et les approches d’enseignement
Delivered by Ingenta
rencontrent les besoins sociaux, la motivation des étudiants et leur chance de réussite sont
accrues.
on: Sat, 13 May 2006 12:24:26
to: Chinese University of Hong Kong
IP: 137.189.171.235

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