Textbook ENG-ARB General Translation Ham PDF

MINISTÈRE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR
Université de Tunis El Manar
INSTITUT SUPERIEUR DES SCIENCES HUMAINES DE TUNIS

26, Avenue Darghouth Pacha - 1007 Tunis
Translating
English into Arabic
‫ويف ختطيه للعوائق اللغوية يش ُّد التمجناُ حالِّال ا ى حال قالال خرِّ لست تمع غغِّاتهل‬
)‫(محُّودة َّالصلحلي‬
Semester One
http://hammouda-salhi.webs.com
TEYL
STUDENT
MINISTÈRE DE L’ENSMENT SUPÉRIEU
“When breaking language barriers, the translator is

travelling to enjoy the foreignness of other cultures.” -
- (Hammouda Salhi)
‫"ويف ختطيه للعوائق اللغوية يشدُّ التمجناُ حالِّال ا ى حال‬

َّ ‫ (محُّودة‬-- "‫قالال خرِّ لست تمع غغِّاتهل‬
)‫الصلحلي‬
/ http://hammouda-salhi.webs.com/ Page 3
Table of Contents
Lecture 0 : Course Description........................................................................................................... 5
Lecture 1 : Skills ................................................................................................................................ 6
Lecture 2 : History of translation ..................................................................................................... 17
Lecture 3 : Equivalence theory........................................................................................................ 18
Lecture 4 : Ten commandants ......................................................................................................... 20
Lecture 5 : Translation and religion .................................................................................................. 22
Lecture 6 : Translation and Culture .................................................................................................. 25
Lecture 7 : Linguistics ..................................................................................................................... 39
Lecture 8 : Translating creative writings ........................................................................................... 40
Lecture 9 : Translating specialized texts .......................................................................................... 43
Lecture 10 : Translation and corpora ................................................................................................. 50
Lecture 11 : Subtitling and audiovisual translation ............................................................................. 55
Lecture 12 : Translation and activism................................................................................................. 66
Lecture 13 : Interpreting .................................................................................................................... 67
Lecture 14 : Teaching translation ....................................................................................................... 68
Lecture 15 : On the news ................................................................................................................... 69
Practice 1: Culture ........................................................................................................................... 70
Practice 2: Politics ........................................................................................................................... 73
Practice 5: Language ....................................................................................................................... 79
Practice 6: Creative writings............................................................................................................. 80
Practice 8 : Politics ........................................................................................................................... 82
Practice 9: Language ....................................................................................................................... 83
Practice 11: Creative writings............................................................................................................. 85
Scaffolding material 1. .............................................................................................................................. 88
More assignments: Readings .............................................................................................................. 103
EAPCOUNT-Based Glossaries ............................................................................................................. 116
Lecture 0 Theory
English Course Description
Hammouda Salhi, PhD.

Translation studies
Institut Supérieur des Sciences Humaines de Tunis, 26, Avenue Darghouth Pacha - 1007 Tunis
Hammouda_s@hotmail.com
©October 2014
Days/Time and Venue:

Saturdays : 8.30 am ~ 10.30 am, 10 meetings
Room: Conseil Scientifique
Prerequisites: Good command of English and Arabic and good writing skills in both languages
This course is designed to improve the quality of English to Arabic translation. It also aims to help
associates make sound translational decisions, think out of the box, find appropriate lexical, semantic,
pragmatic, cultural and stylistic alternatives or equivalents to overcome complexities and make a
compromise between source texts and authors’ intentions on the one hand, and the available possibilities
of expression in the target language, on the other. Assignments include a variety of texts of non-specialized
nature. They fall within 5 major categories, namely (1) culture (3 texts), (2) creative writings (2 texts), (3)
politics (4 texts), (4) and linguistics (2 texts). Upon completion, students should be able to demonstrate
usage and understanding of the processes involved in translating. Additionally, students will be introduced
to theoretical issues in translation studies (15 lectures) and technology-based translation.
Learning Outcomes:
At the completion of this course, the student should be able to:
a. Demonstrate the processes and competencies in translating documents from English into Arabic.
b. Outline the theoretical knowledge required for professional translators and interpreters as well as
translation researchers and teachers
c. Demonstrate proficiency in the use and application of different translation tools used in
the field (such as dictionaries, glossaries, corpora, software, internet search among others)
Outline of Instruction:
A. Introduction of translation as a profession, practice and a way of communication:
B. What is expected of a good translator: understanding concepts in the original document; good
command of the source and target language; good writing skills; have a “sixth” sense; be an “ideal reader”
(know how to read between the lines); know where to find good reference material; ask questions; know his
limitations.
C. Steps prior to the actual translation process: reading of original text; detection of potential problems in
the text to be translated; search of a parallel text in the target language; compilation of glossaries before
translating; identification of acronyms, numbers, measurements, metaphors, etc., to be translated; register
to be used in the translation.
D. Apply the ten commandments in the translation exercise, which constitute a practical method that can be
used in a variety of subject areas.
Required Readings: (included in the lectures below)

Grading
1. Attendance
2. Class performance
3. Coursework
4. Examinations
Lecture 1 Theory
English and Arabic skills
In class: A lecture on the translating act, the translator, the author, the audience, translational competence,
the purpose of translations, etc.
Required reading:
Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic Age. In Defence of a Minimalist Approach

Anthony Pym
Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
ap@fll.urv.es
Abstract
Since the 1970s the notion of “translation competence” has been viewed as at least 1) a mode of bilingualism, open to
linguistic analysis, 2) a question of market demands, given to extreme historical and social change, 3) a
multicomponent competence, involving sets of skills that are linguistic, cultural, technological and professional, and 4)
a “supercompetence” that would somehow stand above the rest. The general trend among theorists has been to
expand the multicomponent model so as to bring new skills and proficiencies into the field of translator training. This
trend may be expected to continue with the increasing use of electronic tools. Here it is argued, however, that the
multicomponential expansions of competence are partly grounded in institutional interests and are conceptually flawed
in that they will always be one or two steps behind market demands. On the other hand, a simple minimalist concept
of translation competence, based on the production then elimination of alternatives, can help orient translator training
in times of rapid technological and professional change.
Keywords/Mots-clés: translation competence, translator training, translation process, translation skills
My students are complaining, again. In our Advanced Translation course we are not really translating, they say.
But, I quickly reply, we have learned how to use Revision tools and Comments in Word; we have discovered a
few good tricks for Internet searches; we have found out about HTML; we can create and localize fairly
sophisticated websites; we can do wonderful things with translation memories… and these are the things that the
labour market is actively looking for. All that, I insist, is part and parcel of translating these days. No, some still
reply, what we want is lists of false friends, modulation strategies, all the linguistic tricks, plus some practice on a
few really specialized texts… and that, my more critical students believe, is the invariable hard core of what they
should be learning in the translation class.
2
How should that conflict be resolved? A practical proposal will be given somewhere near the end of this paper.
More interesting, though, is the general theoretical and pedagogical problem involved. Those students and I have
a fundamental disagreement about what translating is and how it should be taught. We disagree about the nature
of translation competence. As a teacher, I want to convey the whole range of skills required by the labour market.
And yet, I admit, my critical students have a point: when they sign up for translation, they should expect to
translate, on the basic level of an interface between languages, the stuff of linguistics. So is translation
competence really the same as it always was (as those students expect)? Or has it radically altered in the age of
electronic tools (as the nature of my course would suggest)?
Four notions of translation competence

3
What is translation competence? So as not to reinvent the wheel, we begin from a few pages written by the
German scholar Wolfram Wilss in 1976, somewhere near the beginning of institutionalized Translation Studies.
Wilss says four quite different things about translation competence.
4
First, he notes rather depressingly, his infant Applied Science of Translation
cannot provide a satisfactory answer to the question of the professional minimum qualification of a translator, above all,
because translational competence as a uniform qualification for translational work is, to all intents and purposes, nonexistent
and probably also nondefinable.
So “competence” cannot be confused with questions of professional qualifications, no matter how much teachers
like myself might worry about training students for the workplace. This makes sense, since qualifications change
with technology and social demands, bringing in bundles of history that are simply too big for the eternal
generalities of a science. Then again, if the science is supposed to help train translators, and translators are
going to be employed for whatever competence they acquire, surely we cannot just remain silent about what the
market requires?
5
Wilss’s second point then stands in stark contrast with the first. Now, apparently, the translator needs eight
“competence ranges,” each with two subcategories (for the two languages involved), giving a grand total of
sixteen compartments for all the things that trainees should learn to do with language. Why sixteen? Why not
127? Or just seven? No reason is given for the selection of the categories, which have no more weight than their
origins in very basic linguistics. Yet the “multicomponent” idea was thus announced, and it could potentially be
expanded and contracted at will.
6
The third idea would then seem to restrict this expansion: Wilss notes that “[b]oth subcompetences [those of the
two languages concerned] are in complementary relation with each other and together constitute the basis of
translational competence” (120). This is rather like saying 1+1=2, where translational competence is the
summation of what the translator knows in two languages. This does at least make the numbers neater.
7
However, as if things had not become confusing enough, Wilss’s fourth and final point would seem to say
something quite different. Now translation competence is “clearly marked off from the four traditional monolingual
skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing,” thus becoming something like a “supercompetence” (120).
8
So we find in the early Wilss a claim that there is no such thing as translation competence, then a
multicomponent definition of it, a two-language-summation model, and final mention of a mysterious
metacompetence, all in the space of two pages! Which of those ideas was to win the day?
9
Here we shall briefly outline the adventures and avatars of those ideas since the 1970s. Our history should then
explain the reasons behind our own proposed definition.
Competence as a summation of linguistic competencies

10
Let us begin with the 1+1 idea, which seems to make intuitive sense. In his The Science of Translation (1982) Wilss
more or less stuck with this language-summation concept: the translator “must have an SL [source-language]
text-analytical competence and a corresponding TL [target-language] text-reproductive competence” (118).
Translators are people who are competent in two languages, and their work clearly involves putting those two
competencies together. This is more or less what we find in Brian Harris’s early positioning of translation
competence as something that bilingual children develop as they carry out “natural translation” (Harris 1977;
Harris and Sherwood 1978). Bilinguals would start translating for themselves, then for others, and this
progression should hold some keys for what all translators do. The linguistics of bilingualism might thus also
become the linguistics of translation, and no separate academic discipline need develop. In much the same vein,
Werner Koller described translation competence as being “the ability to put together [verbinden] the linguistic
competencies gained in two languages” (1979: 40).[1]Michel Ballard contended that the secrets of teaching
translation lay in the “use of two languages at the same time” (1984: 17), once again assuming that the level of
the translator’s practice is basically a summation of tongues. This kind of competence would seem an abstract
version of bilingualism, roughly in tune with Harris’s mode of thought.
11
All these descriptions look obvious enough. However, for anyone seeking institutional independence, a separate
place to train translators and to think about translation, simple summation was not a happy mode of thought. It
kept Translation Studies within Applied Linguistics, and Translator Training within language schools or Modern
Language departments. The dominant trend in academic politics, at least in the 1970s and 1980s (the dates of
our citations), was to seek greater power by becoming independent. Very few voices argued against that
idealized independence. The summation idea was consequently short-lived as such, although its underlying
naturalism (Harris’s “natural translation”) would also inform later models drawing on cognitive linguistics.
Competence as no such thing

12
Why did Wilss not want to deal with competence as a “professional minimum qualification”? One reason certainly
lies in the nature of the eternal science he was trying to build. Another surely stems from the fact that the term
“competence” denoted a key concept in linguistics, which was perhaps the dominant discipline in the humanities
of the day. That concept was as far from historical markets as could be imagined. Chomsky had distinguished
between “competence” and “performance,” which could be mapped very loosely onto Saussure’s distinction
between langue and parole. So the term “translation competence” should have referred to a kind of systemic
knowledge underlying the actual performances of translators, in the same way a grammar underlies the use of
speech. The early Koller (1979: 185) nevertheless held translation competence to be qualitatively different from
linguistic competence in the same way that speech (parole) is different from tongue (langue), which would in fact
put translation competence on the “performance” side of the Chomskyan divide. That is, this particular kind of
competence concerned the actual use of language, no matter how firmly Chomskyan linguistics had anchored
the term “competence” on the other side of its divides. This was Koller’s strategy for separating Translation
Studies from Contrastive Linguistics, and thus gaining institutional space. Unfortunately, Saussure (1974: 19ff.)
had argued that nothing scientific could be said about parole at all, and Chomsky (1965) had removed translation
entirely from the scope of his ambitions. To argue that there was a competence within performance, or system
within parole, was to embark on paradoxes that hard-core linguistic science simply did not want to entertain.
13
How could the paradox of a performance-based competence be resolved? In the early days, it meant following
non-Chomskyan linguistics, which usually involved the adoption of alternative terms. By 1988 Wilss was doing
psycholinguistics, appealing to a cognitive approach in which translation competence was a summation of
declarative knowledge and “knowledge of translation processes” (übersetzungsprozessuale Wissen), although the
nature of the latter was still far from clear. In 1989 we find Wilss using the alternative vocabulary of “skills”
(Fertigkeiten); in 1992 he was ready to abandon “competence” altogether and replace it with the more
pedagogical term “proficiency” (1992: 185). Lörscher, writing in terms of psycholinguistics in 1991, similarly
claimed not to need “competence” at all; he somehow thought the concept was not concerned with actual
translation processes (1991: 2), which meant he could happily get by with talk of “strategies” being used to solve
problems. Nor was there any particular terminological problem when an even more mature Wilss (1996: 4)
referred to sociolinguistics to describe the use of languages as “code-sharing,” such that translation becomes a
case of “code-switching” (a valuable insight that seems not to have been picked up anyone else). Shreve (1997:
130) draws on cognitive linguistics, describing language competencies as “mapping abilities,” thus allowing
translation competence to become the process by which a translator can “map mappings.” Risku (1998) names
her object as “translatorial competence” but then immediately switches to the discourse of “expertise,”
established as a key term since the mid-1980s (cf. Holz-Mänttäri 1984). Schäffner and Adab (2000: x) explicitly
accept that “competence” involves any number of other terms; they actually propose that it be accepted as “a
cover term and summative concept for the overall performance ability which seems so difficult to define” (ibid.).
But note the almost unthinking reduction to “performance ability,” as if there had never been a paradox to resolve.
In fact, in most of these authors, including those brought together in the volume on Developing Translation
Competenceedited by Schäffner and Adab (2000), we find the term “competence” simply being kicked around the
park, with the more substantial referent then becoming something else, some other term.
14
So would the problems of translation competence be solved simply by not using the word? Yes and no. In the
early years it made sense to seek alternative words, if only to avoid the strictures of Chomsky. However, the
abandonment of “competence” ultimately proved to be unnecessary. The very nature of linguistics had been
changing even more, with increasing attention to discourse analysis, text linguistics, pragmatics,
psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics, all of which similarly required a positioning of “competence” somewhere
near the performance side. The moves made by translation theorists were mostly in step with the trends of
linguistics itself, albeit with a much more restricted level of theoretical awareness.
Competence as multicomponential
15
Parallel to this search for other words, the multicomponent idea was accumulating quite a rich history, much of it
drawing on research in second-language acquisition and similarly benefiting from the many “performance-level”
trends in linguistics. Bell (1991) describes translator competence as a huge summation: target-language
knowledge, text-type knowledge, source-language knowledge, subject area (“real-world”) knowledge, contrastive
knowledge, then decoding and encoding skills summarized as “communicative competence” (covering grammar,
sociolinguistics and discourse). Virtually everything that any kind of linguistics wanted to talk about was tossed
into the soup. Christiane Nord (1991: 165-166), drawing on Bausch (1977), actually distinguishes between the
kind of competence needed by translators and the competence that translation practice could develop in the
language class (awareness of contrastive structures, and skills like the effective use of dictionaries), but she
nevertheless refuses to exclude any of those aspects from her pedagogical model. This general approach could
give some relatively simple formulations. For instance, Neubert (1994: 412) offers “language competence,”
“subject competence” and “transfer competence” as the three main components. Lee-Jahnke reduces the
translator’s “objective knowledge” to three different heads: mother tongue, foreign tongue and “sociocultural
background” (1997: 178). And yet once one drives into third terms like these, various labyrinths are opened and
there is virtually no limit to the number of things that may be required of a translator. Hatim and Mason (1997:
204-206), working from Bachman (1990), present a traditional three-part competence inherited from linguistics
(ST processing, transfer, TT processing) and then name a handful of skills for each of those heads. Hewson
(1995) adds something called “cultural and professional elements” (108), where the “professional” part refers to
“remuneration […] access to and use of proper dictionaries and data banks, access to equivalent material in the
second language, practical knowledge of word-processors and peripherals, and so on” (ibid.). Hurtado (1996)
breaks down translation competence into linguistic, extralinguistic, textual (comprehension and production),
general “professional skills,” and “transfer competence” (competencia translatoria, later calledcompetencia de
transferencia), described in a Harris-like way as “a predisposition to change from one language to another without
interferences” (1996: 34). In 1999 (43-44, 245-246) we find the same author adding things called “strategic
competence” (since strategies had become fashionable) and “psychophysiological competence” (no doubt to
make sure all the bases are covered). Presas (1997) allows for language-based core competencies (ST
reception, production of a draft TT, production of a final TT) and then adds a series of “peripheral competencies”
that include the use of dictionaries, documentation, area knowledge, uses of briefs, and technological tools. In a
later text (1998), the same author adds “adequate memory configuration,” “flexibility of code-switching” and
“interference control” as components of a specifically “pretranslation” competence. This in fact allows for certain
modes of language teaching to become parts of translator training, redefining key institutional boundaries (cf.
Mayoral 2001: 125). Beeby (1996, 2000) follows a similar tendency to multiplication, detailing six sub-
competencies all churning within the one translation competence, each of them with up to four or five sub-
components. Kautz (2000: 20) takes a slightly different approach, recognizing that translators need knowledge of
two languages, world and field knowledge, translation theories and methods, and then something else called
“translatorial competence” (translatorische Kompetenz) that covers skills in the analysis of the client’s brief and the
ST, translation strategies, TT presentation (including layout), documentation, terminology, and knowledge of the
translator’s professional practice. What is truly remarkable here is how long it took definitions of competence to
include reference to the client’s brief (Auftrag, “instructions,” “commission”), a key point in German-
language Skopostheoriesince 1984. In Fraser (2000) we find further development of this line, where freelance
translators describe their competence in terms of “a detailed briefing and resources for the job in hand, coupled
with feedback and evaluation of the finished translation in terms of how well it fulfils its purpose or meets its
readers’ needs” (60), all of which sound more like simple desiderata than any strict kind of competence. Mayoral
(2001: 109) insists on components including “common sense (above all), curiosity, ability to communicate,
capacity for self-criticism, meticulousness, ability to synthesize, etc.” Anything else? In Douglas
Robinson’s Becoming a Translator (1997) we find serious attention to the real-world necessities of good typing
speeds, Internet discussion groups, and working with a computer in a room at the right temperature (sic). For that
matter, Pym (1992) has pointed out the strategic benefits of wearing a good suit and tie, especially on days when
you have a hangover. And the ever-present Wilss (1996: 11), with the irony of the wise, recognizes that
timeliness is an essential requisite of translators (“fast is smart”), along with the similarly efficient “reduction of
complexity,” all of which could lead anywhere.
16
Why was the time factor not mentioned in any of Wilss’s earlier formulations? Indeed, why were these many
necessary things absent from almost all the initial definitions? And why should the lists of components seem to
have grown larger over the years? Perhaps because the earlier scholars were thinking in terms of linguistics and
students, and not in terms of how translators work in the world (such was the exclusion explicit in Wilss). Maybe
because scholars simply like talking about a lot of things. Or are they just intellectually inept, given to producing
falsely authoritative lists? Perhaps, also, the explosion of components has followed the evolution of Translation
Studies as an “interdiscipline,” no longer constrained by any form of hard-core linguistics. Since any number of
neighbouring disciplines can be drawn on, any number of things can be included under the label of “translation
competence.” At the same time, even more importantly, the evolution of the translation profession itself has
radically fragmented the range of activities involved. In the 1970s, translators basically translated. In our own
age, translators are called upon to do much more: documentation, terminology, rewriting, and the gamut of
activities associated with the localization industry. That is why our class, at the beginning of this paper, was
focused on electronic tools. Perhaps, at base, the explosion of components has merely followed the profession
into a more fully electronic age. The difficulty that Wilss had intimated back in 1976 (that market requirements in
this field are too historical to be systematized as a competence) has been evidenced in history itself: the more
scholars look, the more things they put in, with no limit in sight.
17
The methodological shortcomings of the multicomponent models are fairly obvious. Waddington (2000: 135) lists
three: 1) it is hard to know how many components should be a part of translation competence, 2) the definitions
tend to concern ideal competence, and are thus incomplete without a model of the learning process (cf. Toury
1995: 238), and 3) there is a dearth of empirical evidence for most of the available models. While agreeing with
the first two complaints, we would not necessarily go along with the third. [2] And we might add a fourth broad
complaint: Innocently descriptive as they seem, the multicomponent models of competence are heavy with
assumptions not just about what translation is and how it should be taught, but more especially about the level at
which specific teaching is needed, and for how many years. They inevitably feed into complex professional
profiles (“a good translator needs A, B and C…”); they thus underscore not just a transcendental ideal translator
who has no place in the fragmented market, but also the long-duration interdisciplinary training programs that
purport to produce such things (mostly university degree programs lasting four or five years). In most cases, the
complex models of competence coincide more or less with the things taught in the institutions where the theorists
work. What a surprise!
18
Multicomponentiality has undoubtedly followed the fragmentary development of the profession; it is obviously a
response to interdisciplinarity and the break with linguistics; but institutionally it operates as a political defence of
a certain model of translator training. And that model is not the only one, nor necessarily the best.
Competence as just one thing

19
Wilss, it will be remembered, also suggested that translation competence was a kind of “supercompetence,” over
and above the various linguistic components. That rather vague notion was developed in later minimalist
definitions. Gideon Toury (1984, 1986), at that time engaged in polemics with Harris over the nature of “natural
translation,” was going in the same direction when he hypothesized a specific “transfer competence” that was not
a simple overlap of competencies in two languages: it required particular modes of socialization (cf. Toury 1995:
246, 250). But what was the exact nature of this necessary third term? Hans P. Krings (1986) produced a
typology of translation problems in which some concerned ST comprehension, others had to do with target-
language skills, and a third group involved strictly interlingual questions. This third group was then labeled
“translation competence” problems (112-171), also described as “reception-production problems” (144-152).
Similarly, when Werner Koller restated his position on translation competence in 1992, he stressed that it was
“not simply more language competence […] but also the creativity involved in finding and selecting between
equivalents, and in the increasingly necessary [skills of] text production” (1992: 20). Shreve could be saying the
same thing when he talks about the need to “map mappings” (1997: 130). And we have seen similar ideas
occurring at various places within the multicomponent definitions, although the plurality of other components has
tended to hide whatever specificity might belong to this one. The various words for the third (or fourth, or fifth!)
term might have been naming the same thing, the singular specificity of translation. Yet there has been no visible
consensus on the point.
20
Given the inherent failure of the multicomponent models to keep up with historical change, serious thought
should now be invested in the minimalist “supercompetence” approach. This means accepting that there is no
neat definition of all the things that translators need to know and will be called upon to do. Nor is there any
reason to suppose that competence is at all systematic, like the grammatical and phonological rules that once
provided the term with its archetypal content. What we need, beyond lists and systems, is a concept that might
define translating and nothing but translating. Only then could we orient the rest.
21
Can empirical studies help with this problem? It is difficult to imagine what kind of research design could
determine the specificity of translating. Empiricism could mean simply asking different people what they think
translation competence should be, but that would give no guarantee that the various groups use the key terms
(“translation” and “competence”) in anything like the same way (cf. Fraser 2000). Whether we like it or not, the
terms have to be defined first.
22
For an example of possible empiricism, let us briefly consider the early research mentioned above. Krings (1986)
studied six translations by German students working into French (their first foreign language, or L2). The
problems they encountered were then categorized as having to do with either their knowledge of French or with
interlingual processes, the latter then being described as concerning “translation competence,” which would
seem to be what we are looking for here. However, it was found that only 6.5% of the problems actually fell into
this latter category (they were classified as such when L2 factors seemed not to be involved). In his critique of
this research, Löscher (1991: 96) correctly points out that the small percentage is not only hard to distinguish
from the rest, but that the distinction itself had no psychological reality for the subjects, since there was no
evidence that the students thought about these problems in markedly different ways. One can only conclude that
Krings brought the categories to bear on the data, rather than derive his model of translation competence
bottom-up from the data itself. And this, we suggest, is necessarily so.
23
More engaging would seem the work by Campbell (1992) on 41 students’ translations of the same text from L2
Arabic. Campbell considers translation competence to have two quite different components: “disposition,”
covering psychological qualities such as risk-taking and persistency, and “proficiency,” which includes “certain
bilingual skills and has a developmental dimension.” This is of interest because the “disposition” part would
account for why different translators work in different ways (cf. the “creativity” mentioned by Koller in 1992),
whereas “proficiency” would seem to refer to a more static kind of knowledge (lexical coding, global TL
competence, and content/function words). Once again, it is hard to believe that the data would have given those
categories had the researcher not set out to combine psycholinguistics with studies on bilingualism. The
disciplinary position was there prior to the research. Yet here, under the very vague head “disposition,” we do
seem to be approaching something rather more concrete that could belong to translating and nothing but
translating.
24
Can empirical research be of help? Undoubtedly yes. Our models and definition must be able to make sense of
reams of data on many levels (translations, errors, doubts, expectations, time constraints, whatever), and should
ideally do so in a way that makes the models and definitions falsifiable (this aspect has been sadly missing).
Then again, no, the key step resides in the intellectual task of staking out the field of study in the first place. And
there, in the production of a definition, the problem is not just to account for data; it is also to approach some kind
of consensus among the translation community, it should orient research, and it should ideally focus training. In
all of this, a definition can look as scientific as you like, but it can never really remain neutral. As we shall now
see.
A minimalist definition
25
As an interpersonal activity working on texts (of whatever length or fragmentary status), the training of translators
involves the creation of the following two-fold functional competence (cf. Pym 1991):
 The ability to generate a series of more than one viable target text (TTI, TT2 … TTn) for a pertinent source text (ST);
 The ability to select only one viable TT from this series, quickly and with justified confidence.
We propose that, together, these two skills form a specifically translational competence; their union concerns
translation and nothing but translation. There can be no doubt that translators need to know a fair amount of
grammar, rhetoric, terminology, computer skills, Internet savvy, world knowledge, teamwork cooperation,
strategies for getting paid correctly, and the rest, but the specifically translational part of their practice is strictly
neither linguistic nor solely commercial. It is a process of generation and selection, a problem-solving process
that often occurs with apparent automatism.
26
As an example of how this problem-solving might occur, consider the following sentence, from a text that my
class was collectively rendering into English:
Los alumnos que hayan estudiado en el extranjero y deseen iniciar estudios en las universidades españolas deberán
convalidar u homologar sus estudios.
This ran well enough as
Students who have studied outside Spain and wish to enter a program at a Spanish university
must convalidar or homologar their foreign studies.
There was no major translation problem until we ran up against the verbs in bold. What were the trainees
supposed to do? First some generated fleeting possibilities using the simplest of principles: convalidate,
perhaps, but doeshomologate exist in English? After a few seconds of Internet searching they had located
parallel texts giving accreditation as a general term for what is going on here. A few more seconds and they
had descriptions of how the specific terms homologación and convalidación are used in bureaucratic
processes (basically, the former is for degrees and diplomas as bits of paper, the latter is for the actual courses
studied). But how were the translators to make the one English term cover the space of the two processes? They
had few ideas; that was about as far as the generative side of business (impeccably technologized) could take
them. And nothing coherent emerged until a few reductive strategies were taken into consideration. After a few
leading questions about the nature and purpose of the text in question, the trainees started to consider the
position of the future readers of that text, the foreign students. What might those readers require? If they did not
need accreditation, then the two Spanish terms would be superfluous and could be combined into a
simple accreditation. And if the readers did indeed need accreditation, they would also need those terms in
Spanish, along with exact descriptions of the processes involved. So the source-text information had to be either
reduced or increased, without any real need to match the two Spanish terms with two English terms. That kind of
reductive reasoning, impeccably pragmatic, is perhaps the hardest part of translation competence to convey.
27
Our definition could be applied to many levels and strategies beyond this example, as one might expect of a
“supercompetence.” Its relative virtues include applicability to both intralingual and interlingual translation,
recognition that there is no fixed knowledge in this field, and avoidance of any notion of meaning transfer
(translating is a question of solving problems, not of moving meanings). The kind of processes we are interested
in are clearly as much social as they are cognitive (the above students were discussing the translation problem
as a group). The definition should thus allow for hypotheses on both levels, without assuming any kind of “natural
translation” of the kind that once underwrote the language-summation model. Further, the definition refuses any
notion of immutable correctness, since the criteria of viability, speed and confidence by no means rule out
disagreement between translators or future improvements by the one translator. In this, we owe much to Quine’s
rationalist indeterminism, particularly the critique of absolute equivalence explained in terms of the common
situation in which “one translator would reject the other’s translation”… and both can be correct (Quine 1975:
296-297). “Viability” may in this sense involve translating for a particular readership, or to attain one of several
possible purposes (the one text can be translated in many different ways). Our definition moreover allows for a
degree of direct theorization within translation practice, since the generation of alternative TTs necessarily
depends on a series of hypotheses formulated at some level (no matter how unaware we may be of them in
many cases). From this perspective, the ability to theorize is an important part of translation competence, even if
this theorization never becomes explicit. Our definition hopes to say quite a lot in very few words. It should be
able to cover the most interesting parts of the many things that have been added in the multcomponent models
we have seen above.
28
The definition nevertheless remains wilfully minimalist; its real virtue lies in the large number of things that it
does not say. On a strict reading, this kind of translation competence would not concern cases where one-to-one
equivalence is considered necessary or obligatory. Consider, for example, a model that takes the ST faire un
discours and can only generate the one TTmake a speech (the example is from Newmark 1985). That model might
have a lot to say about terminology, language teaching or the workings of the mind in some forms of “natural
translation,” but it would not have a great deal to do with the specific translation competence designated by our
definition (we require the generation of more than one rendition). The translation competence that interests us is
thus a process of choosing between viable alternatives. And this can potentially be distinguished from
mainstream terminology, language learning and naturalistic cognitive science, to name but a few of our
disciplinary neighbours. To that extent, of course, the definition also has certain political virtues. It maps out an
institutional area for the things we should be teaching.
A defence of minimalism
29
Our definition thus has the virtue of its limitations. It does not say that there is any ideal professional profile; it
does not assume that no other major competencies will ever mix with this one. On the contrary, we would be
more than comfortable with the assumption that such mixes are increasingly the norm, and that translation
competence may often be a minor component in the range of skills required of intercultural professionals. As
Gouadec puts it, “translators require a multicompetence because they must also work as documentalists,
terminologists, writers, etc., BUT it is time we recognized the professional distinctions of these activities” (1991:
543). Here we are proposing a basis for precisely such a recognition. This is also somewhat akin to what Don
Kiraly says when he distinguishes “translation competence” (the ability to produce an acceptable text, as above)
from the wider spheres of “translatorcompetence,” which
involves joining a number of new communities such as the group of educated users of several languages, those conversant in
specialized technical fields, and proficient users of traditional tools and new technologies for professional interlingual
communication purposes.
2000: 13
The profession requires such movements to and from intercultural and technical communities; it requires a
plethora of new names for the new jobs thus created (“language-service provider” is currently the most apt). Yet
our focus here is first and foremost on what translators bring to those communities, on their particular kind of
competence. We thus stay with the term “translation competence,” and with our minimalist approach.
30
When our definition was first presented to society, at a conference in Belgrade in 1989 (Pym 1991), it was
followed by comments on three aspects of translator training: the relation between translation and language
learning, the role of theory in the training of translators, and the relation between instructors and students of
translation. It was hoped that a minimalist definition might have consequences for at least those three aspects, if
not more. Now, some 13 years later, one must admit that the historical tendency has been well and truly away
from the kind of definition we sought. It thus seems more apposite to reconsider those points now in view of how
the multicomponent models have dealt with them.
The discontinuity with language learning

31
A minimalist approach should ideally enable a clearer distinction between translator training and language
learning. The latter should be at least to some extent analytical, rule-bound and grammar-oriented, whereas the
training of translators should be relatively non-analytical, context-bound, and example-oriented. This kind of
thinking was very much in tune with the institutional politics of the 1980s and early 1990s, when many translation
schools, at least in Europe, were struggling to mark out their territory with respect to the established departments
of Modern Languages. Mary Snell-Hornby, for example, was urging translation schools in Eastern Europe to “cut
the umbilical cord” with the Modern Language departments (1994: 433). There were very few dissenting voices,
although Juliane House (1986: 182) did bravely insist that acquiring communicative competence was the aim of
both the language class and the teaching of translation.
32
Now, once that battle was won (in Spain, in 1991), many of the independent translation schools then had to fill up
their four- or five-year programs. As we have seen, those institutions had a direct interest in multicomponentiality.
Suddenly there was no pressing need to separate translation from bilingualism, for example, just as there was
little interest in the idea of separate professional communities. It could all be brought under the one roof; it would
all be part of “translation competence.” In this sense strategic importance should be placed on attempts to define
the special ways in which not only translation should be taught, but also the way languages should be taught for
translators (cf. the “pre-translation competence” outlined in Presas 1998). The discontinuity that was once sought
by virtually all translation scholars has now become a rather thin and very debatable line.
The role of theory

33
The minimalist approach basically sees translating as a process of producing and selecting between hypotheses,
and this is in itself a mode of constant theorization. If thought through, the model is actually claiming that
translators are theorizing whenever they translate; theorization is an important part of translation practice. The
model also implies that whole translation approaches may be related to translating in two ways: they may help
translators produce more alternatives than they would otherwise have thought of (pointing out the existence of a
problem is often the most important task of theorization), and/or they may help them eliminate possible
alternatives. Theories would thus be productive and/or reductive, and both kinds are obviously necessary.
Deconstructive approaches, for example, are superbly productive but rarely reductive; Skopostheorie in its purest
state is eminently reductive but not highly productive, and so on. This gives us a set of very practical reasons for
finding virtues and faults in theories, and for teaching translation theories as such.
34
On the other hand, the multicomponent models seem to find little place for theory. Only Kautz (2000) explicitly
mentions “translation theory and methods” as a component. Others, notably Hurtado (1999), are more concerned
withdistinguishing between theory and competence, ultimately in order to replace established translation theory
with a list of specific and sequential “learning objectives.” From this perspective, the overall tendency has been
towards competence as a complex of various kinds of declarative knowledge and technical skills. And that is
precisely the kind of knowledge that theorization is destined to challenge.
Student-instructor relations
35
A minimalist definition of translation competence implicitly challenges the truth models that underlie equivalence-
based approaches to translation. In doing so, it also challenges the authoritarian role such models accord the
teacher of translation. This means that, although teachers certainly have every right to give their own TTs and to
assess the divergent TTs of individual students, the actual training of translators should not mirror the
individualism of such assessment procedures. It is true that individual translators have to be able to generate and
decide between alternatives, but it is rarely true that they have to do so entirely by themselves. In the training
situation, the use of informants that is implicit in recourse to dictionaries and Internet resources is easily
extended to the use of exchange students and academic specialists. In the professional context, these modes of
interaction will then be extended to networks of contacts, clients and collaborators. Indeed, the prime impact of
technology in this field is to extend the range of such networks, amplifying the productive moment and often
obscuring the necessities of reduction. The ability to use and negotiate with a plurality of propositions and
opinions is thus a growing part of translation competence. It should not be marginalized by individualist prejudice,
the requirements of exams, or the presuppositions of research methodologies.
36
Emphasis on interaction as a part of translation competence should in turn influence general principles like the
normality of extremely heterogeneous student groups, the need to use “authentic” or badly written texts as bases
for discussion and debate, and the desirability of involving students in a wide range of professional or semi-
professional activities. On these points, our minimalist approach is in fundamental accord with many of the
multicomponent concepts.
Solving the problem

37
Let us now return to our original problem. Historical factors require us to teach our students a wide range of
electronic tools, and we are not sure if these things should be admitted to our concept of translation competence.
How should we now answer our students?
38
The easy response would perhaps be the multicomponent one: you all have to know all these things; if not, you
will not find a good job, and that’s that. Yet technology will always be one or two steps ahead of any
multicomponential list, and the history of such concepts amounts to one of the more confused and disparate
junkyards of contemporary Translation Studies. One is seriously tempted to wash one’s hands of the whole affair,
as indeed was Wilss’s first response back in 1976.
39
A better answer should ensue from a minimalist definition, negotiating a few paradoxes. As we have seen, the
minimalist approach is designed to promote theorization over declarative knowledge and technical skills, in
keeping with a highly interactive and experiential pedagogy. And yet, on the surface, the skills associated with
electronic tools are of a highly declarative and technical kind. At base, one knows how to use a given tool or one
does not; one moves from simpler to more complex objectives; those skills rarely involve the production and
selection of alternatives. As a theorizing teacher, interested in working with theorizing students, I am thus given
to admit that my critical students are quite right in this case. Most of those electronic skills are not happily seen as
part of translation competence; they should not be confused with the prime purpose of our teaching. They should
certainly be there, in the classroom, but not enjoying pride of place.
40
What does this mean in practical terms? It basically suggests that we should not lose sight of our aims as
translator trainers. Most of the electronic tools are simply techniques that speed up and broaden the production
of alternative TTs (cf. what can be done with web searches); others are extensions that favour the authoritative
elimination of alternatives (cf. the basic advantages of translation memories and glossaries of all kinds).
Translators produce and select from alternatives; the various new technologies do not alter those tasks, they
simply make them wider-ranging, dealing with more of the world in less time. To that extent, a minimalist view of
competence should help keep us aware of the ends of our tasks, without getting lost in the means.
41
At the same time, a minimalist approach can sustain a critical approach to those tasks and technologies that do
indeed mistake means for ends. For instance, the postmodern abundance of information makes the production of
alternative TTs easy, which means that more emphasis has to be placed on the elimination of possible TTs.
Students must thus be taught to mistrust websites, for instance, or at least to evaluate them with suspicion. On
the other hand, the use of translation memories facilitates the unthinking repetition of previous TTs, such that
what is lacking in such modes of work is the active production of hypotheses, which is clearly the side that our
pedagogy should then emphasize. More important, the use of websites, memories and the rest imposes a
massive mediation between the translator and the figure of the target reader. That technology invites us to forget
that certain TTs are better than others because they are destined to achieve a certain purpose, in a certain time
and place, for a certain end-user. They invite us to forget that our basic tasks involve communication between
humans, and only then the manipulation of electronic mediation.
42
A minimalist concept of competence should help keep such aims clearly in sight. A multicomponent model, on
the other hand, tends to accept complexity without critically distinguishing between means and ends. And that,
with all due respect and comprehension, is a recipe for perdition.
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Lecture 2 Theory
English and Arabic History of translation
In class: A lecture on the beginning of the translation industry
Required reading:
History of translation
From Babel to Babel Fish

There have been a number of books written recently about the history of translation. What certainly is true is that as we move from
the age of the tower of Babel (where the Bible tells us different languages were first introduced) to the age of Babel Fish (and other
instant translation services) there is a growing need for translation. As the internet spreads, and globalisation moves on - the need
for translation increases. Language schools and courses, like St Georges language courses in London, may help you tolearn
Spanish in London but theorists throughout the ages have insisted that a good translator must not only know the language but
understand the culture they are translating.
Early history
The word translation itself derives from a Latin term meaning "to bring or carry across". The Ancient Greek term is 'metaphrasis' ("to
speak across") and this gives us the term 'metaphrase' (a "literal or word-for-word translation") - as contrasted with 'paraphrase' ("a
saying in other words"). This distinction has laid at the heart of the theory of translation throughout its history: Cicero and Horace
employed it in Rome, Dryden continued to use it in the seventeenth century and it still exists today in the debates around "fidelity
versus transparency" or "formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence". The first known translations are those of the Sumerian
epic Gilgamesh into Asian languages from the second millennium BC. Later Buddhist monks translated Indian sutras into Chinese
and Roman poets adapted Greek texts.
Arabic scholars
Translation undertaken by Arabs could be said to have kept Greek wisdom and learning alive. Having conquered the Greek world,
they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of these Arabic versions
were made into Latin - mainly at the school in Cordoba, Spain. These Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of
learning helped underpin Renaissance scholarship.
Religious texts
Religious texts have played a great role in the history of translation. One of the first recorded instances of translation in the West
was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the 3rd century BC. A task carried out by 70 scholars this translation itself
became the basis for translations into other languages.
Saint Jerome, the patron saint of translation, produced a Latin Bible in the 4th century AD that was the preferred text for the Roman
Catholic Church for many years to come. Translations of the Bible, though, were to controversially re-emerge when the Protestant
Reformation saw the translation of the Bible into local European languages - eventually this led to Christianity's split into Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between versions of crucial words and passages. Martin Luther himself is credited
with being the first European to propose that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language: a statement that is just as
true in modern translation theory.
Modern Theory and Practice
Whilst industrialisation has led to the formalization of translation for business purposes since the eighteenth century it is, perhaps,
the internet and mechanical translation that has really revolutionised the field. In terms of theory Lawrence Venuti's call for
"foreignizing" strategies marks a call for fidelity over transparency in translation. The two poles of metaphrase and paraphrase,
however, still set the terms of debate from the age of Babel to that of Babel Fish.
Lecture 3 Theory
English and Arabic Equivalence theory
In class: A lecture on examples of equivalence establishment:
Equivalence in Translation
Hammouda Salhi, University of El Manar
It is true that speakers do not communicate with - nor translate - isolated words. Taken “individually they do
not occasion our most vivid and direct experiences of language” (Cruse, 1986:9). The corpus-based approach to LA
in this study , however, assigns to words higher place than the one accorded to it in previous translation studies.
Translation description is supposed to pivot around the lexis. It is believed that, contrary to the views of the primitive-
based and relation-based theorists (see Pustejovsky, 1995), lexical knowledge, when extended to cover factors
impinging on discourse and culture, is both rich and dynamic enough to be revealing of, and informative
about, translation practice. Translation studies, therefore, can rely on words handled in the fashion described
above, as a source of information to have more fresh insights into the process of translation. Newmark
(1988b) argues that
All the same, we do translate words because there is nothing else to translate; there are only the
words on the page; there is nothing else there. We do not translate isolated words; we
translate words all more or less (…) bound by their syntactic, collocational, situational, cultural,
and individual idiolectical contexts. That is in way of looking at translation, which suggests it is
basically lexical. (p. 73)
In addition, according to Sinclair (1998: 98), linguistic theory under the influence of the Chomskyan
Generative model has “massively biased in favor of the paradigmatic rather the syntagmatic dimension” of
language. Thus, such a theory has placed so much emphasis on grammar and syntax, features of
commonalities between languages at the expense of the lexis, a feature of difference between languages.
For Chomsky, “lexis comes into play only to fill structural slots left open by the grammar”, Kenny (2001: 98)
notes. So, being a feature of difference between languages, vocabulary is almost sent to Siberia. This state of
affairs had its impact on translation studies (Anderman and Rogers, 1996). While it should be maintained that a
given word cannot be studied in isolation from its syntactic structure, the knowledge that can be elicited from the
lexis should be given higher priority.
With the rise of the translation volume of technical texts, an interest on words has been attested in
some translation studies. Several books on translation were published devoting whole chapters to the
importance of words in translation; they include Catford (1965), Newmark (1988a, 1988b and 1991), and
Anderman and Rogers (1996). But almost all of them lacked the empirical track of the lexical issues in translation
(Kenny, 2001: 50). Empiricism can be seen more clearly in the new trend in translation theory, i.e. corpus-based
translation studies. Research on the use of corpora in translation practice, and of course in translation
teaching, adopts basically a bottom-up approach, that is “from words to texts” (Zanettin, 2002).
Baker (1992) justifiably argues that if language were a list of signifiers representing universal concepts,
the tasks of translating from one language to another and learning a foreign language would be very easily
conducted. However, each language organizes the world in a different way. Languages do not simply name existing
categories; they articulate their own (Baker, 1992). The meaning of each word varies according to its relationship
with the whole system of that particular language and the context where it occurs. Because there is no one-to-one
relationship between words and meaning in the various languages, the establishment of equivalence in translation
has been presented by the translators’ community as a vexing problem and equivalence theory is still waging
heated debate amongst translation scholars. Therefore, there is no consensus amongst scholars about a common
definition of equivalence.
Generally, equivalence means the state of being essentially equal or equivalent or interchangeable. In
translation, equivalence is defined as a relation that holds between a SL text and a TL text. Texts are units of
meaning and discourse which are produced on the basis of smaller units in a bottom-up fashion. Baker (1992)
argues that
As translators, we are primarily concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of a language. To
achieve this we need to start by decoding the units and structures which carry that meaning. The smallest unit which we would
expect to possess individual meaning is the word. (p. 10-11)
Translation equivalence, therefore, can appear at different levels: from word level to collocations and fixed
expressions level, grammatical level, textual level, and pragmatic level (Baker, 1992). The focus on one specific
level in this chain of equivalence establishment between SL texts and TL texts has long been the source of
controversy between translation scholars.
This state of affairs has generated many different theories of equivalence. The issues that lexical equivalence
raises and the problems of non-equivalence (Baker, 1992) are at the heart of any theoretical discussion on translation,
regardless of the perspective they are taken from and the individual emphasis scholars stress on. This is because the
concept of equivalence is fuzzy in nature and is not straightforwardly measurable. The task of teaching equivalence
seems to be a difficult task as trainee translators are in need of some concrete and measurable criteria of
equivalence. Equivalence at word level may be presented as the least abstract and the most measurable of all.
Jakobson (1959) suggests three kinds of translation: (1) intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or
paraphrase), (2) interlingual (between two languages), and (3) intersemiotic (between sign systems). In the case of
interlingual translation, Jakobson (1959:233) claims that “translation involves two equivalent messages in two different
codes.” Though languages may differ from one another in relation to grammar and lexis, equivalence can be
achieved. For instance, the translator may find it difficult to decide on a proper translation equivalent due to such
difference, but “whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and amplified by loanwords or loan-
translations, neologisms or semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions” (ibid.:234).
Nida and Taber (1964) focus on formal and dynamic equivalence. In the case of formal equivalence, the
translator attempts to translate the text word-for-word. Dynamic or functional equivalence, on the other hand,
emphasizes the message itself by going beyond literal meanings of words and respecting the principle of equivalent
effect. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) reduce equivalence to just one of seven translation procedures which “replicates
the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording” (p. 342). They also claim that, if this
procedure is applied during the translation process, it can maintain the stylistic impact of the SL text in the TL text.
Vinay and Darbelnet go on to state that equivalence techniques are the ideal method when the translator has to deal
with cultural and language situations, idioms, clichés, or onomatopoeia.
Equivalence is also a central and integral part of Catford's theory of translation. Catford (1988) regards
translation equivalence as the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in
another language (TL). He claims that there are, a sort of, category shifts at the syntactical and lexical level. These
include, for instance, intra-system shift when we have, say, a singular noun like ‫ املِّخة‬as in (‫ )وزاحة املِّخة‬in the Arabic
source language that needs to be rendered by a plural form in English (Ministry of women). Though there is a clear
difference between the above theories as to the nature of equivalence and the level they focus on, there is an
agreement among them that equivalence is the value and ground to be taken as the tertium comparationis.
This is expressed more explicitly in the theory of equivalence proposed by Baker (1992). She offers a more
detailed list of equivalence. She explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in a bottom-up approach to
translation and in relation to the translation process. She acknowledges the fact that it is not easy to give a clear
definition of the term word. A single word, for instance, can sometimes be assigned different meanings in different
languages and might be regarded as being a more complex unit or morpheme. The translator, therefore, should pay
attention to a number of factors when considering a single word, such as number, gender and tense (ibid.:11-12).
Baker (1992) then moves on to discuss equivalence above word level. She puts an emphasis on pragmatic
equivalence. She addresses this equivalence with reference to implicatures and strategies of avoidance during the
translation process. It is the rendering of the implied meaning of speakers rather than their explicit meaning.
Therefore, the translator needs to work out implied meanings in translation in order to get the ST message across.
She argues that the role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in another culture in such a way that
enables the TL text reader to understand it using knowledge from his own cultural scope and context.
The objective of equivalence establishment at word level is connected with all sorts of equivalence above
word level, including the pragmatic level of course. But the fact that languages organize the world differently is
paralleled with the ability of each language to express whatever ideas and thoughts and the ability of lexical items to
be active carriers of both semantic and pragmatic meaning. This state of affairs will definitely provide the translator
with the hope of achieving the sought near-equivalence at different levels in just one go. In addition, because
professional translators have always a good will of establishing equivalence (Baker, 1992), any of their translations
should be taken as equivalent, as they often make a conscious effort to be faithful to the message initially expressed
in the SL. Being so, parallel corpus data can be usefully exploited in order to identify series of translation equivalents
for words, explore the concept of lexical equivalence and track both the pragmatic behavior of SL words and the
translational behavior of TL words.
Required reading (2):

Natural and directional equivalence in theories of translation
Anthony Pym, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain*
Lecture 4 Theory
English and Arabic Ten commandants
In class: A lecture in which ten practical steps for a better translation output are presented:
TIPS FROM EXPERIENCED TRANSLATORS

Find out what some experienced translators have to say about the translation profession, literature and their own
paths to becoming translators.
Read a lot!
Read! Read! Read! Practice. Translate texts that you don’t like. Don’t talk about your translations to Finns, but to
those in the literature business in your own country. Believe that you can do it. Don’t believe that you can do it. Talk to
other translators. Read!
Stefan Moster (Germany). Recipient of the State Prize for Translation 2001. Worked as a translator for 15 years.
Translations include the works of Juhani Ahvenjärvi, Kristina Carlson, Paavo Haavikko, Pentti Holappa, Kari
Hotakainen, Matti Yrjänä Joensuu, Tuula Kallioniemi, Rosa Liksom, Eeva-Liisa Manner, L. Onerva, Hannu Raittila,
Mirkka Rekola and Petri Tamminen.
It’s important to read as much as possible, to immerse yourself in the idiosyncrasies of the language and culture of the
people whose works you are translating. Be aware of your weaknesses and don’t give up.
Rami Saari (Greece). Worked as a translator part-time for 15 years. Has translated prose and poetry according to his
own tastes.
Linguistic and Cultural Expertise
Young translators: study thoroughly and continually the language and culture from which you are translating. And
although you must know the language you are translating into, you can never underestimate the importance of a firm
grounding in the source language.
Viola Parente-Čapková (Czech Republic). Recipient of the State Prize for Translation 2004. Worked as a translator for
15 years. Translations include works by Aleksis Kivi, V. A. Koskenniemi, Eino Leino, L. Onerva, Raija Siekkinen, Anja
Snellman and Mika Waltari.
The skills you learn from other people will come in useful sooner or later. It’s important to understand the routine and
the practice behind the theory. Acquaint yourself with culture both at home and abroad! Keep your eyes and ears
open at all times.
Ulla Ruusulehto. Worked as a translator for 25 years. Translations into Swedish include works by Eeva Joenpelto,
Mari Mörö, Irja Rane, Pentti Saarikoski and Kaari Utrio.
Make sure you fully understand the cultures of both languages, not only languages per se.
Seija Helena Paddon (Canada). Worked as a translator for 16 years. Translations include works by Leena Lander,
Rakel Liehu, Pentti Saaritsa, Kirsti Simonsuuri and Sirkka Turkka.
Practical Tips for Beginners
Start with works written in ‘standard’ Finnish, then you can move on to translating works written in quickly changing
modern slang.
Endre Gombár (Hungary). Worked as a translator for 47 years. Translations include works by Claes Andersson,
Paavo Haavikko, Eeva-Liisa Manner and Mika Waltari.
It’s best to start with smaller texts for publication in literary magazines. Establishing contact with publishers and
authors is important, as is spending time in the countries of both target and source language, and acquainting yourself
with both cultures.
Mirja Bolgár (France). Worked as a translator for 45 years. Translations include works by Paavo Haavikko, Veijo Meri,
Paavo Rintala and Mika Waltari.
Always try to get a written contract. Agree to a deadline (make sure you have plenty of time) and stick to it. The
translation will always be longer than you are told. Count the pages yourself before you agree to take the work.
Philip Binham (Great Britain). Worked as a translator for 45 years. Translated literature, art books and commercial
texts.
Tip Number 1: Ask! Tip Number 2: Deciding to become a translator is only the beginning of learning about
understanding and mastering a foreign language! Buy new, bigger, better dictionaries! Tip Number 3: Never
overestimate your command of your native language. Editors are your best friends!
Sebastian Musielak (Poland). Worked as a translator for ten years. Translated religious and philosophical texts and
literature.
Cooperation offers help
If translators don’t have the opportunity to visit Finland very often, they should ask Finnish friends to help explain
things they can’t find in the dictionary.
Zuzana Drábeková (Slovakia). Worked as a translator for 25 years. Translations include works by Kari Hotakainen,
Anna-Leena Härkönen, Jouni Inkala, Daniel Katz, Jyrki Kiiskinen, Eeva-Liisa Manner, Mirkka Rekola, Pentti Saaritsa
and Sirkka Turkka.
Becoming a translator is a long process. You should only ever translate into your native language! It’s always useful if
the translator has a few trusted readers who are native speakers of the source language. A comprehensive knowledge
of translation theory and the study of languages to university level is also a plus. If you translate non-fiction, you must
have a good understanding of the subject area. Good general knowledge is indispensable. Working closely with the
author of the text is very beneficial indeed.
Ingrid Schellbach-Kopra (Germany). Worked as a translator for 45 years. Translated a great deal of non-fiction
primarily in the fields of linguistics, history and folkloristics, and literature.
Possible Problems
A tip from my own experience: if finding a publisher is difficult, found your own publishing house. My husband and I
founded our own publishing house in 1994, and things are still going well, though you cannot live on this alone. It’s
important for translators to follow not only Finnish literature but the literature of their own country too, so that they
know what readers are interested in.
Markéta Hejkalová (Czech Republic). Worked as a translator for 15 years. Translations include works by Esa Sariola,
Anja Snellman, Kaari Utrio and Mika Waltari.
As for the translation of literature: do it part-time alongside a more reliable profession.
Tom Geddes (Great Britain). Worked as a translator part-time for 27 years. Translated works of Swedish and Finland-
Swedish literature, literature history and art books.
Happy Translating!
I would like to wish beginner translators a passion and love of language and literature, a great deal of patience,
enthusiasm for their work and, to some extent, the ability to make necessary sacrifices.
Taissia Djafarova-Viitala (Russia). Worked as a translator for 25 years. Translated prose including short fiction by
women, poetry and literary research.
Sometimes when I read literature I think how nice it would be if I could write something like that. Translation gives you
the opportunity to rewrite your favourite works – in your own language.
Jaana Zhemoitel (Russia). Worked as a translator for 20 years. Translations include short fiction and Aino Kallas’
novelSudenmorsian.
Required reading:
A practical Guide for translators

The fourth edition
Geoffrey Samuelsson-Brown:
Lecture 5 Theory
English and Arabic Translation and religion
In class: A lecture on the relationship between religion and translation, the translation of sacred
texts and religious terms and names.
The topics we have discussed so far have centred around translation of secular texts. But there has been
large scale translation of religious texts across the world. Translation of religious texts is a rather uneven
terrain in the history of translation, mainly because the orthodox belief is that the word of God cannot be
translated by human hand. The authenticity of the original becomes sacrosanct here, and the assumption that
translation is secondary, slavish or derivative is made concrete. This reverence for the original word of God
can be seen in religious faiths across the world and cultures, including tribal culture, where God speaks only
through the shaman, or the person chosen specifically to become the voice of God. Any other ‘translation’
would be false and listening to or reading it would be blasphemy.
However, this does not mean that the scriptures have not been translated at all. In fact, individual translations
and interpretations have helped the growth of religions, especially Christianity. Of all the religious texts to
have been translated, the Bible towers above others in terms of sheer magnitude and scope of its translation.
The translation of the Bible, as is true of the sacred texts of other religions as well, gains added significance
when you consider the impact it had on the evolution and standardization of different languages round the
world. So, other than the issues that are raised by the process of translation, scriptural translation needs to
be analysed also for its influence on the growth and survival of languages.
The Torah
Let us first take into consideration the oldest of the Semitic religions, which is Judaism. The Torah is the
foundational religious text for the Jews, and is also called Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses. It is part of
the Christian Old Testament, and is acknowledged by Muslims as well, as a holy book. The language of the
Torah is Hebrew, which is not understood by many Jews scattered across the world. Contrary to the suspicion
that other religions exhibit towards translation, the Jews believed that the Torah contains divine truths meant
to be understood by humans. So the Torah had to be translated and its teachings propagated for the benefit
of those who do not understand Hebrew. Michael Alpert observes that the first reference to translation can be
found in the Bible itself. It is mentioned that the Jews who returned from exile in Babylon could no longer
understand Hebrew and so they read the Torah: “they read from the book of the law of God clearly, made its
sense plain and gave instruction in what was read” (Torah translation, Routledge Encyclopedia, 269). Alpert
interprets this as translation.
According to Alpert, the first translation of the Torah is the Septuagint, a translation done in Egypt in the third
century BC for the benefit of Jews who did not know Hebrew. This translation was considered unsatisfactory
by many Jews and there came along other translations after this. There were translations into Aramaic which
were called targum (targumin means translation in Hebrew). The Torah was read in the synagogue and the
Aramaic interpretation given orally by the meturgeman or the interpreter/translator. Alpert points out that it is
difficult to separate translation from exegesis in the case of the Torah or the Bible (270). This also applies to
the earliest Arabic translation of the Torah by Saadia in the 10th century. Saadia who was a Hebrew scholar
himself, explained Hebrew grammar and syntax using parallels from Arabic. His translation is still used by
Yemenite Jews.
Aid to comprehension
The translations of the Torah were seen more as guide books that helped in better understanding the text,
and not as the original text itself. The basic Hebrew text is believed to be sacrosanct and not open to
emendations of any sort. Alpert notes that the inviolability of the text is “preserved by many rules of copying
and checking as well as by the tradition of reading the Pentateuch publicly in Hebrew from a handwritte scroll”
(270). This text, meant for public recitation is called the masoretic text and was standardized in the sixth or
seventh century. It is considered to be the authentic original for all translations or interpretations.
This means that the basic text was considered to be divine and singular, while the exegesis or interpretations
were human and multiple. In fact, the Torah depended a lot on the interpretations of scholarly people during
the Middle Ages, some of whom were Rashi, Ibn Ezra, Nachmanides etc. In fact, these commentaries were
the part of later translations that were published in vernacular languages. Commentaries could range from
clarifications of the basic text to scholarly studies that analyzed the text in greater detail and revealed hidden
truths to the common reader.
Slips in Translation
All this does not imply that the translation from Hebrew was smooth and easy. As is the case with translation
of texts from one language to another, equivalence became an issue. Even today there are debates about the
way certain words have been translated. For instance, Alpert points out how St. Jerome, the first of the
translators of the Bible, translated the Hebrew word ‘almah’ as virgin: “Therefore the Lord himself shall give
you a sign; Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel” (Isaiah 7:14).
Translators today realize that the word only means a young woman who can become a mother. It is obvious
from this that the connotation of the verse changes completely if the word is translated as virgin. Mistranslated
as it may be, St. Jerome’s translation has, over the centuries, attained a sort of finality.
Another controversy has been around the name of God that is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible or Old
Testament. The name of God in the Pentateuch is conveyed through the Tetragrammaton or four letters Yod,
Heh, Vav, Heh. This was not pronounced as it was written (it was actually pronounced as Adonai), and it
passed into the Septuagint as Kyrios, to Latin as Dominus and to English as Lord. Much later when thHebrew
vocal text came into circulation, nobody knew the actual pronunciation and it was mistakenly assumed to be
pronounced as Yahovah and written as Jehovah. Thus the name of God came to be finalized as Jehovah i the
Old Testament. Alpert argues that this is a misunderstanding of the basic text, a muddling that occurred due
to incorrect translation somewhere down the line (272).
Besides this, there are difficulties encountered in translation of names. In the original Hebrew, each name
has a meaning which is lost in translation to English or other languages. Take the case of the name Jacob.
He was named Ya’aqov from the Hebrew aqeb meaning heel, as he was born holding the heel of his twin
brother Esau. Ya’aqov becomes Jacob in translation, thereby ridding the name of all reference to the heel
which in Hebrew connotes somebody who overtakes another insidiously. The name then gains added
significance when considered in the context of Jacob’s story and how he deceived his father into giving him
the blessings that should have gone to Esau the firstborn.
Translation of the Quran

This reveals the pitfalls of translation, an aspect that you have to be doubly careful about when translating
texts that are considered to be divine revelations. This also explains why most religions are extremely
reluctant, if not prohibitory, about translation of scriptural texts. The Quran which is the sacred text of Islam, is
similarly considered to be outside the pale of translation. According to Hassan Mustapha, “The importanc
attached to the Quran stems from the belief that it contains, verbatim, the Word of God, as reveale piecemeal
to Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel between 610 and 632 AD. It is therefore considered inimitable, and this
has important implications for both the legitimacy and the (authorized) methods of translating it” (“Quran
Translation”, 200). The traditional belief is that it is wrong to translate the Quran. It has a language that is
specific to it; the Arabic of the Quran is different from the Arabic that is used by native speakers. So whoever
wishes to read the Holy Book is supposed to master the language in which it is written. The text cannot, or
should not be rendered into a language to cater to the target readership.
The Quran was originally meant to be recited and was composed in rhyming prose. The canonical text was
written down under the direction of the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan in the 7th century. This was sent to
various cities with the express orders that all other unauthorized versions be destroyed. Hassan Mustapha
notes that “there are seven legitimate readings (ahruf) in circulation, which differ mainly in the manner in
which the verses are recited orally and the interplay between the recited and written forms” (200). Besides the
written language, a lot of importance is given to the way in which the verses are recited for which it is
imperative to have a good grasp of pronunciation and intonation of the spoken language.
Translation as Interpretation
Despite the traditional opposition to the Quran being translated, there have been scholars who believed tha
translation cannot be completely done away with. One such was Abu Hanifa, the Iraqi scholar of the 9th
century. He was of the view that the text could be translated, provided the Arabic original is also provided
along with the translation. He also felt that non-Arabic speakers could express the meaning in their ow
language while they recite the Quranic verses. However, the stricture that a non-believer cannot translate the
Holy Quran still holds.
As is the case with the Torah, translation of the Quran also implies explanation of the meaning an significance
of the verses. Interpretation can very often be dictated by personal beliefs and ideology, and perhaps thi
explains the importance given to the translator’s faith in the translation of the Quran. Somebody who does not
share the beliefs embedded in the text might knowingly or unknowingly distort the message of the book.
Hence it is not a surprise that non-believers are asked to keep away from it.
Despite the barriers surrounding it, translations of the Quran have taken place. Hassan Mustapha notes that
the first translations were done during the reign of the Abbasids (8th – 12th centuries in what is present day
Iraq). These were done by the first Persians who converted to Islam. However, there was an early translation
which was by a non-believer – the Latin translation commissioned in 1143 by Peter the Venerable, Abbot of
Cluny to repudiate the tenets of Islam.There were other translations like these, with the specific aim of
undermining Islamic religious beliefs.In the Middle Ages in which the Crusades witnessed the most bitter and
protracted of battles between Christians and Muslims, translation became another weapon to fight the infidel
with. Since then, there have been numerous translations of the Quran, but Mustapha is of the view that “there
is, by implication, no universally recognized single translation, or edition in translation, of the Quran” (201).
Mohammed Marmaduke Pickthall

An important name in the account of Quran translations is that of the Englishman Mohammed Marmaduke
William Pickthall (1875 – 1936). He was an Englishman who converted to Islam in 1917, and openly
championed the Turkish cause when England was pursuing a virulently anti-Turk policy. He was a supporter
of the Ottoman Empire and was widely travelled in the Middle East. He served for a brief while in India also,
under the Nizam of Hyderabad where in 1930 he completed his project of the translation of the Quran. This
volume The Meaning of the Glorious Koran is considered to be a sensitive and scholarly translation. The fact
that he got the approval of the Rector of al-Azhar which was considered to be the centre for Islamic studies in
Cairo, testifies to the validity of Pickthall’s translation. It should also be noted that he had to stress that his
translation was more of an interpretation (as the title of the books shows) than translation to get their approval.
The al-Azhar is even today considered to be the final authority regarding Quran translations. Regarding
Pickthall’s translation A. R. Kidwai says: “It keeps scrupulously close to the original in elegant, though now
somewhat archaic, English. However, although it is one of the most widely used English translations, it
provides scant explanatory notes and background information
("http://www.islam101.com/quran/transAnalysis.htm"). In Kidwai’s opinion, Pickthall’s translation does not help
the uninitiated reader of the Quran. However it is true that Pickthall remains one of the best Western English
translators, a fine example of a person translating from a foreign ideology and culture.
Problems in translation It has already been mentioned that there were divergent views on the translatability of
the Quran. Mustapha notes that a medieval scholar Imam Shatby expressed the view that the basic text has
too many specifically ‘Arabic’ terms that cannot be translated adequately. However, he felt that there can be
no objections to the translation of interpretations of the Quran, a view that is even today backed by
respectable bodies of Islamic learning like al-Azhar of Egypt. In fact, the years between 1925 and 1936
witnessed turbulent debates regarding this in Egypt, when the view that it should not be translated gained
currency. During this time, Kamal Ataturk the leader of Turkey decided to commission a translation of Quran
into Turkish which was interpreted as an attempt to distance his people from the original language and culture
of the Muslims. In fact, debates surrounding this prompted the al-Azhar to decide that translations could be
allowed only if they are interpretations intended to explain the meaning to people who are not familiar with the
Arabic language.
The style and format of Quran translations are also very important, because there is a 1936 fatwa that
stipulates that the translation has to be printed along with the original. So, many of the translations have the
original text on the left and the translation on the other side. The language of the original is thus never lost
sight of even in translation. In some cases at least this has a major influence on the local language. Take the
case of Malayalam, for instance. The influence of Arabic on Malayalam the local language of Kerala, has
given rise to a curious hybrid language called Arabimalayalam. Children who are taught the Quran in Arabic,
do not manage to master the written script of Malayalam. However, their spoken language continues to be
Malayalam. This results in a piquant situation where they are unable to write in the language they speak. The
way out was a hybrid script – Malayalam in Arabic script, giving birth to a new language calle Arabimalayalam.
The language also has its own literature including one which dates back to the 17th century – Muhyideenmala
of 1607. It is also the language of the rich repertory of Mappilappattu, which are songs peculiar to the Muslims
of Malabar.
Arabimalayalam is a fine and rare example of how the language of scriptures can penetrate local culture
and language, and create a new entity that draws from both cultures. This shows how translations of
scriptures can transcend the boundaries of faith and mingle closely with the language and culture of
different regions.
Lecture 6 Theory
English and Arabic Translation and Culture
In class: A lecture on the challenges confronting the translator when translating cultural elements
Translating Culture: Problems, Strategies and Practical Realities
Ana B. Fernández-Guerra
Abstract: Translating literary texts can be quite a challenging task, since texts are normally bound in a specific
language and culture and, thus, display many linguistic peculiarities, as well as social and cultural aspects of our lives.
One of the main problems a translator can face arises from the fact that some terms are so deeply rooted in their
source culture, that they are specific and exclusive to the culture that produced them and that, therefore, they have no
equivalent in the target culture, be it because they are unknown, or because they are not yet codified in the target
language. The aim of this paper is to revise the literature dealing with the most important typologies and classifications
proposed as regards cultural terms, and to show the main translation procedures and strategies that can be employed
in order to overcome the difficulties and problems involved in translating differences between cultures. The paper will
also show the results of an empirical study based on the translation of 4 passages of literary texts which rely on many
cultural aspects. This study involved 96 students attending a course on English-Spanish translation, and a total of 40
cultural terms were selected in order to see the actual problems found when translating culture and the different
translation strategies used to solve them.
Keywords: translation, culture, strategies, students.
Introduction
Literary texts display many linguistic peculiarities, as well as social and cultural aspects of our lives and, thus, we can
assert that literary translation is one of the main ways of communication across cultures. Translating literary texts,
however, is not an easy task, since it certainly poses many problems for the translator. One of the problems a
translator can face arises from the fact that some words or phrases denoting objects, facts, phenomena, etc... are so
deeply rooted in their source culture (SC) and so specific (and perhaps exclusive or unique) to the culture that
produced them that they have no equivalent in the target culture (TC), be it because they are unknown, or because
they are not yet codified in the target language (TL). When discussing the problems of correspondence in translation,
"differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language
structure" (Nida 130). Moreover, several theorists, such as Santoyo, García Yebra and Yifeng, amongst others,
support untranslatability when we face texts with terms which are so culture-bound and culture-specific as to defy
translation (cf. Fernández Guerra, "The issue" 41).
In all cases, when cultural differences exist between the two languages, it is extremely difficult to achieve a successful
transfer, if not impossible (whatever the competence of the translator in the two languages involved). And even the
slightest variation from the source language (SL) cultural term can be taken as an act of subversion against the culture
it represents. Literary translation itself can even be regarded as an act of subversion, or a means of providing an
alternative or sub-version of reality. As Levine affirms, "the literary translator can be considered a subversive scribe"
(7). In the same line of thought, when talking about the task of translating literature, Silver states: "I understand
subversion as at the core of the translation project itself" (Silver 5).
The aim of the present paper is twofold: (1) to revise the literature dealing with the main typologies and classifications
proposed as regards cultural terms, and (2) to show the main translation procedures and strategies that can be
employed in order to solve the problems involved in translating differences between cultures.
This paper will also present the results obtained in a study based on the translation of 4 passages of texts that relied
on cultural aspects. The study involved 96 students attending a course on English-Spanish translation, and a total of
40 cultural terms were selected so as to analyse the different translation strategies used by students when translating
them.
1. Cultural terms
Many scholars agree with the fact that language is an expression of culture and individuality of its speakers and have,
hence, deeply examined cultural terms, as well as the problems involved in their translation when there is a lack of
equivalence between two languages and cultures (Kade, Kutz, Nord, Rabadán, and Venuti, for example).
Vlakhov and Florin seem to have been the first ones to coin the term realia to refer to cultural elements, and the term
has now been generalized and is frequently used to refer to objects, customs, habits, and other cultural and material
aspects that have an impact in shaping a certain language (Cerdá Massó 248).
Since then, many classifications and taxonomies for such cultural aspects have been offered (Baker, Katan, Mayoral,
Molina, Newmark, Vlakhov y Florin, etc.). Following Nida and applying the concept of culture to the task of translation,
Newmark (21) puts forth his classification of foreign cultural words, establishing five categories:
a. Ecology (flora, fauna, winds, climate, etc.): Hoy hace ‘poniente' en ‘Levante' could be an example in Spanish.
b. Material culture (food, clothes, houses, towns, transport): Aquel de la ‘boina' acaba de comprar ‘buñuelos'.
c. Social culture (work and leisure): No puedo quedarme para ver ‘quemar las Fallas' porque mañana empiezan las
‘oposiciones'.
d. Organizations, customs, activities, procedures or concepts (which include artistic, religious, political and
administrative subcategories): Me voy al ‘PROP' a ver qué ayudas recibo en la compra.
e. Gestures and habits: ¿Quedamos a tomar un ‘chisme' después de ‘misa'?
Katan (17) also provides a comprehensive view of how culture reveals itself at each of the following logical levels:
a. Environment (including climate, housing, food, etc.): exemplifying terms in the Spanish culture are poniente,
barraca, faralaes, paella, etc.
b. Behaviour (actions and ways of behaving in certain cultures): greeting someone with two kisses instead of shaking
hands, for example, is quite common in Spain.
c. Capabilities, strategies and skills used to communicate (including non-verbal communication, rituals, etc.):¡ponme
una cerveza! is a typical formula in Spanish to order a drink, but using the imperative would not be appropriate in
English and a possible translation could be Could I please have a beer?
d. Values of the society and its hierarchy: Ellos creen que son mejores por ser ‘payos'.
e. Beliefs: Hoy es ‘domingo de Ramos'.
f. Identity: Acaban de derribar otro ‘edificio franquista'.
Ku (91-98), reduces his taxonomy to the four generic types proposed by Molina:
a. Environment, including ecology, place names, etc.: La zona del ‘Bierzo', for example.
b. Cultural heritage (religious beliefs, historical events, characters, festivities, folklore, housing, objects, etc.): Un alto
porcentaje de españoles tiene una ‘segunda residencia'.
c. Social culture (conventions, beliefs, habits, social organizations, etc.): Vamos de ‘tapeo'.
d. Linguistic culture (fixed expressions, idioms, insults, etc.): ‘¡Anda ya!', eres un ‘capullo'.
Finally, Fernández Guerra ("Tradicionalismo" 139) describes four major types of realia, which can turn translation into
a very difficult process.
a. Geographic and ethnographic terms: Albufera, gorrilla... (in Spanish), or The Square Mile, cockney...(in English).
b. Words or expressions referring to folklore, traditions and mythology: Toro embolado, romería, peña, tracas,
entierro de la sardina, rociero... Ceilidh, Christmas stocking, touchdown, tag...
c. Names of everyday objects, actions and events (such as food and drinks, clothes, housing, tools, public transport,
dances and games, units of measurement, money, etc.): Agua de Valencia, buñuelos, paella, migas, mantilla,
barraca... Christmas pudding, cottage pie, happy hour, miles, earmuffs...
d. Social and historical terms denoting territorial administrative units or divisions; departments, professions, titles,
ranks, greetings and treatments; institutions, patriotic and religious organisations; etc.: oposiciones, Diputación
provincial, guardia civil, pata negra, caudillo... sophomore, A-level(s), Salvation Army, Christie's, YMCA...
Authors such as Baker (21), Mayoral (76), Nord (523-527), Santoyo ("Traducción" 143), and Marco Borillo (El fil295-
208) offer similar classifications, emphasizing local colour, mannerisms, cultural and temporal distance between two
linguistic communities, etc. and recognising, more or less explicitly, the focus on dominant cultures, the inevitability of
loss, or even the impossibility of translating these terms:
it is known that a perfect translation of culturally-bound texts is impossible. The translation focusing on the purpose of
the SL text writing is, however, always possible. This can be proven with the translation of so many literary works into
other languages (Hariyanto).
It is true that translating realia or cultural terms, such as the types mentioned above, causes many translation
difficulties, but this does not mean that they cannot be translated. In fact, along the lines of some translation scholars,
particularly those of the Leipzig school (Kade, Jäger, Neubert), all languages can say (or are capable of saying) the
same things; but, as a rule, all of them say it in a different way. Indeed, should two languages say it in the same way,
then we would not be speaking of two languages, but of one and the same language. The translator can have
recourse to several devices for solving the problem of bridging the gap across cultures, providing that s/he is culturally
aware of those differences. S/he can rely on various procedures, techniques or strategies to deal with such translation
problems. The following translations into Spanish of Taste this Christmas pudding, for example, could illustrate it:
Borrowing: Prueba este Christmas pudding.
Adaptation: Prueba este turrón.
Explanation: Prueba este dulce navideño hecho de frutas confitadas y coñac.
Generalisation: Prueba este dulce.
Literal translation: Prueba este pudín de Navidad.
Reduction: Prueba esto.
Etc.
The translator can coin or borrow the term from the SL into the TL, or adapt it to suit the TC (‘turrón' or ‘roscón de
Reyes'). It is also possible to explain the conceptual differences in a footnote or in the text itself (‘dulce navideño
hecho de frutas confitadas y coñac or pastel típico de Inglaterra'), and so on. It is up to the translator to choose the
most suitable way to render it in the TL, and for the TC, depending on the aim, the time available, the potential
readers, etc. of the translation.
2. Translation procedures and strategies

According to Krings (263-275) or Lörscher (76-81), among others, translation strategies are usually defined as the
procedures leading to the optimal solution of a translation problem. The procedures or strategies based on
comparative stylistics (Vinay y Darbelnet, Malblanc, Intravaia and Scavée), also used by other scholars (Vázquez
Ayora, Newmark, ...), or the techniques suggested by Bible translators (Nida, Nida and Taber, Margot), intended to
propose a metalanguage and to catalogue possible solutions in the task of translation. Such procedures have been
sometimes criticized, among other reasons because there is even a lack of consensus as to what name should be
given to these categories (procedures, techniques, strategies or methods are often interrelated and used as
synonyms). Naming problems occur because the procedures sometimes overlap, they only catalogue differences in
terms of language and not usage, and they focus on translation results rather than on the translation process. There
have been, however, several attempts to differentiate procedures from strategies, which are more related to the
translation process (Hurtado 36). In any case, the procedures or strategies that are usually mentioned in academic
publications serve both to analyse and catalogue translation equivalence and to improve the acquisition of translation
competence, since knowing and comparing them is definitively necessary to obtain an adequate translation.
One of the leading taxonomies, and certainly the best known, is that of Vinay and Dalbernet. The seven basic
translation procedures are, according to them, adaptation, calque, equivalence, modulation, borrowing, literal
translation and transposition; although they also refer to compensation, expansion and contraction. Other authors
have reformulated and added new procedures, or broken down the aforementioned ones into distinct subcategories.
Among the well known reformulations we should mention the one proposed by Vázquez Ayora (251-383), for
example, who distinguishes between (i) oblique translation procedures (adaptation, amplification, compensation,
equivalence, explicitation, modulation, omission and transposition) and (ii) direct methods (calque, loan and literal
translation). Hurtado (36-37) expands the list with strategies that account for solutions of textual nature: extension,
amplification, compression, discursive creation, description, generalisation, particularisation, reduction, paralinguistic
or linguistic substitution, and variation.
It is also worth mentioning that some studies focus only on specific translation procedures that should be used when
dealing with cultural elements. This is the case with Graedler (3), who cites four: (i) making up a new word, (ii)
explaining the meaning of the SL expression in lieu of translating it, (iii) preserving the SL term intact, and (iv)
replacing it using any term in the TL that has the same "relevance" as the SL term. Harvey (2-6) also proposes four
ways: (i) functional equivalence, using a term with the same "function", (ii) formal or linguistic equivalence, or word by
word translation, (iii) transcription or borrowing, which may include notes, and (iv) descriptive or self-explanatory
translation. Mur Dueñas (74-79) labelled her translation procedures as (1) TL cultural cognate; (2) SL cultural and
linguistic borrowing; (3) SL cultural borrowing plus explanation; (4) replacement of SL cultural referent by explanation;
(5) TL cultural referent suppression; and (6) literal translation of TL cultural referent. Finally, Marco Borillo ("Les
tècniques" 138), considering the intervention of the translator and his approach to the TC as a continuum, proposes
the following six procedures: (i) pure or naturalised loan, (ii) literal translation, (iii) neutralisation (description,
generalisation or particularisation), (iv) amplification or compression, (v) intracultural adaptation, and (vi) intercultural
adaptation.
The aforementioned procedures will now be briefly described and illustrated, in alphabetical order.
2.1. Adaptation
Adaptation is used in those cases in which the type of situation being referred to by the SL message is unknown in the
TC and translators create a new situation that can be described as situational equivalence (Vinay and Darbelnet 52-
53). Thus, it can be understood as what other authors have called cultural, dynamic or functional equivalence (cf.
2.7.). It actually refers to a SL cultural element that is replaced by another term in the TC. This would apply, for
example, to Christmas pudding, and its possible translation into ‘turrón' mentioned above.
There are situations in which adaptation seems, to some extent, necessary: in advertising slogans, or children's
stories, for example. In other cases there are certain conventions, more or less generalized, as regards adapted
translations of foreign cultural elements in the TL. This applies, for instance, to weights and measures, musical
notation, generally accepted titles of literary works or geographical names, etc. The basic goal of the translator when
trying to ‘adapt' the translation is to have a similar effect on the TL readers, ‘domesticating', in a way, the cultural
terms.
2.2. Borrowing
Borrowing a term is taking a word or expression straight from another language, without translation. The procedure is
normally used when a term does not exist in the TC, or when the translator tries to get some stylistic or exotic effect. It
can be "pure", if there is no change of any kind in the foreign term (broker, chip, clown, feeling, stop, etc.), or
"naturalized", if the word has some change in the spelling, and perhaps some morphological or phonetic adaptation
(as in diskette ® ‘disquete', format ® ‘formatear', indent ® ‘indentar', reset ® ‘resetear', etc.).
Some authors prefer the terms foreign word, foreignism, Anglicism, Germanism, ... when referring to pure borrowings
(that have not been fully assimilated into the TL system), and use borrowings or loans when the words are naturalised
in the TL, the difference being when the term has been incorporated and how it has been adapted to the TL (Torre
94). In any case, borrowings are one of the main ways of enriching a language, as the Spanish writer Unamuno
indicated as regards literary translation: "meter palabras nuevas, haya o no haya otras que las reemplacen, es meter
nuevos matices de ideas" (cf. Lorenzo). And, as far as English is concerned, Wagner states that it is "the only
language whose elements are seventy-five percent of foreign origin" (cf. Fernandez 514). When translating texts with
a great amount of cultural terms, however, we should be cautious (García Yebra 340), unless we want to maintain a
certain local colour or exoticism.
2.3. Calque
Calque could be described as a literal translation (either lexical or structural) of a foreign word or phrase. It could
actually be considered a special type of loan or borrowing, since the translator borrows the SL expression or structure
and then transfers it in a literal translation (Vinay and Darbelnet 47), as in the case
of shocked ®‘chocado', stressed ® ‘estresado', etc.
The difference between loan/borrowing and calque is that the former imitates the morphology, signification and
phonetics of the foreign word or phrase, while the latter only imitates the morphological scheme and the signification
of that term, but not its pronunciation. In the case of football, for example, using the same term in Spanish would be a
pure borrowing; the word fútbol would be a naturalised borrowing, and balompié a calque.
According to Santoyo (Teoría 93), calque is not only an acceptable form of translation, it is strict and correct
translation, since it is built with significants of the SL. García Yebra (335) also considers that it leads to a good
translation and that it can certainly contribute to enrich the TL (whereas borrowings are not really translation
procedures, but giving up in the translation task).
2.4. Compensation
The aim of compensation is to balance the semantic losses that translation involves (either in the content of the
message or its stylistic effects). Compensation introduces a SL element of information or stylistic effect in another
place in the TL text because it cannot be reflected in the same place as in the SL: the translation of dialects, irony,
politeness values, etc. In the case of Spanish-English translation, we could mention, for example, the familiarity or
formality of "tú" and "usted". Both words are translated into English as "you", so the translator will have to express
degrees of formality in different ways, maybe compensating by using other English words of the formal and informal
registers, in order to preserve the same level of formality.
2.5. Compression / reduction / condensation / omission

These four terms are opposed to the ones mentioned in section 2.8. In all of them the translator synthesizes or
suppresses a SL information item in the TL text, mainly when that information is considered unnecessary (Vázquez
Ayora 359) because the cultural term does not perform a relevant function or may even mislead the reader.
Compression/reduction/condensation/omission of information is not common when translating cultural terms and,
when it occurs, it is usually to avoid repetitions, misleading information, or lack of naturalness.
2.6. Description
As the term itself indicates, a term or expression is replaced by a description of its form or function. It could, thus, be
regarded as a sort of paraphrase, or even as an amplification or explanation (cf. 2.8.) of a SL term, as in the Spanish
translation of He's a Cockney ® ‘Es de la parte este de Londres, de la parte más pobre'.
2.7. Equivalence
According to Vinay and Dalbernet, equivalence refers to a strategy that describes the same situation by using
completely different stylistic or structural methods for producing equivalent texts (Vinay and Dalbernet 52). This
basically means that the translator uses a term or expression recognised as an established equivalent in the TL. It is
similar to adaptation (cf. 2.1.) and to modulation (cf. 2.11.) in that it expresses the same situation in a different way
(Vázquez Ayora 322), mainly in cases of idioms and formulaic language, as in God bless you ® ‘¡Salud!', Holy
cow! ® ‘¡Madre mía!', You must be joking! ® ‘¡Ni hablar!', Only the good die young ® ‘Mala hierba nunca muere'.
2.8. Explicitation / expansion / amplification / diffusion

These terms are in opposition to the ones mentioned in section 2.5. Explicitation means that we express in the TL
something that is implicit in the context of the SL (Vázquez Ayora 349), or that we introduce details that are not
expressed in the SL, such as more information, translator's notes, or explicative paraphrasing, as in IRA ® ‘La
organización terrorista IRA'.
In the other three cases, those of expansion (Vinay and Darbelnet 184), amplification (Vazquez Ayora 137) and
diffusion (Malone 45), the translator uses, in the TL, more words than in the SL to express the same idea.
Examples of these procedures could be the following ones: Coffee break ® ‘descanso para tomar café', The man
next door ® ‘el hombre que vive (en la puerta de) al lado', Successful fishermen went back home ® ‘los pescadores
que habían tenido éxito volvieron a casa'.
2.9. Generalization
With this procedure, in opposition to particularisation, the translator uses hypernyms or more general or neutral terms,
normally for stylistic reasons, or to avoid unnecessary repetitions or ambiguity, as in the case of John has a beautiful
dog ® ‘Juan tiene un hermoso animal'.
2.10. Literal translation

Literal translation, or word by word, occurs when a SL word or phrase is translated into a TL word or phrase, without
worrying about style, but adapting the text to the TL syntactic rules, with minimal adjustments, so that it sounds both
correct and idiomatic (word order, functional words, etc.). In Vinay and Dalbernet's words (48), it is the direct transfer
of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text in which the translators' task is limited to
observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL.
An example of literal translation could be John loves Mary ® ‘Juan ama a María', in which the preposition ‘a' has been
added because it is a requirement for direct objects denoting a person.
2.11. Modulation
Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in the SL and TL to convey the same idea (Vinay and Dalbernet
51). In other words, there is a change in the point of view, focus, perspective or category of thought in relation to the
SL, as in Neither head nor tail ® ‘ni pies ni cabeza', Don't get so excited ® ‘tranquilízate', ...
It is similar to transposition and, sometimes, necessary in order to avoid lack of fluency or exoticism in the translation.
2.12. Particularisation
Particularisation is in opposition to generalisation (cf. 2.9.). It refers to the procedure in which the translator uses in the
TL hyponyms or more precise or concrete terms, as in She's a great person ® ‘Es una mujer maravillosa', in which
particularisation disambiguates whether ‘person' is male or female, since there is no translation of ‘she' in this case.
2.13. Substitution (linguistic-paralinguistic)

According to Hurtado (36), linguistic-paralinguistic substitution is the translation procedure in which linguistic elements
are replaced by paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures, etc.) or vice versa, as in Oh, what a shame!, which could
perhaps be translated as ‘¡Qué pena!- dijo sorprendida', or to translate the Arab gesture of putting your hand on your
heart as ‘Thank you'.
2.14. Transposition
This procedure involves changing a grammatical category or replacing one part of the speech for another, without
changing the meaning of the message (Vinay and Dalbernet 50). The following translations are types of
transposition: This computer is out of order ® ‘Este ordenador no funciona', I knocked him down ® ‘Le derribé de un
golpe', I touched a footbrake ® ‘Frené'... (this last example also includes a reduction).
Grammatical transpositions, with appropriate morphological and syntactic adjustments, are quite frequent in order to
obtain a translation that sounds as if it had been originally written in the TL.
2.15. Variation
Finally, variation is a procedure in which the translator changes elements that affect several aspects of linguistic
variation: changes in tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect ... (Hurtado 37), as in the case of I ain't no fool ®
‘No soy ningún tonto', or in Yep, and it's dirt cheap ® ‘Sí, y se lo dejo muy barato', in which the register used in the TL
is completely different.
3. Practical realities: strategies used to translate cultural terms

The fifteen procedures mentioned in the previous section are, according to many experts, the main translation
strategies that could be used when dealing with problems that students can face in translating texts. Malone (2), for
example, indicates that such strategies or procedures "will serve either as tools for the study of completed translation
(the analytic mode), or as helpmates in the act of translation (the operative mode)". And Jääskeläinen considers that
the strategies used by a translator are skills and procedures that promote the acquisition and use of information, and
may be associated both with the product (the translated text), as well as with the process of translation itself, whose
strategies "are a set of (loosely formulated) rules or principles which a translator uses to reach the goals determined
by the translating situation" and can be global or local strategies: "global strategies refer to general principles and
modes of action and local strategies refer to specific activities in relation to the translator's problem-solving and
decision-making" (Jääskeläinen 16).
3.1. Empirical study

The following pages show the results of a study carried out to analyse the strategies that 96 students employed when
translating cultural terms from English into Spanish and vice versa. Students were in their third year of a Programme
in English Studies at the Universitat Jaume I of Castellón (Spain), and the course they were taking wasEnglish-
Spanish translation II (which focused on the translation of literary texts). All of them were Spanish and their level of
English was certainly advanced. Most of them (83.3%) had also stayed in the UK at least one academic term (as
Erasmus students), so one can indeed assume that they were sufficiently familiar with the cultural terms used for this
study. The analysis focused on the translation of fragments of four literary texts (two in Spanish and two in English), all
of them including a large number of cultural terms. In each of the four fragments, a total of 40 cultural terms were
selected, which are outlined below:
T1. The food of fiction (written by A. Lang). In this poem 11 cultural terms were identified:
(1) Of Scott's or Ainsworth's "venison pasty"
(2) Beefsteak pudding
(3) Made by Ruth To cheer Tom Pinch
(4) Gabriel Varden
(5) In Bracebridge Hall
(6) The Christmas roast
(7) Fruits from the Goblin Market Garden
(8) Cups of tea were ever brewed
(9) Like Sairey Gamp's-the dear old sinner?
(10) Like that for Short's and Codlin's dinner?
(11) To use the Fotheringay's own diction -Pendennis ate, the love-sick boy?
T2. The Longest Journey (novel by E.M. Forster). Students had to translate nine cultural phrases selected from the
fragment:
(1) Sawston School
(2) It was then a tiny grammar-school
(3) The City Company who governed it
(4) Innumerable residences, detached and semi-detached
(5) The bishops, like the stars from a Roman candle
(6) It dropped the prefix "Grammar"
(7) The "Commercial School"
(8) It had not the gracious antiquity of Eton or Winchester, nor, on the other hand, had it a conscious policy like
Lancing, Wellington
(9) The average Englishman
T3. De ¡viva San Fermín! a ¡Pobre de mí! (narrative story by F. Erbiti Zabalza), in which 10 allusions to folklore were
chosen: (1) El chupinazo del 6 de julio
(2) El inicio de los sanfermines
(3) Entonando el ‘Pobre de mí'
(4) De ahí que muchos pamploneses, al ritmo de ‘Uno de enero, dos de febrero...'
(5) Casa Consistorial
(6) Al paso de la procesión de San Fermín, mientras algún txistulari o jotero dedica alguna pieza al santo
(7) Sin música no habría sanfermines y sin Manuel Turrillas alguien tendría que inventarla de nuevo
(8) En sanfermines también suenan el txistu, la gaita, las fanfarres y multitud de grupos,
(9) Acudir diariamente a la corrida sin ser aficionado
(10) Algunos traspasan la barrera del desmadre para instalarse en la imbecilidad cuando agarran a los toros en el
encierro
T4. La romería (short story written by C.J. Cela, who was awarded the 1989 Nobel Prize in Literature). The fragments
students had to translate included these 10 cultural terms:
(1) La romería era muy tradicional
(2) Ir todos juntos a merendar
(3) Los prepararon de domingo
(4) Una revista taurina
(5) Una perra gorda
(6) Tomaron de primer plato fabada asturiana
(7) Un tenderete de rosquillas
(8) ¡Pues estaría bueno!
(9) ¿Con esos bárbaros? ¡Ni hablar! Son todos una partida de cafres
(10) A lo hecho, pecho: aquello ya no tenía remedio y, además, a burro muerto, cebada al rabo
The different procedures (described in section 2) used by the students to translate these cultural terms were analysed.
Of course, translation procedures and strategies were explained in detail and exemplified in advance in several
lectures of a theoretical and practical nature.
3.2. Results
Table 1 shows the results obtained in the translation of cultural terms from English into Spanish.
Procedure T1 T2 Total (%)

Adaptation 262 205 467 24.32%
Borrowing 233 117 350 18.23%
Calque 15 23 38 1.98%
Compensation 2 21 23 1.20%
Compression 9 41 50 2.60%
Description 271 152 423 22.03%
Equivalence 120 114 234 12.18%
Explicitation 67 79 146 7.60%
Generalization 4 1 5 0.26%
Literal translation 54 64 118 6.14%
Modulation 0 14 14 0.73%
Particularization 3 8 11 0.57%
Substitution 0 0 0 0%
Transposition 16 25 41 2.13%
Variation 0 0 0 0%
Total 1056 864 1920 100%
Table 1. English-Spanish translation of cultural terms.

As can be noticed, students used the procedures of adaptation (24.32%), description (22.03%) and borrowing
(18.23%) much more often than the rest. Each of these three procedures is illustrated in the following translations:
(a) ...cups of tea were ever brewed ® ... ‘preparaban café'.
(b) the Christmas roast ® ‘la cena de Navidad típica en Gran Bretaña'.
(c) It dropped the prefix "Grammar"... ® ‘Perdió el prefijo Grammar'.
In the case of adaptations, students have opted for terms in the TL whose function is similar to that of the SL term,
and have adapted them to the TC, as in (a) above. In the case of descriptions, students sometimes paraphrased the
meaning of the cultural linguistic expression, probably having in mind to produce a TL text that reads more fluently.
More than half of the descriptions used by the students, however, were in footnotes or translator's notes, as can be
appreciated below. Footnotes can indeed help readers to understand the SC but, when the translation is sprinkled
with many footnotes, the end product may not appeal to the common reader:
Note: Tom y Ruth Pinch son personajes de la novela Martin Chuzzlewit, escrita por Charles Dickens.
Note on Commercial School: with the aim of training boys for the civil service, the army, the world of commerce and
university.
As regards borrowings, it is worth mentioning that in most cases students' translations were certainly ‘foreignizing'
(Venuti 240) and the end product did not seem natural and coherent at all, as in the following translation:
El "venison pasty," de Scott o Ainsworth [...] El beefsteak pudding hecho por Ruth.
Their choice could, however, be justified in some translations, as stated by Mayoral, who argues that, depending on
the aim and the potential readers of the translation, SL cultural features can be primarily preserved due to stylistic
reasons, whereas transforming and adapting them to the TC aims at obtaining a fluent discourse and ensuring easy
readability (88).
Students also made recourse, quite often, to other three procedures: equivalence (12.18%), explanation (7.60%) and
literal translation (6.14%). Significant examples could be:
(a) Beefsteak pudding ® ‘el lechazo'.
(b) It had not the gracious antiquity of Eton or Winchester, nor, on the other hand, had it a conscious policy like
Lancing, Wellington... ® ‘Sawston no tenía la noble antigüedad de famosas instituciones como Eton o Winchester, ni,
por otra parte, la orientación progresiva de Lancing, Wellington y otras instituciones modernas'.
(c) Sawston School had been founded by... ® ‘Swaston School había sido fundada por'...
Instances of compression (2.60%) were used, normally, to omit elements that were problematic, i.e. not translating the
term:
It was then a tiny grammar-school... - ‘Era entonces un pequeño colegio'...
The use of compensations (1.20%) and generalizations (0.26%) was surprisingly low. Here is one of the cases of
generalisation:
To use the Fotheringay's own diction ® Para utilizar la propia dicción del lugar.
Comparing both texts, it is worth noting the greater amount of borrowings and descriptions used when translating text
1, probably with the intention of maintaining the typical and perhaps exotic names (in the case of borrowings), or to
explain British dishes and all the references to Dickensian characters as well as the literary works that appear in the
poem.
Table 2. shows the procedures used to translate the 20 cultural terms from Spanish into English.
Procedure T3 T4 Total (%)

Adaptation 98 79 177 9.21%
Borrowing 403 318 721 37.55%
Calque 0 0 0 0%
Compensation 0 14 14 0.72%
Compression 87 46 133 6.92%
Description 226 320 546 28.43%
Equivalence 82 110 192 10%
Explicitation 46 26 72 3.75%
Generalization 15 8 23 1.19%
Literal translation 3 24 27 1.4%
Modulation 0 1 1 0.05%
Particularization 0 0 0 0%
Substitution 0 0 0 0%
Transposition 0 14 14 0.72%
Variation 0 0 0 0%
Total 960 960 1920 100%
Table 2. Spanish-English translation of cultural terms.

The procedures with a higher rate of use were borrowings (37.55%) and descriptions (28.43%), as illustrated in the
next examples:
(a) El inicio de los sanfermines... ® ‘the start of the sanfermines...'.
(b) La romería era muy tradicional ® ‘The romería was very tradicional'.
(c) El chupinazo del 6 de julio ® ‘The chupinazo (burst of fireworks) of the 6th July'.
(d) ...los prepararon de domingo ® ‘...dressed them very smart, as in their Sunday best'.
In some occasions, however, none of the two procedures seemed appropriate:
(a) ...ir todos juntos a merendar...® ‘to go all together to merendar'...
(b) compró el periódico de la tarde anterior y una revista taurina... ® ‘he bought the previous evening's newspaper and
a bull-fighting magazine, which is very typical for those who like bullfighting'...
In the first example, the borrowing could perhaps be avoided, using some similar term in English, as ‘a picnic', ‘a mid-
afternoon snack' or even ‘something to eat'. The same can be said for the description or explicitation in the second
example, which seems totally unnecessary.
As in the case of English-Spanish translation, students were also prone to resort to equivalence (10%), adaptation
(7.21%), compression (6.92%) and explicitation (3.75%), as can be observed below:
(a) a lo hecho, pecho: aquello ya no tenía remedio y, además, a burro muerto, cebada al rabo ® ‘it's no use crying
over spilt milk: there was nothing they could do about it and, besides, it's no good being wise after the event'.
(b) ...asciende por encima de la Casa Consistorial anunciando el inicio de la fiesta... ® ‘...rises up over the town hall
announcing the start of the feast...'
(c) En sanfermines también suenan el txistu, la gaita, las fanfarres y multitud de grupos ® ‘During sanferminesyou will
also hear other types of music and a multitude of groups of all types and qualities'.
(d) ...se pasó el resto de la mañana apretándole una perra gorda contra la picadura ® ‘she was the rest of the
morning pressing a "perra gorda", a coin that existed in Spain in those days, on the sting'.
None of the students used the procedure of calque, particularisation, substitution or variation, and only one of the
students used modulation:
También nos cansamos los demás y nos aguantamos. ¡Pues estaría bueno! ® ‘We're getting tired too and we're
putting up with it. That's not good!'
A summary and comparison of the procedures followed by the 96 students is presented in Figure 1. The black
columns indicate the procedures used when translating from English into Spanish and the values specified in the
shadowed columns correspond to the terms translated into English.
Figure 1. Overall results of the procedures used.
The frequent use of adaptations (in English-Spanish translation) and borrowings (in Spanish-English translation) is
evident. In the case of adaptation, which is probably the strategy that subverts the original more than the others, this
high use may be due to learners' greater awareness of the SL culture, which makes it easier for them to find cultural
equivalents. In the case of borrowings, the reasons for preserving the SC terms in their translations could be the
difficulties involved in back translation (or translation into a foreign language); but we can also perceive an attempt to
highlight the conventions of the SC as different from those of the TC, or even as some sort of maintenance of the SC
and resistance against the dominant TC.
Results also show some preference for descriptions. It seems that, when facing culture-specific terms, students do
really know what they imply or denote, but cannot always find an equivalent term in the TL, so they tend to describe it.
As regards equivalence, compression, explicitation and literal translation, there are no quantitatively significant
differences in the strategies used for the translation of texts into the native language and for the translation into their
foreign language. The small percentage of use of the other procedures (calque, compensation, generalization,
modulation, particularization, substitution, transposition and variation) could perhaps be explained by the fact that not
all strategies can be equally applied to culture terms.
Still, it is important to point out that the use of these translation procedures or strategies should not be viewed in
isolation, and that they need to be put into context. Also, one cannot consider some procedures as better or more
appropriate than others, since their use depends on the aim of the translation, the translator's attempt to subvert or
maintain the SC, the potential readers, the cultural distance between the SL and the TL, etc.
Finally, though it does not follow directly from the quantitative results presented in the previous paragraphs, reference
should be made to the fact that in many instances there was not much coherence in the translation method used by
the students. They translated several cultural terms having recourse, in the same text, to adaptations or cultural
equivalents, as well as borrowings, thus combining indiscriminately a foreignizing and a domesticating approach. In
some other occasions, one could also discern that students seemed to focus only on translation problems (the cultural
terms that had no equivalent in the TL), and not on the text as a whole and the coherence it should have.
4. Conclusion
The present paper has first made a quick reference to some theoretical aspects concerning cultural terms, mainly to
the most important typologies and classifications proposed, as well as the translation procedures or strategies that can
be used to translate these terms.
Despite the fact that translators have been carrying out their task for more than two thousand years, some scholars
(Santoyo, García Yebra, Yifeng, etc.) consider that, in some cases, translation is impossible, basically when one has
to translate poetic texts or those of a cultural nature. Of course, when "gaps" between two languages and cultures
exist, to achieve a perfect transfer will be very difficult, and cultural gaps certainly seem to prove the problematic
nature of translation. Yet, according to Kade (93), from the linguistic and communicative perspectives, everything
conceivable by the human mind must be capable of being expressed in any language. And, since anything that can be
said in one language can be expressed in another (Nida and Taber 4), we can infer that everything can be translated
from any given language into any other language. Therefore, the translation of any text is objectively possible, even if
there are different codifications, historically conditioned, resulting from the fact that not all speech communities are at
the same stage of evolution (Kade 93).
To overcome the difficulties and problems that cultural elements pose, the translator can use a wide range of
strategies, such as the ones synthesized in section 2. Many translation scholars consider them pivotal in the
translation process, but these strategies are not the universal panacea and studies on translation strategies and
procedures have been sometimes criticised. Some authors (Chuquet and Pallard 10, Kelly 133, Larose 18, etc.)
criticise the nature of these procedures, indicating that borrowings and calques, for instance, are not really translation
procedures, while others (especially adaptation) are beyond the limits of translation, or that there is no clear boundary
between them. Procedures have also been criticised arguing that knowing them is not useful for the translator and that
studies on the several types of strategies or procedures are mere labels used to designate what translators do
intuitively and what they have done for centuries, before linguists gave those procedures a name (Kelly 155).
Understanding and knowing when to apply such procedures, however, can be very helpful and methodologically
useful for students (Hurtado 43-44).
This paper has also shown the results of an empirical study, in which 96 students translated culture-bound literary
texts, in order to find out the problems they faced in translating 40 cultural terms and the strategies used to solve
them. Translating culture-specific concepts seems indeed a very challenging task and the choice of certain strategies
can reveal either the "subversiveness" of the translator (leading to a domestication of the SL text in the TC, translating
in a fluent and invisible style so as to minimize the foreignness of the text), or the resistance and maintenance of the
SC (leading to foreignization, maintaining the dominant cultural values of the SL and the ideological dominance of the
SC). In this study, results show a clear preference for borrowings, descriptions and adaptations (both in direct and
back translation), so one can say that this typifies, to a greater or lesser extent, students' both subversion and
preservation of SC elements.
In some occasions students should also try, perhaps, to have some "freedom" when translating these cultural
elements, since their main problems were basically that they either (1) focused primarily on the cultural elements and
not on the language and the style of the text, just trying to ‘adapt' the SL culture to the TL culture, or (2) they focused
mainly on language and style, preserving elements of the original culture and not rendering the message accurately
(Venuti 240). A balance between domesticating and foreignizing the TL text would be the most appropriate, though, in
line with Levine, we can say that, to a certain extent, "a translation must subvert the original" considering "what is lost
and can be gained in crossing the language barrier" (Levine 83).
Of course, the results obtained here cannot be extrapolated, since they would probably have been different if we had
analysed a larger number of literary translations, a larger number of students, a greater variety of texts, or even if
more languages and cultures had been involved. It would have been equally interesting to compare students'
translations with the ones carried out by renowned translators, but that certainly exceeds the scope of this paper.
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Intercultural relations between Arabs and Israeli Jews as reﬂected in Arabic translations of modern
Hebrew literature
Mahmoud Kayyal
Tel Aviv University, Israel
Lecture 7 Theory
English and Arabic Linguistics
In class: A lecture on the relationship between translation, language and linguistics
Jakobson has been closely associated not only with formalism but also linguistics, anthropology and psychoanalysis.
He is known as being the founder of the Prague Linguistic Circle. He is also known to have coined the term Structural
Linguistics.
In his essay, Jakobson states that meaning of a word is a linguistic phenomena. Using semiotics, Jakobson believes
that meaning lies with the signifier and not in the signified. Thus it is the linguistic verbal sign that gives an object its
meaning. Interpretation of a verbal sign according to Roman Jakobson can happen in three ways: intralingual,
interlingual and intersemiotic. In the case of intralingual translation, the changes take place within the same language.
Thus a verbal sign (word) belonging to a particular language is replaced by another sign (word) belonging to the same
language. Interlingual translation on the other hand can be seen as replacing a verbal sign with another sign but
belonging to a different language.
The last kind of explanation of verbal sign that he talks about is the intersemiotic translation. Here more than focusing
on the words, emphasis is on the overall message that needs to be conveyed. Thus the translator, instead of paying
attention to the verbal signs, concentrates more on the information that is to be delivered. Roman Jakobson uses the
term ‘mutual translatability’ and states that when any two languages are being compared, the foremost thing that
needs to be taken into consideration is whether they can be translated into one another or not. Laying emphasis on
the grammar of a particular language, he feels that it should determine how one language is different from another.
In the essay, Roman Jakobson also deals with the problem of ‘deficiency’ in a particular language. Jakobson believes
that all cognitive experiences can be expressed in language and while translating whenever there is a lack or
‘deficiency’ of words’, ‘loan words’, ‘neologisms’ and ‘circumlocutions’ can be used to fill in this lack.
Reinforcing the fact that one of the factors that translation has to take care of is the grammatical structure of the target
language, Jakobson believes that it becomes tedious to try and maintain fidelity to the source text when the target
language has a rigid grammatical framework which is missing in the source language. Jakobson, in his essay also
brings in the relationship between gender and the grammar of a particular language.
Required reading:
Outlining a new linguistic theory of translation

Massimiliano Morini
University of Udine — Italy
Lecture 8 Theory
English and Arabic Translating creative writings
In class: A lecture on the translation of creativity and creativity in translation
Translation and Creativity, Margaret Rogers, University of Surrey, UK
Over the last decade, an increasing interest in the relationship between writing and translation has been evident in the
scholarly literature and in related academic activities. Whilst the focus of this attention has been on literary translation,
through, for example, the growing number of international conferences on writers and translation (including bilingual
writers and selftranslation) and the publication of journal papers, monographs and edited collections, work has also
been emerging on the relationship between writing and specialist translation. This work often shows a practice-riented
approach, e.g. in the form of discussions on LSP (Language for Special Purposes) translator training curricula, the
interrelationship between professional communication and specialist translation, and the impact of English as a lingua
franca and the supposedly homogenising effect of „internationalisation‟. Two important and related factors suggest a
more synergistic relationship between literary and LSP translation. Firstly, it is now widely acknowledged that no
writing occurs in a socio-cultural or linguistic vacuum, i.e. all writing is intertextually related, genres of creative writing
being no exception.
The commonly claimed dichotomy between literary and the sometimes pejoratively named „commercial‟ translation
thus becomes more of a cline, even shared with so-called „original‟ writing. Secondly, if we regard translation of any
kind as the creation of an act of communication rather than as an act of transfer, then the translator is acknowledged
to operate in a decision-making space related to both the construction of meaning in the Source Text (ST) and the
creation of meaning in the Target Text (TT). In this paper, competing notions of creativity will be explored and related
to LSP writing and LSP translation, including recent developments in the professional world of LSP translation − such
as the ubiquitous use of translation technology − which may, however, speak against the overall thesis presented
here.
Creativity
Any attempt to arrive at a consensual definition of „creativity‟ is fraught with difficulty, as Perteghella & Loffredo remind
us in their volume on literary translation and creative writing: “Theorizing creativity has always been a daunting task,
as the variability of this concept seems to exert a certain resistance to theoretical efforts” (2006: 8). Writing on legal
translation and creativity, Pommer even attributes “mystical connotations” to the term „creativity‟ (Pommer 2008: 355).
In fact, the very vagueness of the concept, i.e. its lack of consensual precision, is characteristic of scholarly attempts
to capture other socially rooted concepts such as „culture‟, and forms an important disciplinary component of
discourse in the arts and humanities where key notions are constantly re-examined, reshaped and reconceptualised.
Whilst natural scientists may join in the debate about the nature of creativity, they are unlikely to treat definitions of the
atom, the molecule or the cell in the same way. Precision seems to be a goal of natural scientists whereas vagueness
provides a creative space for understanding social phenomena.
In this context, I have chosen to focus on attempts to understand creativity in the specific context of translation. A
number of authors such as Kussmaul (2000), Ńarčević (2000), Byrne (2006), Kenny (2006) and Pommer (2008) have
dealt with the subject, including from a nonliterary perspective. Characteristic features of creativity − clearly not
discrete − are said to be: variation, novelty, filling in gaps, divergence, problem-solving and problem-finding, lateral
thinking, making links between apparently unconnected items. The attempt to identify rather specific features of a
creative profile, a number of which we assume are teachable, contrasts with the more popular understanding of
creativity as the innate ability of a particularly gifted individual. In itself, of course, this popular understanding actually
belies the focused reading and writing work which authors of literary texts undertake, and denies the intertextuality of
„original‟ work.
Some translation scholars even present the nature of the translation task as forcing the translator into linguistic and
cultural creativity as a result of the unavoidably different linguistic “means” available in the Source Language and the
Target Language on the one hand (Neubert 1997: 19), and the different “cultural frameworks” on the other hand
(Pommer 2008: 358). In this view, the translator, even of the most banal text, is undertaking a creative task and
cannot therefore be seen as a mere transcoder, although the nature of the ST conventionally exercises a powerful
influence on the way in which the complexity of the translation task is perceived.
Translation and writing: the concept of the ST

The ST-TT relationship is fundamental to the concept of translation. Indeed, it is this close intertextual relationship
which leads to notions of translation as derivative or dependent − and therefore as not „creative‟. But this concept has
been problematised from a number of perspectives, not only from the point of view of creativity as in Neubert (1997)
and Pommer (2008). Firstly, the concept of pseudo or fictionalised translation is well known (cf. Toury 1995; 2005),
and further challenges the assumed distinction “between translations and original works, translators and authors”
(Robinson 2001: 185). Secondly, referring to an LSP context, Ńarčević (2000) points to the bilingual and bilegal
practice in Canadian law in which bilingual drafting in English and French, involving the translator, undermines the
concept of a ST which is remote from the TT in both time and space. My third example is that of the Bible, a sacred
text but one which nevertheless requires specialist knowledge of various subject fields (cf. for instance, Rogers 2006:
13) and which is often adapted from earlier translations for new audiences and/or political or religious purposes. The
King James Bible (1611, also known as the Authorised Version) is a case in point (cf. Bobrick 2001). And yet, this
work is widely seen both as a translation (not a revision) which has but one „original‟ ST (in itself a problematic
assumption, cf. Bobrick 2001: 245-6) and as an implied original which is “arguably the greatest work of English prose
ever written” (BBC 2011).
These three examples − from the literary field, the legal field and the sacred − point to the blurring of ST-TT concepts
as well as to a variety of means for text production. Taken with the established intertextuality of „original‟ works (cf.
below), a complex set of relations between texts of all kinds is indicated. To this complex mix could also be added
contemporary phenomena such as relay translation, English templates for subtitles, adaptations, „versions‟ of plays
based on literal translations and translation memory, to which we return below.
Translation and writing: autonomy or dependency?

Translation is not an autonomous activity or product, since it enjoys various intertextual relations with prior texts, but
not necessarily exclusively with a single ST. However, neither can „original writing‟ be regarded as autonomous: it
does not emerge from an intertextual vacuum. Hemingway‟s transposition of a newspaper article in the New York
Times into a short story, and Jean Rhys‟s construction of a history for „the mad woman in the attic‟ in Charlotte
Brontë‟s Jayne Eyre (Wide Sargasso Sea, 1966)3 are cases in point (cf. Doloughan & Rogers 2006). The „writer‟ and
the „translator‟ are both readers (of other texts) and creators (of new texts). As Perteghella & Loffredo state: Texts do
not occur out of nothing, but recur as altered forms of pre-existing texts – as intertexts; there are no origins and there
is no closure, but an ongoing textual activity consisting of a host of complex transactions, in which texts are
assimilated, borrowed and rewritten. (2006: 4).Creative writers look to previous texts (including audiovisual texts,
images, paintings) for material which in some way shapes their own creation. LSP translators look not only to the ST,
and to previous translations, but also to „original‟ texts with appropriate design features (as defined by the translation
brief) in the target language/culture. These „original‟ LSP texts have, in turn, themselves been shaped by other texts
in the target language/culture as well as by previous translations e.g. the introduction of new genres such as „popular
science writing‟ in Arabic (Merakchi, unpublished PhD work, University of Surrey).The insights necessary for
producing a piece of writing which is a translation are indicative of the reciprocal benefits which translation can have
for future writing, and, as I have been arguing, which writing can have for future translations. Referring to his own
experience as a Translation and writing: autonomy or dependency?
Translation is not an autonomous activity or product, since it enjoys various intertextual relations with prior texts, but
not necessarily exclusively with a single ST. However, neither can „original writing‟ be regarded as autonomous: it
does not emerge from an intertextual vacuum. Hemingway‟s transposition of a newspaper article in the New York
Times into a short story, and Jean Rhys‟s construction of a history for „the mad woman in the attic‟ in Charlotte
Brontë‟s Jayne Eyre (Wide Sargasso Sea, 1966)3 are cases in point (cf. Doloughan & Rogers 2006). The „writer‟ and
the „translator‟ are both readers (of other texts) and creators (of new texts). As Perteghella & Loffredo state: Texts do
not occur out of nothing, but recur as altered forms of pre-existing texts – as intertexts; there are no origins and there
is no closure, but an ongoing textual activity consisting of a host of complex transactions, in which texts are
assimilated, borrowed and rewritten. (2006: 4).Creative writers look to previous texts (including audiovisual texts,
images, paintings) for material which in some way shapes their own creation. LSP translators look not only to the ST,
and to previous translations, but also to „original‟ texts with appropriate design features (as defined by the translation
brief) in the target language/culture. These „original‟ LSP texts have, in turn, themselves been shaped by other texts
in the target language/culture as well as by previous translations e.g. the introduction of new genres such as „popular
science writing‟ in Arabic (Merakchi, unpublished PhD work, University of Surrey).The insights necessary for
producing a piece of writing which is a translation are indicative of the reciprocal benefits which translation can have
for future writing, and, as I have been arguing, which writing can have for future translations. Referring to his own
experience as a novelist and literary translator, Tim Parks explains the value of translation to his authorial work as
follows:Writing my own novels has always required a huge effort of organisation and imagination; but sentence by
sentence, translation is intellectually more taxing.
On the positive side, the hands-on experience of how another writer puts together his work is worth a year‟s creative
writing classes. (Tim Parks, The Observer, 25 April 2010) Parks‟ preference for translating over writing classes should
not necessarily be seen as a rejection of the potential value of such classes, particularly for novice writers and
translators: translation forces close reading of the text, background research and a search for coherence. Anecdotally,
stories are told by translators of an author‟s lack of insight into their own writing when questioned by the translator.
But there is no reason that creative or technical writing classes cannot simulate activities such as close reading and
textual analysis with an emphasis on meaning construction and on coping with the relative indeterminacy of different
genres. Whilst it is certainly the case that some genres are more determinate than others, e.g. contracts, because
their function is to closely regulate human behaviour in defined
circumstances with enforceable sanctions for non-compliance, translation difficulties may lie elsewhere, in this case, in
the handling of two legal systems for which innovative solutions are often required. In considering creativity in
technical translation, Byrne (2006) even suggests that the suppression of ST creativity can in itself be creative if it
improves the usability (by which I understand fitness-for-purpose) of the translation in the target culture. The example
he gives is of instructional texts in which different kinds of ST variation (including synonymy, switching between 2nd
and 3rd person verbs, and main/subordinate clause ordering) are removed in the translation, thereby prioritising clarity
over elegance of expression. Whether we agree with Byrne‟s understanding of creativity here or not, his analysis
points to a useful distinction, namely, that between process and product, in which the product may appear uncreative
(i.e. repetitive, lacking in „style‟, uninteresting), but the process which gives rise to it is not, in that various options are
evaluated by the translator in the context of the purpose of the TT, genre conventions in the target language, audience
profile and cognitive issues such as iconicity.
Technology and creativity

If we are considering creativity in the context of the contemporary professional translation market, then it is clear that
various technology-driven developments need to be considered. The aim here is usually greater speed − leading to
cost reductions − effected through degrees of automation, usually elevated by arguments about improving quality by
means of greater consistency at all levels of the text. A number of trends are associated with these developments,
including the „internationalisation‟ of texts in preparation for localisation for particular markets. Hence, texts may be
written using highly standardised syntax and consistent terminology, and are bereft of figurative language (notably
metaphors) and of culturally specific items: in other words, they are the very antithesis of what is normally regarded as
a creative text. English, often the language used in such internationalised texts, is also the language used to create
subtitling templates which are the basis for audiovisual translation into other languages. The word „homogenisation‟
comes to mind.A further development is that of the re-use of previous translations in Translation Memory (TM)
software, one of the most pervasive translation tools used in the professional market. In cases where a memory
already exists for a particular client, the translator‟s task is reduced to that of accepting, rejecting or modifying
„proposals‟ for the translation of segments which fall short of a pre-defined threshold of match between the ST
segment in the memory and the new ST segment. In many cases translators do not engage with the whole text, but
rather with decontextualised segments. In cases where a memory has to be created in the absence of previous
translations, it could be assumed that the translation task is no different from a translation conducted without the TM
software. However, there is some suggestion that in order to optimise the re-usability of the memory, cohesive ties
need to be weakened in the translation so that segments (usually sentences) can be more easily re-ordered or
isolated in future translations (cf. Rogers 2011). Hence, the technology may be shaping the nature of text, although it
is still the translator creating the memory who has to interpret how this is to
be implemented in specific cases.
Required reading:
A literary work — Translation and original: A conceptual analysis within the philosophy of art
and Translation Studies
Leena Laiho
University of Turku, Finland
Lecture 9 Theory
English and Arabic Translating specialized texts
In class: A lecture on the nature specialized language, writing and translation as well as terminology.
The general goal of this lecture is to present the introductory information needed to address the translation of technical
texts from and into English. There is a wide variety of these kinds of texts: scientific articles, advertisements,
brochures, catalogues, product user manuals, company newsletters, installation, use, and maintenance manuals
intended for operators, press releases, presentations, scripts, and web sites. All of these texts share a common
characteristic: the use of terms from one or more special languages, which the translator must therefore identify. The
translator must then recreate the meaning of the English text using the terminology and register appropriate to the
type of audience for which the document is intended.
This requires him to understand the technical level of the English or Arabic text in order to conduct the necessary
terminological research, determine the correct translations of all special terms, establish what is the main type of
reader for which the text was created, and on this basis decide what the technical level of the translated text must be
and perform the translation using the terminology and register best suited to convey the information and message
presented by the Arabic or English text.
Multilingualism is one of the foundations of the United Nations (UN) and translation of UN documents plays an
important political and practical role in the functioning of the Organization. This paper argues that UN translation is a
specialized area of translational activity and has its own characteristics and special demands necessitated and
dictated by the nature of the work of the UN and international diplomacy and developed over the sixty years’ history.
Thus, UN’s experience in translation can provides an important insight and lesson for translators, translation
organizations and translation educational institutions. This article focuses on the nature of translation at the UN as a
specialized translation activity and describes and discusses some of the linguistic and institutional features of UN
translation.
Required reading (1)
Technical terms in the EAPCOUNT

Hammouda Salhi, University of El Manar
Item 1: resolution
In the third layer of the diagram tree of resolution there were 12 grand-daughters (Figure 4.12 above). Table
4.28 shows that the hypothesis is not confirmed in the English language as 10 out of 12 (47%) were suggested by
OET as synonymous with the mother item resolution. Therefore, resolution is a case of ‘very good overlap’. The 10
items were decision, award, determination, solution, solving, analysis, settlement, work out, separation, and
adjudication. The results were also revealing of equivalence prototypicality and creativity instances. Table 4.28
indicates the most prototypical equivalents of resolution through the synonymy test.
The equivalent ‫ تسوية‬came first as 4 (out of the 10 items mentioned above) of its original items were suggested
by OET as synonyms of resolution. The item ‫ قرار‬was found to be the second most prototypical equivalent (3 original
items). The least prototypical equivalent and the most creative equivalent was ‫ استشراب‬with zero English original
suggested as synonym of resolution.
Table 4.28
Synonymy-based prototypical equivalents of resolution in the EAPCOUNT
EQYUIVALENTS NS OET %
1. ‫تسوية‬ 4 20 40
2. ‫قرار‬ 3 10 30
3. ‫حل‬ 2 10 20
4. ‫تحليل‬ 1 10 10
5. ‫استشراب‬ 0 0 0
NS=Number of Synonyms
This finding of prototypical equivalents was expected. Though the item resolution does not confirm the present
hypothesis, it showed that was a big space of overlap between both phenomena and that within a polysemy context, a
synonymy test can reveal fresh insights into the use of items as far as their prototypical and creative levels are
concerned.
Figure 4.12: Equivalence diagram tree for the mother item resolution
Item 2: exercise
The item exercise supports the hypothesis that polysemy and synonymy are two faces of the same coin. Eight
items out of 10 (80%) were found to be synonymous with the item exercise, these are: work, activity, maneuver,
training, drill, operation, practice and move (Figure 4.13). These results also indicated the fact that when polysemy
overlaps greatly with synonymy, it becomes difficult to identify prototypical equivalents and creatively used
equivalents. Table 4.29 below shows that all the equivalents had either 1 or 2 back original items in English.
Table 4.29
Synonymy-based prototypical equivalents of exercise in the EAPCOUNT
1. ‫عملية‬ 2 8 2121
2. ‫نشاط‬ 1 8 11
3. ‫ممارسة‬ 2 8 2121
4. ‫مناورة‬ 1 8 11
5. ‫تدريب‬ 1 8 11
The two equivalents which did not have daughters in the tree (Figure 4.13) were ‫ تمرين‬and ‫بذل‬. The verb ‫ بذل‬had some
other back verb originals such as to make as in ‫ تبذل مجهودات‬efforts are being made. The other item ‫ تمرين‬was likely to
be the most prototypical equivalents of exercise as they had no other back original in the English subcorpus but
exercise itself (Appendix L). Though all of the equivalents, except ‫تمرين‬, were unlikely to be prototypical, they were
expected, since they were not used idiosyncratically or creatively in the EAPCOUNT.
Figure 4.13: Equivalence diagram tree for the mother item exercise
Item 3: recruitment
Unlike exercise, the item recruitment does not support the hypothesis that polysemy and synonymy are two
faces of the same coin. Table 4.30 below shows that only 2 items out of 12 (16%) were found to be synonymous with
the item recruitment, namely employment and enrolment (Figure 4.14). This item was found to be the least noun
where polysemy and synonymy overlap.
Table 4.30
Synonymy-based prototypical equivalents of recruitment in the EAPCOUNT
1. ‫تجنيد‬ 2 1 10
2. ‫شغل‬ 0 1 0
3. ‫تعيين‬ 0 1 0
4. ‫استقدام‬ 0 1 0
5. ‫توظيف‬ 2 1 10
These two Arabic items could be suggested as the most prototypical equivalents of recruitment in the EAPCOUNT. In
the case of recruitment, it was difficult to suggest an Arabic item as the least prototypical though 3 out 45 equivalents
did not display back originals in OET dictionary. All of the 5 equivalents had several back originals in the English
subcorpus (Appendix L).
Figure 4.14: Equivalence diagram tree for the mother item recruitment
Item 4: sustainable
Though in the third layer of the diagram tree of sustainable there were 15 grand-daughters (Figure 4.15), no
one of them was suggested by OET as synonymous with the mother item sustainable. Therefore, this item does not
support the hypothesis that polysemy and synonymy are two faces of the same coin. Sustainable is a case of ‘very
low overlap’. This item is the least adjective where polysemy and synonymy overlap. It looked like OET did not
account sufficiently for this entry. The only synonym suggested was sustainability, which is the noun form of this
adjective and could not be taken as a proper synonym in this study though it was generated by the equivalent ‫استمرارية‬
in Figure 4.15 below.
Figure 4.15: Equivalence diagram tree for the mother item sustainable
Item 5: Senior
Table 4.31 above shows that the adjective senior supports the hypothesis that polysemy and synonymy are
two faces of the same coin. Five items out of 8 (62 %) were found to be synonyms of the item senior. These were: old,
high, major, chief, and large (Figure 4.16). Therefore, senior is a case of excellent overlap. Like most of the previous
items, this finding was also revealing of equivalence prototypicality instances. Table 4.26 clearly indicates that the
most prototypical equivalents of senior through the synonymy test is ‫ كبير‬which generated 80% of the synonyms.
Table 4.31
Synonymy-based prototypical equivalents of senior in the EAPCOUNT
1. ‫كبير‬ 4 1 80
2. ‫قديم‬ 2 1 10
3. ‫عالي‬ 2 1 20
4. ‫رفيع‬ 1 1 10
This finding of prototypical equivalents was not surprising in a corpus dominated by texts of diplomatic nature, though
there were so many occurrences where the equivalent ‫ كبير‬was a translation of at least 5 English items other than
senior (Figure 4.16 and Appendix L). When senior was used to designate a position, ‫ كبير‬was used quite often as its
equivalent, such as in the following examples:
a. Directory of Senior Officials ‫دليل كبار المسؤولين‬
b. Senior Advisory Group for the Review of International Civilian Capacities ‫فريق كبار االستشاريين المعني باستعراض‬
‫القدرات المدنية الدولية‬
c. senior internal auditor ‫كبير مراجعي الحسابات الداخليين‬
But the EAPCOUNT provided other counter-examples of position meanings translated by equivalents other
than ‫كبير‬. Consider the following examples found in the EAPCOUNT:
a. International Senior Citizens Association ‫رابطة الشيوخ الدولية‬
b. Senior Adviser for African Affairs ‫مستشار أقدم للشؤون األفريقية‬
Figure 4.16: Equivalence diagram tree for the mother item senior
The above findings implied three main conclusions. First, EAPCOUNT parallel data can make the complexity
of the polysemy problem more visible, especially in connection to synonymy. The data can show how polysemy can
contribute to the creation of synonymy relationships cross-linguistically and within the same language. Unlike
dictionaries, parallel data need just one entry to get insights into quite many other entries. The researcher can just
select a mother item to investigate its polysemous behavior, especially in new contexts. With each new context, the
given item is likely to display new polysemous meanings and, hence, new equivalents and new synonymous
meanings. Aware of the nuisances of the meanings of the same item, professional translators, like UN translators, are
likely to suggest a different equivalent, whether it is already established in dictionaries or a newly (or creatively) coined
meaning for a particular equivalent.
Second, the process of creating parallel item networks can also be of some help to understand the uses of
item uses in different contexts. These networks can show how items share a common core meaning but still they are
not good synonyms. They can also exemplify the process an item undergoes from prototypical meaning to contextual
meaning. Third, polysemy tree diagrams can introduce to novice translators and learners authentic contextual
relations between lexical items, and help them track the mechanisms that lead to the creation of synonymy and
polysemy relations. Traditional bilingual dictionaries provide equivalents out of their real contexts. It can be argued
that it is of a paramount importance now to consider compiling new bilingual dictionaries focusing on the complex
relationships connecting polysemy to synonymy.
English-Arabic bilingual dictionaries try to present cross-linguistic equivalence by listing several possible
equivalents, or briefly defining an entry. They, typically, do not go as far as guiding the user on his search by giving
information about which equivalent would be more adequately used in a given context. Tuebert (1999) notes that
bilingual equivalence between dictionary entries is less likely to be bi-directional. He, therefore, suggests a corpus-
based approach, which he exemplifies through data from monolingual corpora.
The cognitive shift in terminology and specialized translation

Pamela Faber Benítez, University of Granada
Lecture 10 Theory
English and Arabic Translation and corpora
In class: A lecture on translation, technology and corpora
The lecture offers an introduction to the principles and applications of translation memory and subtitling systems. It
includes a general presentation of basic technologies used by translators now and highlights key functionalities and
their integration in the professional translation workflow. Throughout the lecture you will be provided with information
about EAPCOUNT, described below, and other relevant translational copora.
The English-Arabic Parallel Corpus Of United Nations Texts (EAPCOUNT) is one of the biggest available parallel
corpora involving the Arabic language. It is intended as a general research tool, available beyond the present project
for applied and theoretical linguistic research. It started as a PhD research project at the Department of
Linguistics, University of Carthage, in 2006 by Dr. Hammouda Salhi, in collaboration with some of his students, and
completed in 2010. The whole description of the corpus was completed in 2009 and revised in 2010.
The EAPCOUNT project comes as a response to the unsatisfactory performance of general-
purpose dictionaries (Zanettin, 2009), especially when it comes to translation studies and comparative
research involving Arabic. It was also motivated by the increasing demands for cross-lingual research and information
retrieval (Salhi, 2010).
The EAPCOUNT comprises 341 texts aligned on a paragraph basis, which means texts in English along with their
translational counterparts in Arabic. It consists of two subcorpora; one contains the English originals and the other
their Arabic translations. As for the English subcorpus, it contains 3,794,677 word tokens, with 78,606 word types. The
Arabic subcorpus has a slightly fewer word tokens (3,755,741), yet differs greatly in terms of the number of word
types, which is 143,727. This means that the whole corpus contains 7,550,418 tokens.
The EAPCOUNT consists mainly, but not exclusively, of resolutions and annual reports issued by
different UN organizations and institutions. Some texts are taken from the authoritative publications of another UN-like
institution, namely the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU); representing 2.18% of the total number of tokens in the
English subcorpus. But the great majority of texts are issued by the General Assembly and Security Council (66.44%
SL tokens). The assumption here is that TL texts produced by these selected international bodies can be considered
astranslations of a high degree of reliability. All texts have been downloaded from first-hand sources (official websites
of these agencies) in order to make sure that the publications are all kept in their original form.
The EAPCOUNT texts cover a time-frame of about 14 years. The EAPCOUNT can be taken as a synchronic corpus,
even though Meyer (2002:46) maintains that “a time-frame of 5 to 10 years seems reasonable” for a corpus to fit into
the category of synchronic corpora. This is because almost all original texts and translations are issued by the same
bodies and are governed by strict norms and standards of writing and translation, which may arguably mean
that language change happens at a slower pace. In addition, 22.6% of the texts were produced in 2009, 16% in 2007,
and 13.4% in 2005, and 93.87% of the texts were produced over a period of 9 years, namely from 2001 to 2009, or
within the reasonable time-frame set by Meyer for a synchronic corpus.
Applied Linguistics, Corpora and Translation Studies

Hammouda Salhi, University of Carthage
This study addresses the link between applied linguistics (AL), corpora and translation studies. The
relationship between linguists and translators is, arguably, marked by mutual mistrust despite the rapprochement of
the two disciplines with the rise of AL and, particularly, corpus linguistics, on the one hand, and the corpus-based
approach to the study of translation, on the other. It could be argued that both linguists and translation scholars are
less willing to seek help, and learn, from each other in spite of some auspicious beginnings. Over history, translation
has been out of favor with linguists. This historical fact, Duff (1989: 5) argues, is linked to the fossilization of the
translation activity with time and its being exclusive of the involvement of linguists and other scholars in translation
studies.
The exclusion of linguists is premised on the loss of the “excitement of new discoveries” in translation studies
and its increasing association with “the tedium of book learning.” Duff adds that “what should have been a vital and
challenging discipline had degenerated in most schools into a pointless routine exercise, a chore, and a punishment”
(p.5). Before introducing corpus linguistics into translation studies in the onset of the 1990s, most translation scholars
were, in turn, likely to lay off linguistically-oriented approaches to translation. Snell-Hornby (1988: 14-15), for instance,
describes those approaches as "dated and of mere historical interest." There exist some translation scholars and
linguists (e.g. Baker, 1992; Bell,1991; Gutt, 1991; Hatim and Mason, 1990; Nida, 1964 ) who have drawn attention to
the advantages of applying linguistic theory to translation studies.
The interconnection between linguistics and translation was overwhelmed by reciprocal criticisms in spite of
the fact that there exist many areas of common interest and that they “have language and linguistic activity at the
centre” Malmkjær (1998, p. 2). No doubt that mutual cooperation can bring many advantages to both fields. The
wedding of the two disciplines is of the essence to the computerized environments of both linguists and translators.
Hence, conducting any serious research in any one of these fields without seeking information or learning from the
other seems difficult. The present study sets out to show how such cooperation is both necessary and feasible in the
study of lexical questions such as LA.
A common ground for such an innovative study has already been laid down by some newly emerging fields of
research like corpus linguistics and corpus-based translation studies, which are designed to study features of
language through translation and features of translations through their originals. According to Hasselgård (2010),
parallel corpora are new resources available to researchers, but they require new technology and new research
methods. A parallel (or translation) corpus is a corpus that contains the ‘same’ texts in more than one language. In
other words, a corpus with both original and translated texts, which allows researchers to have insights into the
languages compared or studied – insights that are less likely to be obtained through studies relying solely on
monolingual corpora. Aijmer and Altenberg (1996: 12) state that corpora can be used for a wide range of comparative
purposes and can enhance the understanding of language-specific, typological and cultural differences, as well as
language universal features.
Parallel corpora can serve researchers in a number of practical applications, such as in lexicography,
lexicology, terminology, language teaching, translation, and even pragmatics and discourse analysis. Translation
studies are increasingly based on parallel corpora, which is a clear indication that they can play a key role in this field
of research. Their use has even gone far beyond the boundaries of translation studies in that scholars with different
backgrounds are using them as rich and reliable resources to figure out the conventions and norms governing
language use. In addition, they are especially useful in the quest of the so-called translational universals, such as
normalization, explicitation, convergence and simplification (e.g. Baker, 1993; 1996; Kenny, 2001; Laviosa, 1998b;
Malmkjær, 2005).
Comparison is particularly efficient when exploring norms and universals. Firbas (1992: 13), for instance,
praises the contrastive method of studying language as “a useful heuristic tool capable of throwing valuable light on
the characteristic features of the languages contrasted.” Translation studies and contrastive studies look very similar
in the sense that “any act of translation has contrastive linguistics as one of its frames of reference” (Newmark, 1998:
58). Contrastive studies still have to face a methodological problem, that is, the ground on which the elements of the
contrast are to be based. In order to avoid or solve this problem, the study relied on translation equivalence at the
lexical level as reliable ground, for it is becoming now a typical tertium comparationis at very different levels, i.e., the
common ground on which a contrastive exercise can take place. Tuebert (2002: 191) goes even further to raise the
question on “How can one contrast vocabularies without using texts and their translations as a tertium comparationis.”
Such equivalence can be established at several levels in a bottom-up approach, that is, from words to texts and
discourses (Baker, 1992). One of the first critical steps trainee translators need to take, however, is to focus on
equivalence at lexical level as a starting-point in a training aiming at upgrading their skills in achieving collocational,
ideational, pragmatic, and stylistic equivalence. The revised approach to CMP to be discussed later in this chapter,
and data from parallel corpora can be a good start.
1. Corpus linguistics and parallel corpora
Corpus linguistics has been introduced into translation studies to investigate original and translated language.
The contribution of this new approach is that it tackles authentic examples of language in use as opposed to traditional
approaches to language as a mental construct (Chomsky, 1965). Carter (1998: 80) argues that if analysts want to
study lexical items in discourse, they should “move beyond constructed examples to a consideration of real texts.”
Corpus linguistics deals with contextually-defined units of meaning. Corpora are used to investigate language features
at three different levels. The first is the lexical level which addresses problems with lexical items. The second is the
syntactic level which explores sentence features. The third is discourse level which deals with cohesion and
coherence.
Computers and computational tools have paved the way to more reliable methods in the study of language
and linguistic research has now reached an interesting turning point in progress (Pustejovsky, 1995, p. 5). In the last
decades, NLP has seen a boom out of the wide-range development and availability of electronic resources
(Pustejovsky, 1991), both in terms of data availability and processing power. These developments have not only
opened up new promising possibilities for empirical research using statistical methods, but also posed new challenges
for existing methods.
Lexical databases and corpora have provided researchers with insights into the many phenomena of
language (Pustejovsky, 1991). Corpus linguists, for instance, extol the use of computers in linguistic research and
equate them with telescopes and microscopes (Kenny, 2001). The principal advantage that corpora can offer is the
availability of data, where in the past data were “limited to what a single individual could experience and remember”
(Sinclair, 1991:1). Thus, the idea of replacing human translators has been dropped after the bankruptcy of
investments in machine translation, especially in the United States (see, for instance, Maia, 2006). Yet, computers can
efficiently be used as tools in the study of both original and translated language.
Since the inception of the 1990s, corpus-based studies (Hanks, 1990; Laviosa, 1998a; Rudanko, 2000;
Sinclair,1996, 1998, 2000; Tognini Bonelli, 2002) have given rise to a paradigm shift in the ways language is
investigated and the translation process is conceptualized .The development of parallel corpora is one of the success
stories of corpus linguistics. As seen earlier, a parallel corpus is made up of texts in one language (Language A)
aligned with their translations in another language (language B). In the past few years, the compilation of corpora,
including parallel corpora, has become a common practice. The British National Corpus and the Europarl and the
European Parliament Proceedings Parallel Corpus are good examples of this kind of corpora which can be created
when linguists and translators cooperate (Meyer, 2002).
Available works aiming at building Arabic corpora are in most cases either unsuccessful or confined to service
the business world. Few trials of corpus building which had some applied purposes in Arabic such as the Arabic
Gigaword Corpus which is a monolingual corpus (400 million words) released in 2003 by the University of
Pennsylvania (LDC), comprising news articles from several news agencies, namely the Agence France Presse, Al-
Hayat news agency, An-Nahar news agency and Xinhua news agency. The corpus aims to help conduct research in
natural language processing, information retrieval and language modeling.
There are very few other attempts whose major aim is to construct parallel corpora involving Arabic. One of
the most significant parallel corpora is the English-Arabic Parallel Corpus released in 2003 by the University of Kuwait.
This parallel corpus contains a relatively small number of tokens (3 million words). It comprises publications from the
Kuwait National Council. As a general parallel corpus, it is too small to allow general research to be performed
reliably; especially that it has three different aims to achieve. These are contrastive studies, research in teaching
translation and lexicography.
2. Corpus-based translation studies
Since the emergence of corpus linguistics, Corpus-based Translation Studies (CTS) has gradually become
the fashion in applied linguistics and translation studies. Laviosa (1998a: 474) notes that “a growing number of
scholars in translation studies have begun to seriously consider the corpus-based approach as a viable and fruitful
perspective within which translation and translating can be studied in a novel and systematic way.” Kenny (2009: 62)
notices Researchers in CTS “began to integrate insights from related fields to enrich their analyses.” Their research
start to draw heavily on subject areas such as cognitive linguistics, narratology, semantics, and pragmatics. This
section will address CTS with a special focus on its methodological applications in the translation classroom.
Translators are called upon to provide practical answers to the real problems posed by translation practice.
Dependence on practice, however, cannot underestimate the role of theory in translation teaching. Theory is the
backbone of translation research, translation practice, translation teaching and testing. Any successful theory should
go into a sort of a round cycle with practice as both a point of departure and a point of arrival. Once this is fulfilled,
such a theory can serve not only the world of translation and translators, but also other adjacent but interconnected
disciplines, such as semantics, pragmatics and formal linguistics.
Calzada Pérez (2004), for instance, identifies seven basic trends in translation theory and classifies them in
accordance with their individual emphasis:
a. A focus on (mostly 'discrete' units of) languages (e.g. Jakobson, Vinay and Darbelnet)
b. A focus on the communicative nature of texts (e.g. Neubert and Shreve, House; and Hatim and Mason)
c. A focus on communicative aims through texts (e.g. Reiss; Vermeer; and Nord,)
d. A focus on the link between translation and target cultures (e.g. Even-Zohar; Toury; and Lefevere)
e. A focus on the 'new translation ethics' (e.g. Bassnett and Lefevere; Venuti; and postcolonialists)
f. A focus on the translator as a rational and emotional being (e.g. Seleskovitch; Krings; and Gutt)
g. A focus on translation corpora (e.g. Baker; Kenny, Kermy; and Laviosa)
Among the aforementioned trends, it is noticeable that the focus on translation corpora with theorists like
Baker (cf. 1995, 1996, and 1998), Kenny (cf. 1998 and 2001), Laviosa (1998a), and Zanettin (cf. 1998, 2002) is more
connected to translation practice. The corpus-based approach takes real texts and translations, and therefore, the
translation process as a departure and an arrival point. The study of the nature of translated texts by means of
corpora was advocated by Baker (1993) in which translation teaching is undergoing a revival. Students are now
confronted with copious amounts of translated or non-translated passages and texts (Zanettin, 1998).
Any corpus requires good cooperation between all concerned parties, including teachers, students,
researchers, domain experts, terminologists, linguists, translators or writers of various text types (Salhi, 2010a). With
the introduction of small bilingual comparable corpora in classroom activities, Zanettin (1998) aimed at enhancing
students’ comprehension and production skills. For instance, he used the Olympics corpus to teach students how to
enhance their translations of a short sports text and comment on the translational behavior of words like gradino
meaning ‘podium’, especially in expressions like "salire il gradino più alto del podio" (p. 4) (to climb onto the highest
step of the podium) by a search for the word podium*" in the corpus. This is, in fact, one way of employing corpora to
learn about the behavior of words and their polysemy and hence explore their creative and idiosyncratic uses.
The application of corpora is not restricted to the translation classroom. They can also be used in the
interpreting classroom. Shlesinger (1998) argues that the notion of comparable corpora in interpreting studies should
be extended through interpreted texts, original oral discourses delivered in similar settings, and written translations of
such texts. Overall, using corpora, whether in a translation or interpreting classroom, helps make a shift from a
teacher-centered classroom to a more learner-centered classroom (Salhi, 2010a). Corpora are inspiring because they
reveal facts about the process and product of translation which are new, consistent, and based on solid empirical
foundations.
3. Relevance of a UN parallel corpus
The characteristics of the translation work at the UN include, basically, five aspects. First, multilingualism is
one of the foundations of the (Didawi, 2005). Documents are produced in the six official languages, which are Arabic,
Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. These languages play an important political and practical role in the
functioning of the Organization and in achieving the aforementioned goals (Deborah & Xingmin, 2008). The UN
system uses and operates in these languages in its intergovernmental meetings and documents. The UN Secretariat,
however, uses two working languages, English and French. Statements made in an official language at a formal
meeting are interpreted simultaneously into the other five official languages of the body concerned by UN interpreters.
Most documents are drafted originally in English and then translated into the other languages as Figure 2.1 below
shows.
It is important to learn from the contact of these languages inside this organization as some of these
languages will come into contact with the traditional languages used in business and administration arenas in Tunisia,
namely Arabic and French. However, despite the long history of translation and multilingual practice at the UN, only
very few academic institutions keep ties with this international Organization with a view to sharing its experience
(Didawi, 2005).
Figure 2.1: Languages of original texts and languages of translations in the UN System
Second, the translation exercise there is governed by a set of norms. According to Toury (1995), translation, generally
speaking, is a norm-governed behavior and activity. Over a history of about 60 years now, the translation experience
at the UN brought about a set of strict translation norms, which led to standardized uses of technical terms and a
special style of writing. At the same time, UN translations also share many things with other types of translations and
can offer valuable lessons to non-UN translators, translation students and translation teachers.
Third, translation at the UN is well organized (Deborah & Xingmin, 2008). The Organization has equipped whole
divisions and departments with qualified translators, reviewers, revisers and division chiefs (Didawi, 2005). Similarly, a
very developed translation procedure is being adopted. It ranges from determining what documents to translate, the
actual translation work, the reviewing and revision phases to the final publication. Fourth, the UN has developed its
own style of writing that is different from any other style as it sprang from the nature of the texts translated there and
from the need to be able to effectively report new and unprecedented incidents, phenomena and inventions (Deborah
& Xingmin, 2008). It established the format for each category of documents. Over its history of over 60 years, the style
has been generally followed (Didawi, 2005). Fifth, the documents translated by UN translators are in most cases of a
specialized nature. Increasing specialization and in-depth consideration of technical questions means that new
technical terms are constantly being formed and inserted into special databases, glossaries and translation memories.
In addition, terminology lists in all languages are kept up to date. The following section outlines the importance of
other resources which were singled out in this study.

A corpus-based view of similarity and difference in translation
Mona Baker, Centre for Translation & Intercultural Studies, University of Manchester
Required reading (3) :

Corpus-based translation studies: Where does it come from? Where is it going?
Sara Laviosa, Department of Anglo-Germanic Studies, University of Bari, Italy
Lecture 11 Theory
English and Arabic Subtitling and audiovisual translation
In class: A lecture on Arabic subtitling
The Translatability of Interjections: A Case Study of Arabic-English Subtitling

Mohammad Ahmad Thawabteh, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem, Occupied Palestinian Territories
Abstract
This paper examines the translatability of Arabic interjections into English subtitling, illustrated with a subtitled
Egyptian film, State Security subtitled by Arab Radio and Television (ART). Theoretical framework regarding both
Audiovisual Translation (AVT) and interjections is first discussed. The significance of interjections is approached from
the perspective of technical and translation paradigms. The study shows that although technical issues limit the
subtitler’s choices, they have very little to do with translating interjections because they are typically short words. With
regard to translation, the study shows that the subtitler may opt for three major translation strategies: 1) an avoidance
of source language (SL) interjection whereby a SL interjectional utterance is translated into a target language (TL)
interjection-free utterance; 2) a retention of SL interjection in which SL interjection is rendered into a TL interjection;
and 3) an addition of interjection whereby SL interjection-free utterance is translated into a TL interjection.
Key words: interjections, translation strategies, audiovisual translation, subtitling
Résumé
Le présent article examine la traductibilité des interjections arabes dans un sous-titrage anglais. La recherche est illustrée par un
film égyptien, intitulé State Security (La sécurité d’État), qui est sous-titré par le réseau de radio et de télévision arabe (Arab Radio
and Television Network; ART). Le cadre théorique relatif à la traduction audiovisuelle (TAV) et aux interjections est tout d’abord
présenté. L’importance des interjections est abordée du point de vue des paradigmes techniques et traductionnels. L’étude montre
que, bien que les questions techniques limitent le choix des sous-titreurs, elles ont peu d’influence sur la traduction des
interjections, car celles-ci sont généralement des mots courts. En ce qui concerne la traduction, l’étude montre que le sous-titreur
peut opter pour trois grandes stratégies: 1) ne pas prendre en compte l’interjection dans la langue source (LS) et utiliser une
expression sans interjection dans la langue cible (LC); 2) prendre en considération l’interjection dans la LS et la traduire dans la
LC; 3) ajouter une interjection dans la LC alors qu’elle est absente dans la LS.
Mots clés : interjections, stratégies, traduction audiovisuelle, sous-titrage
1. Introduction
1
An approach to studying Audiovisual Translation (henceforth AVT) is typically eclectic in nature as it involves
technology, semiotics, linguistics and other areas of knowledge. This interdisciplinary approach does not allow
for a comprehensive review of AVT, but rather for a more specific area of study, that is, translating Arabic
interjections into English as far as this paper is concerned.
2
Very rapid and monumental technological development gave a new lease on life to AVT, and it is particularly
important to recognise that research in this area should be concomitant with such development for better
understanding of the extreme difficulties the translator is likely to face in this context. AVT includes various
means of language transfer, the most predominant are dubbing and subtitling (Baker 1998). The former covers
“the original voice in an audio-visual production by another voice” (Dries 1995: 9). The latter refers to a linguistic
practice that aims to offer a written text, normally at the bottom of the screen (Díaz Cintas 2001: 23). Gottlieb
(1992) describes subtitles as “transcriptions of film or TV dialogue, presented simultaneously on the screen [and]
usually consist of one or two lines of an average maximum length of 35 characters” (Baker 1998: 245; see also
De Linde and Kay 1999: 6). Suffice to say that AVT poses demands on the subtitler or dubber quite different from
those of text translation. This is due to the technical aspect usually involved in AVT. In this regard, Kruger
explains:
The difference between the skills required for subtitling and those required for translation, editing or interpreting, lies in the very
technical aspects of subtitling. Subtitling requires all the skills that other modes require in terms of text analysis, subject
expertise, language, awareness of context, quality control and so forth, but it also requires that the subtitler to be able to apply
these skills within very rigid constraints of time and space, while adhering to specific conventions of quantity and form.
Mastering and applying these skills take a long time.
Kruger 2008: 82
In dubbing, “translators are faced with more constraints than in written translation, notably constraints imposed
by the image. Especially noteworthy are lip-sync and isochrony” (Díaz Cintas 2008: 14). By corollary, the subtitler
or dubber needs to be sufficiently versatile to produce a high-quality AVT, not only linguistically, but also
technically. The need for further research on coping with such changes, with all of the linguistic and technical
problems they entail, has become rather urgent.
3
Beyond mere entertainment, subtitled films attract people due to their potential for narrowing the cultural gap in a
linguistically diverse audience share, and the film cognoscenti are more or less assumed to be a culture-phile of
other traditions. In terms of better intercultural exchange, one can assume that what politics cannot do, films can
do. Whilst politics has been a source of disenchantment and despair for many countries, films encourage
tolerance and understanding of an inherently diverse human nature. With a desire to watch more films and a
propensity for cultural awareness, Arab viewers, like many others, can watch at least three satellite channels
broadcasting Arab and foreign films around the clock, with subtitles either in Arabic (e.g., MBC2), or in English
(e.g., Rotana Cinema, ART, Aflam, etc.).
2. Interjections
4
There are two different viewpoints as far as interjections are concerned. Wilkins (1992: 120) says that
interjections are “semantically rich and have a definite conceptual structure” (see Ameka 1992; Wharton 2003),
and are treated as part of language. By contrast, Goffman (1981: 100) claims that an interjection is “a ritualised
act.” It ensues then that interjections “are not part of language, and are analysed in terms of the socio-
communicative roles they play, rather than any linguistic content they may have” (Wharton 2003: 40). Regardless
of being (not) part of language, interjections are notably means by which we communicate every subtle nuance
of our emotions. As a point of departure, it is necessary to propose a conceptual framework regarding
interjections both in English and Arabic.
2.1. English
5
Ameka (1992: 107) stresses the importance of interjections in intercultural communication, pointing out that they
“form a significant subset of those seemingly irrational devices that constitute the essence of communication.”
Although interjections have received less attention than other language components or, in the words of Cuenca
(2006: 20) “peripheral to language and similar to nonlinguistic items such as gestures and vocal paralinguistic
devices,” they play a crucial role in communication. Therefore, a better understanding of their function might be
of the essence to the tasks we would normally expect of a subtitler. Nevertheless, linguistics pays little attention
to the study of interjections as a minor word-class in comparison with other major word-classes. De Beaugrande
(2008: 296) points out that interjections have always been a neglected area in linguistics, and have received “jolly
little respect from most ‘grammars,’ even large ones” (see also Ameka 1992; Wharton 2003).
6
Methodologically, Carter and McCarthy speak of pragmatic markers as “a class of items which operate outside
the structural limits of the clause and which encode speakers’ intentions and interpersonal meanings.” They
include:
1. Discourse markers, which indicate the speaker’s intentions with regard to organising, structuring and monitoring the
discourse;
2. Stance markers, which indicate the speaker’s stance or attitude vis-à-visthe message;
3. Hedges, which enable speakers to be less assertive in formulating their message; and
4. Interjections, which indicate affective responses and reactions to the discourse.
Carter and McCarthy 2006: 105
7
Following on from the above, Schiffrin (1987: 31) states that discourse markers are “sequentially dependent
elements which bracket units of talk.” Carter and McCarthy distinguish Oh as an interjection and as a discourse
marker. As an interjection, Oh
[e]xpresses surprise, disappointment and pain. As a discourse marker, [it] is used in particular to respond to new information or
to indicate that a speaker has just discovered something surprising. The extent of the surprise can sometimes be indicated by a
marked tone of voice which is represented in writing by ohoh and oooh.
Carter and McCarthy 2006: 57
Interjections can also be derived from nouns as Norrick (2007: 6; italics in original) has found: “We find
interjections from nouns such as boy and shit, apparent verbs such as damn and fuck, and phrases
like goddamn fromgoddammit, often in reduced forms such as blimey from God blind me.” In addition, there are
“free-standing interjections which are common as back-channels or attention signals, especially forms
like wow, gee or jeez[1] andwhoa” (Norrick 2007: 6; italics in original).
8
De Beaugrande speaks of a hierarchy of interjections saying that they can be identified into three sub-classes:
1. Sound interjections whose function is realised by the way they sound. For example, ugh signals disgust, but can also be used
to overcome silence in printed media, as in cartoon;
2. Vowel interjections with one vowel sound; they can signal ameliorative orpejorative; and
3. Consonant interjections that can be drawn-out, most common of which are nasal [m] and [n] and liquids [l] and [r]. Consonant
interjections can be single-piece units and compressed like zounds from God’s wounds.
De Beaugrande 2008: 299-300
9
Smidt (2002: 197) takes the discussion a step forward, saying that an interjection can have various meanings,
“from indifference to comprehension, incomprehension, query, rebuttal, rebuke, indignation, impatience,
disappointment, surprise, admiration, disgust and delight in a number of degrees.”
2.2. Arabic
10
Farghal and Borini (1998: 156) argue that “[o]ne of the main roots of the problem of translating interjections from
Arabic into English seems to be the lack of theoretical linguistic research in Arabic regarding this area.” Such a
claim seems to be amorphous due to the voluminous literature on Arabic interjections. In fact, research on Arabic
interjections is as old as scholarly endeavour itself (see Sibawayhi 1966; Al-Dahdah 1992 and Hmouz 2007,
among many others). The esoterically inclined Arab grammarians would have left no stone unturned in their
search for further explanations of the many linguistic phenomena involved in Arabic. The problem has
nevertheless been obvious in the absence of clear-cut hierarchies for several linguistic phenomena including
interjections. The translation of the Qur’an highlighted a semantic import of the interjection ’ufin: “Whether one or
both of them attain old age in thy life, say not to them a word of contempt, nor repel them” (Ali 17: 23). [2] The
rebuffing interjection ’ufin, which translates “a word of contempt,” is the epitome of the many interjections which
permeate Arabic. The same interjection is translated into Ugh in Shakir’s translation and Fie in Pickthall’s
translation.[3]
11
Broadly speaking Arabic interjections fall into two major categories: those which evolve from verbs are
called ’asmā al-’f’āl (verbal nouns) and those which come from sounds are called ’asmā al-’a swāt (sound-
effect nouns). Arabic interjections share some features with those of English, but nevertheless differ in many
ways. Al-Dahdah (1992: 71) states that the functionality of ’asmā al-’f’āl is based on the meaning of the past
verb, e.g., haihāt (How impossible!); the conform verb, e.g., zih, and ’awwah (Wow!, Ouch!respectively); the
imperative, e.g., ’ihi (Hooray!); and what is improvised, e.g.,’ufin (Damn!).
12
Sound-effect nouns, however, are interjections used for the sounds of animals or human beings. For
example, kix (Ugh) is a sound-effect interjection that can be used to admonish a small child not to put strange
objects in his mouth.
13
Perhaps another view about interjection worth mentioning is that of Al-Tha‘albi (1972: 216). He speaks of pair
interjections or rhyming interjections. As can be shown in table 1 below, rhyming interjections may be universal.
14
That being the case, translating interjections from Arabic into English seems to be functionally and / or formally
feasible. For example, qih qih and da‘da‘ can be translated into English ha ha! and hip hip! respectively.
3. The Problem of Equivalence

15
The concept of equivalence is deeply rooted in translation studies. Many translation theorists and practitioners
argue that each language has its own peculiarities in terms of syntax, semantics, pragmatics, stylistics and
culture and exact equivalence is rather difficult, if not impossible. In this regard, Tytler (1790: 20) points out that
an “evaporation of the beauties of the original” is expected to occur in the course of translation.
16
With regard to Arabic and English, we argue that the lack of formal equivalence should be taken at face value.
First, whilst Arabic is a right-to-left joined-up language, whereby the letters of a single word can work by ligatures,
English is a left-to-right language. Secondly, the beginning of a book, a short story, etc. for a right-to-left
language reader is the ending for a left-to-right language reader, as is the reverse (see Thawabteh 2006: 187).
17
With this in mind, non-equivalency in translation from English into Arabic, or vice versa, seems to be taken for
granted. According to Pym:
Equivalence, no matter what its nature, does not simply exist between locales. Equivalences are created by internationalization
or translation of one kind or another. They are necessary fictions without necessary correlative beyond the communication
situation. In this sense, translation is not a mapping of one function onto another; it is a productive function in itself.
Translational equivalence is thus ultimately determined by what translators actually do or have done in the past, and not by
abstract comparisons between falsely discrete languages and cultures.
Nevertheless, since the problem of equivalence has been looming large in translation studies, there is a
consensus of opinion among translation theorists and practitioners that regards equivalence as a matter of
singular importance in translation (Nida 1964; Catford 1965; and Newmark 1988, among many others).
4. Problems of Translating Arabic Interjections

18
It is quite true that “[t]ranslation may be a cognate of the interjection in the source language,” (Aijmer 2002: 107)
and hence potential translation with minimal difficulties. For example, the English wow corresponds
phonologically to Arabic wāw. However, cognate words can only be related at morpho-phonological level, but not
at semantic or pragmatic level, as is the case with the Irish and Scottish Och. While it is used in English to
“express surprise at something, or to emphasize agreement or disagreement with what has just been said”
(Collins Cobuild 1995: 1140), in Arabic it is used with guttural sound, to shout at a baby not to tug at his mother’s
hair, for instance. The English attention getting sound ahem may be a cognate of Arabic ’ħim which serves more
or less the same meaning (see Farghal and Borini 1998: 157). Therefore, the essence of the problem of
translating interjections may be described in terms of pragmatic imports they would bear, which is likely to
befuddle the novice translator. In this regard, Farghal and Borini (1998: 156) speak of failure on the part of the
translators to abide by the pragmatic criteria of the interjection ya sātir (or alternatively ya sitīr), which can be
placed underan-nidā (vocative) inasmuch as Arabic theoretical linguistics demonstrates. Added to that, we
argue, is the problem of culture-specificity, that is, beingmaħram (a degree of consanguinity preventing
marriage – Wehr 1974) orghayr maħram (marriageable individuals) “permeates stratum of Muslim and Arab
societies, and most of socio-cultural practices of Arabs and Muslims are governed by relationship to women”
(Thawabteh 2008: 8). In Islamic context, using permission-taking formulae turns out to be obligatory as the
Qur’an states “O ye who believe! enter not houses other than your own, until ye have asked permission and
saluted those in them: that is best for you, in order that ye may heed (what is seemly)” (Ali 24: 27).[4]
19
Likewise, we previously touched on the translation of the Arabic imperative interjection waħiddūūūūh (for God’s
sake, be tolerant!), pointing out that the marked tone of voice evokes an interpretation alien to an English
speaker (Thawabteh 2006: 74). The translator’s strategy was based on reiterating [u] as Wahidduuuuh,[5] a
strategy which may express surprise in English (Carter and McCarthy 2006). Yet the diminishing or even
vanishing status of the interjection is clear-cut, probably due to the strategy employed. In Arabic, the reiteration of
[ū] is intended to highlight a socio-cultural practice by a Sufi adept uttering the interjection to procure a wide
range of physical and spiritual boons. In this respect, we explained:
The marked tone of voice […], which is represented in writing by repeating the letter [ū], is an indication of Islamic mysticism in
which mystics go through a kind of nascent spiritual practices, uttering this interjection with a drawn-out voice by reiterating the
Arabic letter [ū].
Thawabteh 2006: 74
As can be noted, the SL interjection indicates that a mystic is at pains to acquire equanimity. The functionality of
interjections in Arabic and the way they are dealt with in translation may pose a problem very much related to
pragmalinguistic issues and culture-specificity.
20
In terms of subtitling interjections, the switch from spoken to written language mode and all that aggro constitutes
a hindrance to the wheels of intercultural communication. Perego points out:
The transfer from spoken to written language […] entails the loss of many prosodic features inherent in the spoken code, such
as tone and modulation of the voice, regional accents or sociolinguistic markers (i.e., grammatical peculiarities), which are
important sociolinguistic indicators.
Perego 2003: 65
It ensues then that subtitlers may have a Sword of Damocles hanging over their heads in terms of the
technicalities of subtitling and special language conventions. The subtitler may successfully translate an
utterance, but s/he has to modify or even alter the translation so that it can mesh with the many technical
constraints of subtitling.
5. Translation Strategies
21
It is an oft-repeated truism that rendering a stretch of utterance successfully can help narrow the linguistic and
cultural gulf between different languages and cultures. This implies that the translator should be, or even must
be, fastidious in dealing with translation problems vis-à-vis translating language pairs in general and interjections
in particular. One might understand a given translation, but still not internalise it, and hence devising an
appropriate strategy turns out to be necessary. Scott-Tennent, Davies, et al. (2000: 108) define translation
strategies as “the steps, selected from a consciously known range of potential procedures, taken to solve a
translation problem which has been consciously detected and resulting in a consciously applied solution.”
Categorically, ostensible translation can observe either formal equivalence-based strategies or functional
equivalence-based strategies. Included under the former are literal translation and transliteration (see Catford
1965: 66; Nida and Taber 1969). It is worth mentioning that in the case of languages with little affinity, such as
Arabic and English, such strategies can result in grotesque translations. The latter, however, includes
transposition, translation by paraphrase, modulation, among many others. It may be proper to argue that
functional equivalence-based strategies are feasible solutions for facilitating communication between two
language pairs, particularly when it comes to translating interjections. It is necessary to consider the pragmatic
meaning of an interjection rather than its literal meaning.
22
Insofar as subtitling interjections is concerned, Chen describes the strategies to be employed in the course of
translation:
Using the same interjections repeatedly in the subtitle should be avoided. Second, Chinese counterparts, or similar Chinese
interjections, should be used if they are available; otherwise, Chinese interjections should be created based on Chinese word
formation principles. Third, swearwords should be toned down if the movie is for minors or a general audience; however, they
should be translated faithfully for an adult audience to show the tone of the movie.
Chen 1996, cited in Chen 2004: 119
23
Furthermore, Cuenca (2006) differentiates six strategies for translating interjections with particular reference to
dubbing:
 Literal translation (strategy a);
 Translation by using an interjection with dissimilar form but the same meaning (strategy b);
 Translation by using a non-interjective structure with similar meaning (strategy c);
 Translation by using an interjection with a different meaning (strategy d);
 Omission (strategy e);
 Addition of elements (strategy f).
Cuenca 2006: 27; italics in original
It follows that use of interjections in a communication exchange greatly assists the flow of communication, to the
point that in the case of non-existence between language pairs, interjection creation becomes highly
recommended in a translation activity. It should be borne in mind, however, that rarely do translators have
leeway to add interjections. In fact, Arabic uses the neologismwāw (from English wow). However, we may argue
against what Chen has proposed – frequent use of interjection should be avoided. In our view, the frequent use
of an interjection is governed by the extent to be expressed in a written mode, on the one hand, and availability
of the spatial dimension on the other.
6. Methodology
6.1. Significance of the Study
24
AVT is an embryonic academic discipline in the Arab World and only recently has it begun to gain momentum
and weight – Arab studies on AVT seem to be on the increase (see Athamneh and Zitawi 1999; Khuddro 2000;
Zitawi 2003 and 2008; Bahaa-Eddin 2006; Gamal 2008 and 2009). For instance, AVT is almost absent from the
curriculum of Palestinian universities offering translation programmes except for Al-Quds University[6] and from
the practices of local Palestinian channels (see Thawabteh 2009). This may signify a lack. With advances in
technology (e.g., internet, videogames, DVDs, teletext, etc.), subtitling possibilities are increasing.
25
By the same token, studies of Arabic interjections in relation to translation are rare as is the case in other
languages, perhaps with the exception of the study we refer to in this paper (Farghal and Borini 1998). A call was
made to study interjections in different languages (Ameka 1992: 116). The present paper is intended to shed new
light on AVT and interjections in the Arab world, and in so doing delineate a path for further research in Arabic
and other languages.
26
Hopefully, this paper will increase the Arab subtitlers’ awareness of AVT as a form of translation which attracts
widespread interest in many countries, and offer an insight into translating interjections. It is also hoped that the
paper will assist subtitlers to overcome problems which may arise from translating interjections.
6.2. Data Used in the Study
27
The present paper comprises a screen translation taken from the English subtitled version of the Egyptian
film ’Amn Dawlah subtitled by ART (1998) asState Security.[7] The rational behind choosing the film lies in the
various interjective structures it contains, which can be used for the sake of the study. Like many movies, State
Security has been broadcast on different Arab satellite channels and states-run televisions. A transcription of the
contextualised Arabic-loaded interjections is first made, taking into account the Egyptian dialect of the film. For
the purpose of the study, a sample of 10 interjections, identified by the researcher as posing difficulties when
translated into English, was chosen.
28
In the film, moments of poignancy are heartfelt when Samiha, convicted of murdering her father-in-law after he
raped her, was sentenced to death. Nevertheless, she was given a heaven-sent opportunity, that her death
sentence would be commuted into a release on condition that she agrees to work as an agent for Egyptian
intelligence; she was deeply relieved and would not allow such an opportunity to slip through her fingers. As an
agent recruited by Egyptian intelligence, she worked against miscreants and the lunatic fringe. She confirmed her
knack for bringing a hardened criminal to justice and for capturing international terrorists.
7. Analysis of the Data and Discussion

29
The theoretical framework established thus far requires that we examine particular examples in order to further
corroborate and diversify our argument. It has been found that three major strategies are employed in the course
of subtitling:
1. Avoidance of SL interjection;
2. Retention of SL interjection; and
3. Addition of interjection.
With reference to the strategies utilised for translating interjections proposed by Cuenca (2006), we can notice
that strategy a) and b) are not employed as far as the current study is concerned whereas the other strategies
are noticeable in our data.
7.1. Avoidance of SL Interjection
30
The subtitler may avoid translating the SL interjection into a corresponding TL interjection. Instead, s/he is likely
to use ellipses as illustrated in Example 1 below:
1
-āxir ħaqa fakrāha ’ayh?[8]
What’s the last thing you remember?
-is-sijin āh al’i‘dām āh
Jail … execution …
’Amn Dawla [State Security] 1999
In the sequence of verbal sparring, the officer came to Samiha’s rescue. Her extremely pessimistic view of life
made her reluctant and unwilling to accept the officer’s offer. A close look at Example 1 shows that the
underlined interjections indicate short intakes of breath, that is, a filled pause marked by a vocalisation so that
the speaker could select a structural basis for marking topic shift, i.e.,’i‘dām as to the first interjection. The
second interjection, however, is used to bring back excruciatingly painful memories, i.e., execution as far as the
speaker is concerned.
31
The translator makes his/her overriding priority to avoid translating the Arabic interjections and instead, opts for
ellipses, i.e., using unfilled pauses to indicate a silence. Carter and McCarthy (2006: 89) point out that “[u]nfilled
pauses tend to occur when a shift in topic or a change in direction is about to occur. […] Pauses of longer than
one second are indicated by dots […].” The translation of the SL interjection into dots seems to have done the
trick insofar as the first interjection is concerned whereas the second interjection seems to be a dead loss.
32
As can be noted in Example 1, the SL interjections are avoided and replaced by functionally corresponding
ellipses. Nevertheless, there is no harm in retaining interjections in the subtitled version, since brevity and
spacing of the SL text still allows for such retention.
33
It may be worth reiterating that Arabic interjection occurred twice over in Example 2 and is meant to express the
fears gnawing away at the back of the speaker’s mind. Her mind flashed back to the moment when she was
pinioned and hooded, a traumatic experience indeed.
2
‘ašmāwi kan yuħut al-m’šna’a
The executor was fixing the gallows
ħawl ra’bati ayh ayh
around my neck.
Although some of the effect of the lexicogrammatical features in the subtitles, to some extent, reflects such an
experience, the underlined Arabic interjections explicitly reveal devilish thoughts apropos the execution, gallows,
etc. She was obsessed with gloomy prognostication about her future. Therefore, the SL interjectional formula is
not recalcitrant in the sequence, but rather lays further emphasis. The translator could have opted for a
corresponding English interjection, as technical considerations would still have allowed for the inclusion of an
interjection.
34
With his owlish face, the officer’s hidden agenda is clear in Example 3. As an intelligence officer whose job is to
bring criminals to justice, he wished, by hook or by crook, to instil a sense of guilt in Samiha. Had the officer
avoided the drawn-out vocalisation, his argument would have been weak and unconvincing. The officer reminds
Samiha that she should hang on for dear life. Consider the following:
3
’intī ī ī
You…
tam ’i‘dāmik imbāriħ ’i s-subħ
You were hanged yesterday morning,
w-indafanti fi ma’ābir a s-sadaqa
and buried in the charity cemetery.
The marked tone of voice represented in the reiteration of Arabic single-letter [ī] can be regarded as a filled
pause intended to organise the discourse the best way possible and to express a potential face-threatening. With
this in mind, the English subtitle seems questionable although the vocative You may serve the purpose. Yet the
original Arabic expresses neither a shift in topic nor a change in direction whereas the subtitled English version
does. In addition, the underlined segments can be seen as an interjection used to express sorrow – Samiha was
supposed to be hanged the preceding day.
4
āy w-’inta mīn ba’a?
Who are you, then?
‘uzr’īl?
Death angel?!
The underlined Arabic interjection āy in example 4 is phonetically and even pragmatically in harmony with the
English eh, which according to Collins Cobuild (1995: 531) is used in writing “to represent a noise that people
make as a response in conversation, for example to express agreement or to ask for something to be explained
or repeated.” Sometimes the interjection is combined with interrogatives to place greater emphasis on an
immediate reply. The English interjection-free subtitle seems to be equivalent to the original utterance in Example
4. However, translating it into eh would reflect more interpersonal pragmatics with which the SL text is loaded. To
further appreciate the problem of translating interjections, consider Example 5:
5
āhhhhh
-------------------------
The TL audience is left to form an interpretation from visual cues. The message may be encoded without the
need for subtitling because of paralinguistic features: the sound is indicated visibly on screen, thus “need not be
transcribed” (De Linde and Kay 1999: 14). However, culture-specificity of pair languages should, or maybe must,
be taken into account. The Arabic interjectional sound āhhhhh, which is a morpho-phonological cognate to
English ah, signifies pain in this particular context and, it can be misleading for an English viewer. In a sense, the
English interjection is used to “draw attention to something or to express surprise or disappointment” (Collins
Cobuild 1995: 37).
35
This argument follows from what Ameka (1992: 106) has established: “Interjections are relatively
conventionalised vocal gestures (or more generally, linguistic gestures) which express a speaker’s mental state,
action or attitude or reaction to a situation.”
7.2. Retention of Interjection
36
What appears more important in communication is the production of adequate communicative units. Interjectional
devices are a case in point. It is arguably true that translating a SL interjection into a TL interjection would best
facilitate intercultural communication. We argue that technical constraints, e.g., spatial dimension nevertheless
allow for use of interjections because of their brevity. By way of illustration, consider Example 6 below:
6
yāh danta ‘arif ‘anni kuli ħaqah ahu
Wow! You know everything all right!
Obviously, yāh is an interjection which can signify surprise in the context of a situation. The speaker was
surprised that the intelligence officer knew about the personal details of her chequered past. At fourteen, she
killed her step-father who had brutally raped her. She was tried seven times for violent acts in prison, was
sentenced to some 65 years, and finally, was sentenced to death for killing a cellmate and causing disabilities to
two others. Similarly, but more precisely, the corresponding English Wow! is used when someone is very
impressed, surprised, or pleased (Collins Cobuild 1995: 1939). The subtitling sounds optimal since the
communicative thrust of the original Arabic is preserved in the English subtitled version. The strategy employed is
interjection reciprocity between the SL and TL. For more elaboration, consider Example 7 below:
7
Allāh ša’itiq ħilwah ’awi
Wow! Your flat is great
sughayyrah bas fīha zū’ yīqannin
small but really stylish!
The Arabic interjection Allāh (literally the name of God in Islam) is obviously derived from a noun (see Norrick
2007). It has drifted from its semantic import by acquiring new illocutions, namely to introduce a remark or
response expressing surprise, and hence becomes pragmatically multipurpose expression (for the translatability
of a similar item: ’inšāllah, see Farghal 1995). As can be noted, the strategy employed for Wow, rather than,
say, Jeez,seems to be successful as the latter expresses shock and even causes offence in English.
37
The intended Arabic interjections in Example 8 below merit close investigation. Samiha
bawled āhhhh and āyyyy with such a drawn-out voice to express anger and pain. What is going on here is that
an interjection of anger coincides with an interjection of pain although introducing one is sufficient to
accommodate the other as is the case in the English subtitle whereby Oh! is typically utilised to express emotions
such as surprise, pain, annoyance, or happiness (Collins Cobuild 1995: 1147).
8
Ѳāni dars: kul ghaltah wi-līha Ѳaman
Second lesson: you err, you pay!
wi-’inti lāzim tidfa‘īh
You have to pay now!
[shooting her in the leg]
āhhhh āyyyy ya-’bn-il-kalb
Oh, creep!
il-ghaltah al-qaiyah fi idmaghik
’itfū
38
The swearing phrase ’bn-il-kalb is more or less pragmatically similar to that of English – Creep. In a sense, the
Arabic taboo ’bn-il-kalb with vocative ya is commonly used to insult another person as is ‘Oh! Creep!.’ Carter
and McCarthy (2006: 105) point out that “[s]wearing often takes the form of interjections. This can involve single
words or short phrases or clauses that are used to express a variety of strong feelings, in particular, annoyance,
frustration and anger.”
39
It should be noted that the interjection signifying hatred and / or contempt (i.e.,’itfū – to spit) is left untranslated.
In original Arabic, Samiha spat at themisogynist officer after he shot her in the leg. Nevertheless, a flow of
communication is preserved in the alternative blank subtitle by virtue of the semiotic webs displayed in the film
sequence.
7.3. Addition of Interjection
40
It goes without saying that the purpose of translation is to facilitate intercultural communication between
languages and cultures. As noted earlier, interjections are used to ease communication. Therefore, using
interjections to translate interjection-free utterances will come to no harm. Occasionally, the original Arabic
happens to be interjection-free. The subtitler would opt for an interjection in the TL to facilitate communication as
is the case in Example 9:
9
-’inti muttī: Samīħa ‘Abdul-Mu‘tī Šahīn ma ba’a-l-hāš wuqūd
- So, you’re dead! Samiha Shahin no longer exists
- mut?
- Oh yeah?!
In this example, the SL interjection-free utterance is rendered into TL interjection Oh yeah?! In the dialogue, the
officer metaphorically says that Samiha, the malefactor, is dead, and now he is speaking about another person
who will work for Egyptian intelligence. Samiha could not read the officer’s mind, thus she uses the tag
question mut. In the subtitle, the translator opts for a TL interjection, which has the pragmatic import of the SL
utterance. The translator’s choice can also be considered as a discourse marker, for Oh yeah!is used in
response to new information. To elaborate further, we should examine the next example:
10
ya salām bi-l-basāta di?
Oh yeah?! That simple?!
It is probably necessary to point out that in this film sequence, the chief and officer had spoken about recruiting
Samiha. The officer, who already had a lot of contact with Samiha, now understands her personality, and is
convinced she would be a strong asset to Egyptian intelligence, to raise the chief’s eyebrows, as shown in
Example 10. The Arabic vocative ya plus salām is an interjection commonly used to express amusement and
surprise depending on the intonation. Rising intonation (e.g., ya salāām) expresses amusement whereas falling
intonation expresses surprise as is the case in example 10 above. The subtitle seems to express the original.
8. Concluding Remarks
41
Thus far in our analysis, it has been noted that interjections are crucial in translation as a means of
communication, and without them, there is a failure in communication or loss in interpersonal pragmatics.
Interjections received little attention compared to other parts of language. In terms of the strategies employed in
translating interjections, this discussion has shown that functional-based strategies can be an outlet because
interjections are minimal communication elements in a language whose meaning dwells more on what’s implied
than what is actually said – pragmatic import. The study also shows that three strategies were employed, giving
rise to convergence and divergence with Cuenca’s (2006) differentiation of strategies for translating interjections.
The three strategies are: avoiding translating SL interjection; retaining SL interjection in the TL and adding
interjection into a TL. Strategy-wise, interjection reciprocity – translating a SL interjection into a TL interjection –
reproduces the communicative thrust of SL utterance.
42
Technically speaking, the translation of a SL interjection into a TL counterpart poses no technical difficulties
because they are usually short and fall within the allowable spatial dimension subtitling demands, as is the case
with Example 4 and 2 where the number of characters is 18 and 15 respectively. The preference for brevity
throughout most of the subtitling is important for the subtitler(s) in a general sense, and this brevity aligns with
translating interjection.
43
Finally, Arabic and English interjections are cognate on occasion, a fact that lightens the task of the translator.
That is, the problem of translating interjection would be minimal. However, as languages and cultures define
reality in different ways, some interjections are culture-specific and thus pose a challenge for the translator.
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Lecture 12 Theory
English and Arabic Translation and activism
In class : A lecture on the relationship between translation and power, the translation in hot places and
renarration in translation.
Resisting State Terror : Theorising Communities of Activist Translators and Interpreters

Mona Baker, University of Manchester
Since its inception, translation studies has arguably situated itself within structures of authority and continues to
describe the role of translation largely from the point of view of dominant groups and constituencies. This is
particularly evident in frameworks such as skopos theory, which prioritizes the role of the commissioner in a typically
affluent industrial setting, and norm theory, which privileges mainstream values as realized in sanctioned, repeated
patterns of behaviour. It is also evident in the overwhelming attention given to dominant Western and European
communities in theorizing translation, notably Venuti’s focus on the Anglo-American context and feminist theorizing in
North America. Where translation scholars have adopted the perspective of the colonized or of resistant groups in
society, this has largely been in the context of historical studies, with temporal distance ensuring that no ‘spillage’ of
risk or serious political controversy can contaminate the orderly world of scholarly research.
Alongside its historical alignment with structures of power and the mainstream, the discipline has also tended to create
its own narratives that revolve around rigid, idealized communities. Most importantly, and problematically, it continues
to thematize cultural difference and invest in the idea of more or less discrete cultural communities, largely drawn
along national lines. Reified differences between these idealized communities implicitly provide the raison d’être for
the very activity of translation. Society needs translation, the disciplinary narrative goes, because translators can
bridge significant cultural differences, can allow people belonging to different cultures to communicate smoothly and
effectively.
The thematization of cultural difference is not a feature of translation studies alone; Said argued more than a decade
ago that ‘[t]he fetishization and relentless celebration of “difference” and “otherness” … [is] an ominous trend’ across
the humanities (1989: 213). In translation studies, especially in the context of political conflict, this fetishization tends
to suggest, implicitly or explicitly, that the two parties on either side of the translator are almost always predictably
(perhaps even inherently) different, and that the difference has to be managed by the translator. The translator, on the
other hand, is portrayed in some disciplinary narratives as ‘neutral’, with no stake in the interaction other than
upholding professional standards; in others as inhabiting the no-man’s land of idealized intercultural agents, together
with ‘diplomats and traders through to spies and smugglers’ (Pym 1998: x); and in others still as painfully struggling
with his or her various conflicting allegiances and affiliations, with these generally being portrayed as static, given,
inevitable – based on ethnicity, religion, gender, national affiliation, and so on.

Translation as an Alternative Space for Political Action
Mona Baker, Centre for Translation and Intercultural Studies, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Narratives of terrorism and security: ‘accurate’ translations, suspicious frames
Mona Baker, Centre for Translation and Intercultural Studies, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Lecture 13 Theory
English and Arabic Interpreting
In class : A lecture on different modes and forms of interpreting.
Simultaneous Interpreting
Typically, while performing Simultaneous Interpreting, the interpreter sits in a booth wearing a pair of headphones and
speaks into a microphone. Strictly speaking, "simultaneous" is a misnomer: the interpreter cannot start interpreting
until he or she understands the general meaning of the sentence. Depending for example, on how far apart in the
sentence to be interpreted the subject and the verb are located, the interpreter may not be able to utter even a single
word until he or she has heard the entire sentence!
This fact should make it evident how difficult the task of the interpreter really is: she must translate the sentence into
the target language while simultaneously listening to and comprehending the next sentence. You can experience the
difficulty of the task even if you only speak one language: try paraphrasing someone's speech with a half-sentence
delay while making sure you understand the next sentence and paraphrasing the previous one.
One of the key skills of the simultaneous interpreter is decisiveness: there is simply no time to weigh the merits of
variant translations, or to recall just the right idiom in the target language. Any delay and a few words (and possibly a
complete thought) that the speaker uttered could be lost, and since the speaker may be far away, or even in a
different room than the interpreter, the loss may be permanent.
Consecutive Interpreting
During Consecutive Interpreting the speaker stops every 1–5 minutes (usually at the end of every "paragraph" or
complete thought) and the interpreter then steps in to render what was said into the target language. A key skill
involved in consecutive interpreting is note-taking, since few people can memorize a full paragraph in one hearing
without loss of detail. Interpreter's notes are very different from those of, say, a stenographer, because writing down
words in the source language makes the interpreter's job harder when he has to translate the speech into the target
language.
Many professional interpreters develop their own "ideogramic" symbology, which allows them to take down not the
words, but the thoughts of the speaker in a sort of language-independent form. Then the interpreter's output is more
idiomatic and less source-language bound.

Sight translation and interpreting : A comparative analysis of constraints and failures
Marjorie Agrifoglio
Lecture 14 Theory
English and Arabic Teaching translation
In class : A lecture on the methods of teaching translational skills.
The main aim of this lecture on the fundamental principles of translation didactics is to put forward some
theoretical reflections about translation competence and the translation process according to various
approaches. Sequential work procedures carried out with translation students are described.
methodological aspects are focused on the educator as a facilitator of the translation task, as students
accomplish the lion’s share of the transfer process, both collectively and individually. The methodology
proposed and the corresponding evaluation processes are discussed.

Approaches to the Teaching of Translation
M. Carmen África Vidal Claramonte, Universidad de Salamanca
Lecture 15 Theory
English and Arabic On the news
Arabic: out of the ghetto

Arabic literature has been revolutionised in recent
years, with English translations becoming increasingly
mainstream. Peter Clark looks at the situation today
In 1997, I wrote an article for The Linguist university Arabic departments and – in broken by the Saudi novel Spewing Sparks
about the reception of contemporary Arabic contrast to a generation ago – their as Big as Cities by Abdo Khal. This was
literature in translation. I quoted the involvement in contemporary Arabic culture. particularly interesting because the novel was
Palestinian-American critic, Edward Saïd, Most departments in the UK are headed by banned in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
who referred to contemporary Arabic writing scholars from the Arab diaspora. Among the Emirates, the country from which the prize
as an ‘embargoed literature’. Although much new generation of translators are non-Arabs was funded. Overnight, the Saudi Minister of
of great interest was being written, publishers with a solid academic basis in the Arabic Culture sent his congratulations, and the
were reluctant to promote translations. language, and people, perhaps of mixed absurdities of censorship were exposed.
In the 1990s, Arabic literature in translation Arab/non-Arab parentage, who are bicultural. There have been other consequences.
was usually brought out by niche publishers, In a cultural world where identity distinctions Arab publishers have welcomed the prize,
such as Quartet Books or the American become blurred, the polarisation of ‘the Arab which is managed by an independent Board
University in Cairo Press. Only three writers world’ and ‘the West’ becomes of Trustees, most of whom are Arab. There
were promoted by mainstream publishers: increasing meaningless. has been a perceptible improvement in the
the London-based Lebanese Hanan al- Another turning point for Arabic literature overall quality of the publication and
Shaykh, the Saudi Abdul Rahman Munif and in translation came with the launch of Banipal presentation of books. Foreign publishers
the Egyptian Nobel laureate Naguib Mahfouz. in 1998. The magazine of modern Arabic have followed the prize. All the winning, and
Sixteen years later, the situation has been literature not only runs published translations, many of the shortlisted, novels have been –
transformed. Mainstream publishers have but also profiles of writers and translators, or are being – translated into English. And
entered the field, translators have been and news about prizes, festivals and events. not only into English. The first and second
better rewarded and Arabic literature has Nearly a thousand Arab writers have had winning novels have been translated into
become part of world literature. There are their work published in Banipal. In fact, there more than a dozen languages.
several reasons for this, and several is no modern Arab writer of any significance Since 2009, the prize has organised an
outcomes. whose work has not appeared in it. annual nadwa (‘symposium’) for eight writers
In most countries of the world there is an The magazine has been an accessible who have promise, and two established
established Arab community, and the Arab window to the contemporary Arab cultural writers, who attend as mentors. During nine
diaspora has become a major factor in world, and it has had a profound impact on days, each writer produces 3,000 words of a
modern Arab culture. Many Arab countries the reception of Arabic literature story or chapter, which is then translated into
have oppressive regimes. Arabs who have internationally. The result of this work has English. Both language versions are later
moved to Western Europe and America have been the demystification of the Arab world. published in one volume, in a series entitled
been able to speak out and write in a way Banipal has brought Arabic literature out of Emerging Arab Voices.
that was not possible or permissible at home. the ghetto and into the international There are challenges in translating
There is nothing new in emigration from marketplace. In the last few years, it has also contemporary Arabic literature, but these are
Arab countries; the phenomenon can be promoted a prize, with support from the comparable with the challenges of literary
traced back to Roman times. Even in the family of Saif Ghobash, for the translation of translation from any less familiar culture – for
cultural context, a century ago New York and a work of Arabic fiction. example from Finnish, Korean or Ukrainian.
South America hosted Arab writers. For The separate International Prize for Arabic Vol/52 No/2 2013 TURNING POINTS
decades there was a symbiotic relationship Fiction (IPAF) was established in 2007, with Raja Alem (above left) and Mohammed
between France and North African writers funding from the Emirates Foundation; this Achaari (above), winners of the International
who expressed themselves in French and was replaced last year by support from the Prize for Arabic Literature 2011, speak at
Arabic. But in recent years writers have been Abu Dhabi Tourism and Culture Authority. the London Literature Festival. A selection
expressing an Arab consciousness in the The winning novel is selected by an of Banipal covers ( far left), from the first
languages of their host countries and gaining independent panel of judges comprising issue in 1998 to the current issue
critical acclaim. In Britain, the Egyptian Ahdaf critics, writers and academics, and The translator has to be proficient in Arabic
Souef and the Libyan Hisham Matar have celebrated at a ceremony in Abu Dhabi. A and a good writer in the target language.
both been shortlisted for the Man Booker cheque for US$10,000 is presented to all six It used to be argued – and I may have
Prize. The Syrian Rafik Schami has won shortlisted novelists, with an additional subscribed to this notion in my 1997 article –
prizes for his workin German. Arab novelists $50,000 for the winner. that there were particular cultural problems,
and poets have been writing in most The announcement of the shortlist rouses relating to Islam, in rendering an Arab text in
European languages. interest and controversy in the cultural pages English. Certainly translators need to soak
In the 21st century, a new generation of of all Arab newspapers. Egyptians have themselves into the cultural background of
professional translators has emerged. Until dominated Arabic literature, and books by the text, and this includes the religious
the turn of the century, most literary Egyptian novelists won the first two awards: context. But there is nothing insuperable in
translators of Arabic were not Arab. This Sunset Oasis by Bahaa Taher and Azazeel that, any more than there is an impossible
sometimes aroused suspicions within the by Youssef Zieda. Yet, each year, more than problem with translating, or even reading,
Arab world – what texts were being selected 100 novels are submitted from all Arab texts from another age, where the cultural
for translation? countries. reference points are so different from those
The current number of professional In the third year, the Egyptian monopoly was of today. Most Victorian novelists assumed
translators partly reflects the expansion of that their readers would be familiar with the
Bible and the Greco-Roman classics, for piece about the girls of La Marsa. Now, La rendered the phrase Hafenmädchen (‘girls of
instance. Marsa is a fashionable beach not far from the the port’), with an entirely different
The translator should also know the capital, Tunis, so ‘the girls of La Marsa’ association.
geography of the novel. Some years ago, I suggests chic, fashionable young ladies. La But any translator could tell a similar story.
read the German translation of a novel by the Marsa in Arabic means ‘jetty’ and, by There is nothing specific to Arabic in such
Tunisian Hassouna Mosbahi. There was a extension, ‘port’. The translator into German misreadings.
The Linguist APRIL/MAY
Practice 1 Text
English into Arabic Culture
M. xxxx
Subject: Euromed Audiovisual III Workshop - Capacity development of the cinema and
audiovisual sector and the involvement of the Libyan industry into the programme – Tripoli April
28th
Dear M. xxx,
The regional programme Euromed Audiovisual III, dedicated to development of the audiovisual and the
cinema sector in the South Mediterranean region aims at enhancing sustainable transfer of knowledge and
best practices through a wide set of trainings, capacity building of both professionals and national
authorities and networking activities. Euromed Audiovisual considers the film industry not only as creative
means of cultural expression and intercultural dialogue, but also of socio-economic development of the
region.
It is intended to identify potential partners and their organizations in Libya to be involved in the regional
initiatives as they were defined in the other round tables held in the region already:
 Audiovisual data assessment & analyses and co-operation with the Arabic Satellite Broadcasting Union of the
Arab League (ASBU), and the European Audiovisual Observatory.
 Developing joint recommendations for a southern film fund mechanism together with the Financial working Group
of the region.
 Creation of a regional Arabic film market for the region.
 Upgrading and dissemination of the legal data bank for the audiovisual sector in the region, amongst others on co-
production contracting and topics related to copyright.
On this occasion, we are honored to invite you to attend the Euromed audiovisual workshop on April 28th, at
10:00 at the Al-Mahari Theater – Tripoli - Libya
All our initiatives are demand oriented and thus are implemented in collaboration with all interested parties
in the partner countries of the Southern Mediterranean region following a participatory approach. Our joint
aim is to build up the necessary capacities in the region in order to strengthen the development of the film
and audiovisual in the whole region.
We would like to thank you in advance for sending confirmation of your attendance by e-mail to Ms. ……
Looking forward to your response,

Yours sincerely,
B. W.
Team Leader CDSU

Euromed Audiovisual III
EU funded Program
Source language: English Target language: Arabic
M. xxxx
e-mai: xxx@xxx.nn
،‫ س يديت‬/‫س يدي‬
‫ وحشة معل تِّانمج خوحوملد التمعي البرصي – تمنية‬:‫املوضوع‬
Subject: Euromed Audiovisual III Workshop ‫قدحا الاطلع التسامنيئ والتمعي البرصي وارشاك الاطلع اللييب يف‬
- Capacity development of the cinema and .ُ‫نستل‬/‫ ختِّيل‬82 ‫الربانمج – طِّاغلس‬
audiovisual sector and the involvement of ،‫حتية طيبة وغعد‬
the Libyan industry into the programme –
Tripoli April 28th ‫اُ تِّانمج خوحوملد التمعي البرصي القلميي اخملصص لعمنية الاطالع‬
Dear M. xxx, ‫التمعي البرصي والتاسامنيئ يف مططااة مجطاو املعوساف إاد ا ى‬
The regional programme Euromed Audiovisual ‫حتتني معلية النال املت عدام للمعلح وللمناحسل الفضىل من خال‬
III, dedicated to development of the audiovisual ‫مجموعة كرب من دوحا العدحيب وغنالء الاادحا املوةاة ا ى خ ال‬
and the cinema sector in the South ‫ اضااال اان طش ا ي خ شااطة ا شاالء‬،‫الاطاالع والتاالطل الوطنيااة‬
Mediterranean region aims at enhancing ُ‫ ويععاد الالمئوُ عىل تِّانمج خوحوملد التمعي البرصاي خ‬. ‫الش باك‬
sustainable transfer of knowledge and best ‫الصنلعة التسامنئية لستت وس يةل من الوسلئل اخلالقة للععبري الثااليف‬
practices through a wide set of trainings, ِّ‫ غل كذكل وس يةل من وسالئل الا‬،‫واحلواح غني احلضلحا حفتب‬
capacity building of both professionals and .‫الامجامت ي والاقتصلدي يف املنطاة‬
national authorities and networking activities. ‫ومن خ دا الربانمج حتديد الرشاكء الليبسني الِّاغبني يف املشلحكة يف‬
Euromed Audiovisual considers the film industry ‫املبلدحا القلميية اليت متت تِّجمهل خال املوائد املت عديِّة اليت س بق‬
not only as creative means of cultural :‫اد ل يف املنطاة‬
expression and intercultural dialogue, but also
ُ‫تايمي البيلان اخللصة ابلاطلع التمعي البرصي وحتليلهل والععلو‬ 
of socio-economic development of the region.
It is intended to identify potential partners and ‫املشتك م احتلد اذاعل ادلو العِّغية العلغ جللمعة ادلو العِّغية‬
their organizations in Libya to be involved in the .‫واملِّصد التمعي البرصي الوحويب‬
regional initiatives as they were defined in the
‫صيلغة توصيل مشتكة خبصوص خلية متويل سسامن اجلنو‬ 
other round tables held in the region already:
 Audiovisual data assessment & analyses .‫ابلشتاك م مجموعة العمل حو التمويل اخللصة ابملنطاة‬
and co-operation with the Arabic Satellite
Broadcasting Union of the Arab League .‫ا شلء سوق سسامنئية اقلميية ِّغية يف املنطاة‬ 
(ASBU), and the European Audiovisual
Observatory.
‫تمنية قلعدة البيلان الالنونية اخللصة ابلاطلع التمعي البرصي يف‬ 
‫ واليت تعضمن عىل سبيل اذلكِّ متلئل‬،‫املنطاة والعمل عىل رش ل‬
 Developing joint recommendations for a
southern film fund mechanism together with .‫اود النعلج املشتك وقضلاي حاوق العأليف‬
the Financial working Group of the region.
‫ يرشاطل خُ نوجه اليمك ذه ادل وة حلضوح وحشة معل ينظمهل‬،‫وهبذه املنلس بة‬
 Creation of a regional Arabic film market for ‫ صبلال مبرسح املهلحي‬01 ‫نستلُ عىل التلعة‬/‫ ختِّيل‬82 ‫تِّانمج خوحوملد يوم‬
the region.
.‫الاكئن ابلعلمصة الليبية طِّاغلس‬
 Upgrading and dissemination of the legal ‫ ويه ابلعليل‬،‫وحنيطمك علنا خُ اكاة مبلدحاتنل وليدة الطلبل الواحدة‬
data bank for the audiovisual sector in the
region, amongst others on co-production ‫تنفذ ابلععلوُ م الطِّا املعنية يف غدلاُ مططاة مجطو املعوسف‬
contracting and topics related to copyright. ‫ و داطل املشتك و غنلء‬.‫ استطلدا ا ى مالحغة طشلحكية‬،‫الرشيكة‬
‫الادحا الرضوحية يف املنطاة من خجل تمنية الاطلع التسامنيئ‬
On this occasion, we are honored to invite you .‫والتمعي البرصي يف املنطاة غأرس ل‬
to attend the Euromed audiovisual workshop on
th
April 28 , at 10:00 at the Al-Mahari Theater – ُ‫نِّمجو خُ تؤكدوا مشلحكعمك من خال مِّاسلعنل عىل العنوا‬
Tripoli - Libya ‫الالكتوين لنبيةل معال‬
All our initiatives are demand oriented and thus )nmoalla@euromedaudiovisuel.net(
are implemented in collaboration with all +216 71 ‫لاكاة اس عفتلحاتمك يِّىج التصل عىل الِّمق الهلتفي‬
interested parties in the partner countries of the +216 28 666 811 ‫ خو الِّمق احملمو‬282405
Southern Mediterranean region following a
ِّ‫ تفضلوا غابو الئق بلحا الااتام والعادي‬،‫ويف انعظلح حدمك‬
participatory approach. Our joint aim is to build Berthold Wohlleber ‫ليرب‬ ‫تِّتودل وو‬
up the necessary capacities in the region in
order to strengthen the development of the film ‫وادة دمع تمنية الادحا‬
and audiovisual in the whole region. ‫تِّانمج خوحوملد التمعي البرصي‬
We would like to thank you in advance for
sending confirmation of your attendance by e- ‫تِّانمج ممو من الاحتلد الوحويب‬
mail to Nabila Moalla
(nmoalla@euromedaudiovisuel.net)- Tel
inquiries: +216 71 282405 /
M.: +216 28 666 811.
Looking forward to your response,
Yours sincerely,
Berthold Wohlleber
Team Leader CDSU

Euromed Audiovisual III
EU funded Program
Practice 2 Text
English into Arabic Politics
Saudi Arabia faces outcry over death sentence for Shia faith leader
Nimr Baqir al-Nimr’s conviction for sedition adding to unrest and promoting sectarian hatred, says Human
Rights Watch
By Ian Black
Thursday 16 October 2014 19.01 BST
Saudi Arabia is facing an international outcry and accusations of promoting sectarian hatred after a Shia
Muslim religious leader from the country’s volatile eastern province was sentenced to death.
Sheikh Nimr Baqir al-Nimr, who led protests in Qatif at the height of the Arab spring in 2011, was convicted
on Wednesday of sedition and other charges in a case that has been followed closely by Shias in the
kingdom and neighbouring Bahrain.
Shia Muslims make up 10%-15% of the population of Sunni-ruled Saudi Arabia, which bills itself as playing
a lead role in the fight against the jihadis of Islamic State (Isis) in Syria and Iraq. Riyadh has supported
Sunni groups fighting to overthrow Bashar al-Assad but denies backing Isis.
Source: The Guardian
Saudi Arabia faces outcry over death sentence ‫اململكة العِّغية التعودية تواجه انعالدا لذعة اثِّ صدوح حمك‬
for Shia faith leader ‫العدام حبق املم ش يعي‬
Nimr Baqir al-Nimr’s conviction for sedition adding ‫يومن حايتس ووطش تأكد خُ ادانة منِّ ابقِّ ال منِّ ابلعحِّيض عىل‬
to unrest and promoting sectarian hatred, says ‫الفتنة تغذي الةل عدم الاس عاِّاح و الكِّا ية الطلئفية‬
Human Rights Watch ‫غامل اايُ غالك‬
By Ian Black
‫ التلعة التلغعة متلء غعوقيت تِّيطلنيل‬8102 ِّ‫ خكعوت‬01 ‫امخلسس‬
‫الصيفي‬
Thursday 16 October 2014 19.01 BST ‫تواجه اململكة العِّغية التعودية انعالدا و ادانة واسعة من خطِّا‬
Saudi Arabia is facing an international outcry and
‫دولية تهمهل اباثحة النعِّا الطلئفية عىل اثِّ اصداح احملمكة حمكهل‬
accusations of promoting sectarian hatred after a ‫عىل املم شعي ابلعدام يف مططاة اململكة الرشقية و يه املنطاة‬
Shia Muslim religious leader from the country’s .‫املضطِّغة‬
volatile eastern province was sentenced to death. ‫ و و اذلي قلد‬،ِّ‫لاد خدانت احملمكة الش يخ منِّ ابقِّ المن‬
Sheikh Nimr Baqir al-Nimr, who led protests in ، 8100 ‫احتجلجل الاطيف يف خوج قوحا الِّغي العِّيب س نة‬
Qatif at the height of the Arab spring in 2011, was ‫وذكل يوم الحغعلء غعدة هتم من غسهنل اشعل الفتنة الطلئفية يف قضية‬
convicted on Wednesday of sedition and other .‫اتغعهل الش يعة يف اململكة و يف اجللحة البحِّين ن كثب‬
charges in a case that has been followed closely
by Shias in the kingdom and neighbouring ‫ من التاكُ يف‬% 01 ‫ و‬01 ‫ميثل الش يعة مل غني‬
Bahrain. ‫و يه اليت تادم‬، ‫اململكة و العِّغية التعودية اليت حيمكهل الت نة‬
‫اللِّايض‬. ‫نفتهل عىل خهنل تطل غدوح قيلدي يف مواةة مالتيل دا ش‬
Shia Muslims make up 10%-15% of the population
of Sunni-ruled Saudi Arabia, which bills itself as ‫دمعت اجملموعل التنية اليت تالتل يف سوحاي من اجل الطلاة‬
playing a lead role in the fight against the jihadis of 2 ‫غبشلح السد و لكهنل تنفي دمع مالتيل دا ش‬
Islamic State (Isis) in Syria and Iraq. Riyadh has
supported Sunni groups fighting to overthrow
Bashar al-Assad but denies backing Isis.
Source: The Guardian
Practice 3 Text
Shinzo Abe’s return and collective security
S Siddiqui
Abe, in his first stint as Prime Minister of Japan, showed his ultra-nationalist ideals as well as his pragmatic
decision-making credentials. The historian Gavan McCormack argues that Abe is only nominally
conservative, and should be viewed as a radical ultra-nationalist during his first term in office which was
“marked by [historical] denialism” over Japan’s war responsibility. Richard Katz and Peter Ennis, however,
rightly point out that Abe improved relations with China and South Korea with back channel dialogue, trips
to Beijing and Seoul and, most importantly, not visiting the Yasukuni Shrine as prime minister.
Even before coming back to power, Abe and the LDP had made their intentions clear regarding
constitutional revision, particularly with respects to Article 9 and Article 96 (which stipulates the need for
two-thirds majority in both Houses of parliament and a special election to amend the Constitution). Learning
from his first term in charge, Abe focused his initial phase in-charge on the economy and established a
strong and consistent popularity in the public opinion polls.
While opinion polls have been generally positive of Abe, his Cabinet, and the way the economy is
progressing, the Japanese public have been reluctant to support revising the constitution. Even the LDP’s
main coalition partner, the New Komeito party, has been reluctant to revise the ‘pacifist’ nature of the
constitution. With uncertainty in the likely success in attaining a two-thirds majority in both Houses of
parliament and a referendum – the requirements to revise the Constitution- Abe has abandoned “explicit
revision and reverted to revision by interpretation” for the time being at least. Abe’s calculation, for the
moment, seems to be not to risk his political capital on such a risky move.
Even Abe’s approval of the Cabinet to reinterpret the constitution on July 1, 2014 was met with protests
across the country. According to an opinion poll published by the left-of-centre Asahi Shimbun newspaper
in April, only 29% of those surveyed wanted to authorize the ability to exercise collective self -defence.
Interpreting public opinions is not a straight-forward task however, and responses to positions often depend
on the wording of the question. Michael Green and Jeffrey W. Hornung argue that Japanese public opinion
is strongly in favour of improving cooperation between Japan and the United States and therefore, when
“asked about empowering the SDF to do more in cooperation with the United States – even in scenarios as
far away as the Gulf of Hormuz – public support” for collective self-defence is above 50%.
Polls have also consistently highlighted how the Japanese public is increasingly worried about rising
Chinese power and military assertiveness. Jennifer Lind, the political scientist and expert on Japanese
security policy, argues this recent development can be seen as a part of a response by Japan and the
United States to a modernising Chinese navy and its “growing assertiveness” to territorial disputes in the
region “as well as challenging US military access to East Asia.”
Shinzo Abe’s return and collective security ‫ودة ش يزنو خيب والمن امجلل ي‬
S Siddiqui ‫ كنا خقبت‬،‫خظهِّ خيب يف خو اتة هل كِّئسس وزحاء لليلابُ نز عه املثللية الاومية الزائدة‬
Abe, in his first stint as Prime Minister of Japan, showed his ً ‫ ويِّ املؤحخ غلالُ ملكوحملك خُ خيب لسس‬.‫قدحته عىل اختلذ قِّاحا تِّاغناتية‬
‫حملاظل‬
ultra-nationalist ideals as well as his pragmatic decision- ‫ال من النلحية الامسية وينبغي النظِّ اليه عىل خنه شديد الزنعة الاومية خقنلء اتته‬
making credentials. The historian Gavan McCormack argues
that Abe is only nominally conservative, and should be ُ‫الو ى يف حئلسة الوزحاء واليت "متزي ابلناكح (العلحخيي)" بشأُ متؤولية اليلاب‬
viewed as a radical ultra-nationalist during his first term in ‫حتن العالقل م‬ َّ ‫خمل حيتشلحد اكتز وغيت انسس اسشرياُ ا ى خُ خيب‬. (10)‫احلِّغية‬
office which was “marked by [historical] denialism” over
Japan’s war responsibility. (10) Richard Katz and Peter ‫ والِّاال ا ى تكني‬،‫الصني وكوحاي اجلنوغية من خال حواحا الغِّ املغلاة‬
Ennis, however, rightly point out that Abe improved relations .(11)‫وسو وخكرث من ذكل غعدم زايحة رضحي ايسوكوين كِّئسس للوزحاء‬
with China and South Korea with back channel dialogue, trips
to Beijing and Seoul and, most importantly, not visiting the ‫ الُ خيب واحلز الليربايل ادلمياِّاطي خظهِّا حغبة مبِّامجعة‬،‫حىت قبل خُ يعود للتلطة‬
Yasukuni Shrine as prime minister. (11)
‫ (واليت تنص عىل احللجة ا ى خغلبية الثلثني يف‬91 ‫ وامللدة‬9 ‫ادلس عوح لس امي امللدة‬
Even before coming back to power, Abe and the LDP had
made their intentions clear regarding constitutional revision,
ُ‫ خ‬،‫قِّح خي خيب‬ َ ‫ لكطه‬،)‫غِّايت الربمللُ وانعخلاب خلصة يك يمت تعديل ادلس عوح‬
particularly with respects to Article 9 and Article 96 (which ‫يِّكز يف املالم الو عىل الاقتصلد وغنلء شعبية قوية ومتتاة يف اس عطالعل الِّخي‬
stipulates the need for two-thirds majority in both Houses of
parliament and a special election to amend the Constitution). .‫ و و مل تعلمه من اتته الو ى يف احلمك‬،‫العلم‬
Learning from his first term in charge, Abe focused his initial ‫ وجتله جملس وزحائه‬،‫وغسامن اكنت اس عطالعل الِّخي بشلك علم اجيلغية جتله خيب‬
phase in-charge on the economy and established a strong
and consistent popularity in the public opinion polls. ‫ الُ امجلل ري اليلابنية ل تزا متددة يف تأييد‬،‫والطِّياة اليت يتري هبل الاقتصلد‬
While opinion polls have been generally positive of Abe, his ،‫ حىت الرشيك الِّئسيس يف ائعال احلز الليربايل ادلمياِّاطي‬.‫مِّامجعة ادلس عوح‬
Cabinet, and the way the economy is progressing, the ‫ ويف‬.‫ ل يزا متددًا يف مِّامجعة الطبيعة "الهلدئة" لدلس عوح‬،‫حز كوميعو اجلديد‬
Japanese public have been reluctant to support revising the
constitution. Even the LDP’s main coalition partner, the New ‫ذا اجلو من عدم الياني بشأُ النجلح يف احلصو عىل خغلبية الثلثني يف غِّايت‬
Komeito party, has been reluctant to revise the ‘pacifist’ ‫ تنلز خيب ن‬-‫ويه متطلبل من خجل مِّامجعة ادلس عوح‬- ‫الربمللُ والاس عفتلء‬
nature of the constitution. With uncertainty in the likely
success in attaining a two-thirds majority in both Houses of ‫ وذكل يف الوقت احلليل‬،"‫"املِّامجعة الواحضة وحتو ا ى املِّامجعة ن طِّيق العفتري‬
parliament and a referendum – the requirements to revise the
Constitution- Abe has abandoned “explicit revision and
‫ لن‬،‫ ووااًل حلتلابته يف اللحظة الِّا نة‬،‫ويبدو خُ ذه اخلطوة‬. (12)‫عىل القل‬
reverted to revision by interpretation” for the time being at .ِّ‫ت حعِّض حخس ملهل الت يليس خلطِّ حاياي عىل حمغ مل تنطوي عليه من خملط‬
least.(12) Abe’s calculation, for the moment, seems to be not
to risk his political capital on such a risky move.
‫متوز‬/‫ يوليو‬0 ‫غل اُ مصلدقة خيب يف جملس الوزحاء عىل اعلدة تفتري ادلس عوح يف‬
Even Abe’s approval of the Cabinet to reinterpret the ‫وحبتب اس عطالع حخي رشته‬. (13)‫ قد مجوهبت ابحتجلجل عرب البالد‬8102
constitution on July 1, 2014 was met with protests across the ‫ ااف من‬%89 ُ‫نستلُ ال‬/‫ يف اتِّيل‬،‫ من يتلح الوسف‬،ُ‫حصيفة خسليه مشبو‬
country. (13) According to an opinion poll published by the
left-of-centre Asahi Shimbun newspaper in April, only 29% of ‫ ولكن تفتري‬.‫اذلين مشلهم الاس عطالع خحادوا العخويل ابس عخدام قوة ادلالع امجلل ية‬
those surveyed wanted to authorize the ability to exercise ‫ والجلغة علدة مل تعتمد عىل كيفية‬،‫اس عطالعل الِّخي لسس معلية دقياة ومت عامية‬
collective self-defence. Interpreting public opinions is not a
straight-forward task however, and responses to positions ‫ يِّ لك من مليلك غِّين ومجيفِّي وحننغ خُ الِّخي العلم اليلابين‬. ‫صيلغة التؤا‬
often depend on the wording of the question. Michael Green ‫يؤيد غاوة حتتني الععلوُ غني اليلابُ والولاي املعحدة؛ وذلكل اعندمل "مت التؤا‬
and Jeffrey W. Hornung argue that Japanese public opinion
is strongly in favour of improving cooperation between Japan ،‫ن متكني قوا ادلالع ن النفس من خجل مزيد من الععلوُ م الولاي املعحدة‬
and the United States and therefore, when “asked about ‫ الُ العأييد العلم‬،‫واُ اكنت جملل الععلوُ يف مطلطق غعيدة ملل خليج ِّمز‬
empowering the SDF to do more in cooperation with the
United States – even in scenarios as far away as the Gulf of %(14).11 ‫لدلالع ن النفس زاد عىل‬
Hormuz – public support” for collective self-defence is above
50%. (14)
‫وغيحنت الاس عطالعل عىل ادلوام كيف خُ خملو الشعب اليلابين تزداد من صعود‬
Polls have also consistently highlighted how the Japanese
‫ البلحلة يف العلوم الت يلس ية‬،‫ وتِّ مجطيفِّ لند‬.‫قوة الصني واحادهتل العتكِّية‬
public is increasingly worried about rising Chinese power and ‫ خُ ذا العطوح الخري ميكن خُ يِّ عىل خنه‬،‫واخلبرية يف س يلسل اليلابُ المطية‬
military assertiveness. Jennifer Lind, the political scientist and
expert on Japanese security policy, argues this recent ‫مجزء من حدة اعل ايابنية وخمريكية للسطو الصيين احلديث و" مينعه املعنلمية" اامي‬
development can be seen as a part of a response by Japan ‫حتداي للعحِّاك المريكية‬ ً ‫يشلك‬ ‫يععلق ابلزناعل القلميية يف املنطاة "كنا خنه ح‬
and the United States to a modernising Chinese navy and its
“growing assertiveness” to territorial disputes in the region "(15).‫العتكِّية يف رشق خس يل‬
“as well as challenging US military access to East Asia.” (15)
Practice 4 Text
Topic: Overview of the role of the Office of International Religious Freedom and their reporting on
religious persecution around the world.
The United States Department of State advises the President in the formulation and execution of foreign
policy. As Chief Executive, the President has overall responsibility for United States foreign policy. The
Department of State’s primary objective in the conduct of foreign relations is to promote the long-range
security and well-being of the United States. The Department determines and analyzes the facts relating to
American overseas interests, makes recommendations on policy and future action, and carries out
established policy. It also engages in continuous consultations with the American public, the Congress,
other U.S. departments and agencies, as well as foreign governments. It negotiates treaties and
agreements with foreign nations, represents the United States at the United Nations and in more than 50
major international organizations in which the United States participates, and at more than 800 international
conferences annually.
The Office of International Religious Freedom has the mission of promoting religious freedom as a
core objective of U.S. foreign policy. Headed by an Ambassador-at-Large for International Religious
Freedom, its Office Director and staff monitor religious persecution and discrimination worldwide,
recommend and implement policies in respective regions or countries, and develop programs to promote
religious freedom. To help in their mission, the office makes available to the public an Annual Report on
International Religious Freedom. This report is mandated by, and presented to, the U.S. Congress and
describes the status of religious freedom in each of 195 countries throughout the world.
Source: US State Department
Topic: Overview of the role of the Office of ‫ حملة عل حمة ن دوح‬:‫املوضوع‬
International Religious Freedom and their ‫احلِّية ادلينيحة ادلول حية وتالحيِّ ل ن‬
‫مكتب ح‬
reporting on religious persecution around ‫الاضطهلد ادلح يين يف مجي خحنلء‬
the world. ‫العلمل‬
The United States Department of State ‫للاِّئسس يف صاايلغة‬ ‫طتادي وزاحة اخللحمجيحاة املشااوحة ح‬
advises the President in the formulation and
execution of foreign policy. As Chief Executive,
ِّ‫الاِّئسس اب عبالحه املادي‬ ‫ و ح‬.‫الت يلسة اخللحمجيحاة وتنفياذ ل‬
the President has overall responsibility for ‫العنفيااذي متااؤو متااؤول حية حيااة عااىل الت يلسااة‬
United States foreign policy. The Department
of State’s primary objective in the conduct of
‫ والهاااد ال حو لاااوزاحة‬.‫اخللحمجيحاااة للاااولاي املعححااادة‬
foreign relations is to promote the long-range ‫الطوياال‬‫الشااؤوُ اخللحمجيحااة تعزيااز الماان عااىل املااد ح‬
security and well-being of the United States.
The Department determines and analyzes the
‫ وحتادحد وزاحة اخللحمجيحاة‬.‫وحتايق حالِّاله للولاي املعحدة‬
facts relating to American overseas interests, ،‫املعطيل املععلاة ابملصال المِّيكيحاة ابخلالحج وحتلحلهال‬
makes recommendations on policy and future
action, and carries out established policy. It also
‫وتااااادحم توصاااايل بشااااأُ الت يلساااال والعماااال يف‬
engages in continuous consultations with the .‫ وتااااوم غتطفياااذ الت يلساااة العل حماااة املعحبعاااة‬،‫املتاا عابل‬
American public, the Congress, other U.S.
departments and agencies, as well as foreign
‫ويشلحك خيضل يف املشالوحا املتا حتمِّة ما ح‬
‫الاِّخي العالم‬
governments. It negotiates treaties and ‫ وغااااري ذكل ماااان الداحا‬،‫المااااِّيل والكااااونغِّس‬
agreements with foreign nations, represents the ‫ كانا تعفالوض‬.‫والواكل المِّيكيحة واحلكومل المجطب حية‬
United States at the United Nations and in more
than 50 major international organizations in ‫يف شاااأُ املعل ااادا والتفلقيحااال املربماااة مااا ادلح و‬
which the United States participates, and at ‫ ومتث حل الاولاي املعححادة يف الا املعححادة ويف‬.‫المجطب حية‬
more than 800 international conferences
annually. ‫مطظمااة دول حيااة طشاالحك االاال الااولاي‬ ‫ ح‬11 ‫خكاارث ماان‬
‫ ماااؤمتِّ دويل‬2111 ‫ وطشااالحك يف خكااارث مااان‬.‫املعححااادة‬
The Office of International Religious ‫س ح‬
.‫نواي‬
Freedom has the mission of promoting
religious freedom as a core objective of U.S.
foreign policy. Headed by an Ambassador-at- ‫ هم حمعااه تعزيااز ح‬:‫احلِّيااة ادلينيحااة ادلوليحااة‬
‫احلِّيااة‬ ‫مكتااب ح‬
Large for International Religious Freedom, its ‫اب عبلح ل ادال خسلسا يحل للت يلساة اخللحمجيحاة للاولاي‬
Office Director and staff monitor religious
persecution and discrimination worldwide,
،‫للحِّيااة ادلينيحااة ادلول حيااة‬
‫ ويِّخسااه ساافري ممثحاال ح‬.‫املعححادة‬
recommend and implement policies in ‫وموظفوه وقالئ الاضاطهلد‬ ‫ويِّاقب مديِّ املديِّ املكتب ح‬
respective regions or countries, and develop
programs to promote religious freedom. To
ُ‫ ويصااادحو‬،‫ادلح ياااين والتميااازي يف مجيااا خحنااالء العااالمل‬
help in their mission, the office makes ‫لك املناالطق خو‬ ‫س يلساال ويعملااوُ عااىل تنفيااذ ل يف ح‬
available to the public an Annual Report on
International Religious Freedom. This report
‫ و حمت‬.‫احلِّياة ادلينيحاة‬
‫ ويعملوُ عىل تطويِّ تِّامج ح‬،ُ‫البدلا‬
is mandated by, and presented to, the U.S. ‫ و حمت تادمياه ا ى‬،ِّ‫تلكيف املعنيحاني غصايلغة اذا العحاِّيا‬
Congress and describes the status of religious
freedom in each of 195 countries throughout
‫احلِّية ادلينيحاة‬
‫ ويصف العحاِّيِّ وض ح‬،‫الكونغِّس المِّيل‬
the world. .‫ غدلا يف مجي خحنلء العلمل‬091 ‫يف‬
e-mai: xxx@xxx.nn
Source: US State Department
Practice 5 Text
English into Arabic Language
Community Interpreters: Going the extra mile?
Hammouda Salhi, PhD

University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia
hammouda_s@hotmail.com
Societies in transition are witnessing an increasing need for community interpreters, including in
security sector reforms. Despite such an increase, interpreters for police training remain short of empirical
and scholarly research which could contribute to casting light on issues such as how services are provided
on the ground and other crucial aspects that reach into the very role of the interpreter and underlie potential
conflicts. This paper aims to revisit the concepts of faithfulness and professionalism, as to whether or not
they now allow (or require) the interpreter to go the extra mile. Based on evidence acquired through a semi-
structured interview conducted with 26 participants (five British trainers, seven interpreters and 14 Tunisian
trainees) in a public order training program, this paper analyses the perceptions of those three
communication actors regarding under and over-interpreting, unconventional interpreters’ status and roles,
and the limits to their power (or freedom) to assess communication needs and act on their own initiative as
active agents in the interpreted event rather than neutral carriers (or mediators) of meaning. The main
conclusion reached in this study is that there is a general tendency among those actors to accept such
unconventionality and power and expect the extra mile. Thus, professionalism has now come to embrace
the capacity to respond to more requirements than would be expected of a typical professional interpreter.
Practice 6 Text
English into Arabic Creative writings
Who are the Kurds?

Between 20 and 30 million Kurds inhabit a mountainous region straddling the borders of Turkey, Iraq, Syria,
Iran and Armenia. They make up the fourth-largest ethnic group in the Middle East, but they have never
obtained a permanent nation state.
In recent decades, Kurds have increasingly influenced regional developments, fighting for autonomy in
Turkey and playing prominent roles in the conflicts in Iraq and Syria, where they have resisted the advance
of the jihadist group, Islamic State (IS).
Where do they come from?
The Kurds historically led nomadic lives revolving around sheep and goat herding throughout the
Mesopotamian plains and the highlands in what are now south-eastern Turkey, north-eastern Syria,
northern Iraq, north-western Iran and south-western Armenia.
Today, they form a distinctive community, united through race, culture and language, even though they
have no standard dialect. They also adhere to a number of different religions and creeds, although the
majority are Sunni Muslims.
In the early 20th Century, many Kurds began to consider the creation of a homeland - generally referred to
as "Kurdistan". After World War One and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the victorious Western allies
made provision for a Kurdish state in the 1920 Treaty of Sevres.
Such hopes were dashed three years later, however, when the Treaty of Lausanne, which set the
boundaries of modern Turkey, made no provision for a Kurdish state and left Kurds with minority status in
their respective countries. Over the next 80 years, any move by Kurds to set up an independent state was
brutally quashed.
In mid-2013, IS turned its sights on three Kurdish enclaves that bordered its territory in northern Syria. It
launched repeated attacks that until mid-2014 were repelled by the Popular Protection Units (YPG) - the
armed wing of the Syrian Kurdish Democratic Unity Party (PYD). The turning point was an offensive in Iraq
in June that saw IS overrun the northern city of Mosul, routing Iraqi army divisions and seizing weaponry
later moved to Syria.
The jihadists' advance in Iraq also drew that country's Kurds into the conflict. The government of Iraq's
semi-autonomous Kurdistan Region sent its Peshmerga forces to areas abandoned by the army.
For a time there were only minor clashes between IS and the Peshmerga, but in August the jihadists
launched a shock offensive. The Peshmerga withdrew in disarray, allowing several towns inhabited by
religious minorities to fall, notably Sinjar, where thousands of Yazidis where sheltering.
Alarmed by the Peshmerga's defeat and the potential massacre of the Yazidis fleeing Sinjar, the US
launched air strikes in northern Iraq and sent military advisers. European countries meanwhile began
sending weapons to the Peshmerga. The YPG and Turkish Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) also came to
their aid.
Although the jihadists were gradually forced back by the Peshmerga in Iraq, they did not stop trying to
capture the Kurdish enclaves in Syria. In mid-September, IS launched an assault on the enclave around the
northern town of Kobane, forcing more than 160,000 people to flee into Turkey.
Despite this, Turkey refused to attack IS positions near the border or allow Kurds to cross to defend it,
triggering Kurdish protests and a threat from the PKK to pull out of its peace talks with the government.
However, it was not until mid-October that Ankara agreed to allow Peshmerga fighters to join the battle for
Kobane.
Practice 7 Text
Diwali 2014: Should we take time off work to celebrate religious festivals?
Today millions of Hindus celebrate Diwali - whether at home with family, or stuck in the office. Radhika
Sanghani (who's sat at her desk) examines the question of taking annual leave for religious festivals
By Radhika Sanghani
7:00AM BST 23 Oct 2014
I have always loved Diwali. It’s the one time that my family makes a special effort to come together. We eat
home-cooked Indian sweets and our favourite meals. We light fireworks and enjoy street celebrations. Our
house glows with candles, and we spend hours making rangolis - plates decorated with coloured powders.
At least, that’s what Diwali used to be like.
As a child, I would take the day off school to help my mum cook, hang out with my cousins and go to the
temple. Everyone was absent on religious holidays back then and there were no repercussions.
Now I have a full-time job. I can’t just say the magic word ‘religion’ and get a day off. I’d have to use my
annual leave.
But I don’t because, if I'm honest, I’d rather take foreign holidays.
It means that Diwali is no longer the idyllic day it once was. We use a ready-made rangoli and by the time I
get home around 7.30pm, I don’t have time to go to the temple. We just about squeeze-in a meal and a few
fireworks.
Nowadays, Diwali is pretty much a regular family dinner with added candles.
I’m not alone in this. Friends and relatives all do the same. Simply, work has become the bigger priority. We
promise we’ll do it 'properly' next year - but we never do.
It’s sad considering the fact that family is the real joy of Diwali. The festival lasts five days – though today is
Diwali Day – and coincides with the Hindu New Year. It celebrates the triumph of light over darkness and
goodness over evil. It’s all about new beginnings.
Source: The Telegraph, UK
Practice 8 Text
Islamic State: Militants 'pushed back' in Iraq

25 October 2014 Last updated at 17:19 GMT
Kurdish forces in northern Iraq say they have recaptured the town of Zumar from Islamic State militants.
Further south, Iraqi security forces say they are pushing back IS in Jurf al-Sakhar near Baghdad, in a battle
to secure a route used by Shia pilgrims.
Meanwhile the US military said US-led forces made 22 air strikes against IS in Iraq on Friday and Saturday.
IS has seized large swathes of Iraq and Syria since June, prompting air strikes to help ground forces stem
the advance.
In Lebanon, several people were killed and wounded as troops clashed with Sunni militants thought to be
linked to IS in the centre of the second city, Tripoli.
The fighting began on Friday after an incident in an outlying village in which three militants were killed.
The BBC's Jim Muir in Beirut says this is the first time it has flared in the ancient souks, a warren of
alleyways and shops which is a candidate for Unesco world heritage status.
Tripoli is sharply divided along largely sectarian lines between supporters and opponents of Syrian
President Bashar al-Assad, our correspondent says.
Sunnis accuse the army of siding with the Shia Hezbollah movement, a key supporter of Mr Assad, he
adds, but there is political consensus that Sunni radicalism of the IS variety has to be eliminated.
Security of south
In Iraq, Kurdish Peshmerga forces said they had forced the militants from the centre of Zumar and some
surrounding villages with the help of US air support.
The town is 60km (36 miles) north of the city of Mosul, captured by IS in June.
The Peshmerga were driven from Zumar in August in another IS offensive which prompted the US-led air
campaign.
Source: BBC News
Practice 9 Text
English into Arabic Language
Why language is neither an instinct nor innate

20 October 2014 by Alun Anderson
The ideas of Noam Chomsky, popularised by Steven Pinker, come under fire in Vyvyan Evans's book The
Language Myth: Why language is not an instinct
IS THE way we think about language on the cusp of a revolution? After reading The Language Myth, it
certainly looks as if a major shift is in progress, one that will open people's minds to liberating new ways of
thinking about language.
I came away excited. I found that words aren't so much things that can be limited by a dictionary definition
but are encyclopaedic, pointing to sets of concepts. There is the intriguing notion that language will always
be less rich than our ideas and there will always be things we cannot quite express. And there is the
growing evidence that words are rooted in concepts built out of our bodily experience of living in the world.
Its author, Vyvyan Evans, is a professor of linguistics at Bangor University, UK, and his primary purpose is
not so much to map out the revolution (that comes in a sequel) but to prepare you for it by sweeping out old
ideas. The book is sure to whip up a storm, because in his sights are key ideas from some of the world's
great thinkers, including philosophers Noam Chomsky and Jerry Fodor.
Ideas about language that have entered the public consciousness are more myth than reality, Evans
argues. Bestsellers by Steven Pinker, the Harvard University professor who popularised Chomksy in The
Language Instinct, How the Mind Works and The Stuff of Thought, come in for particular criticism. "Science
has moved on," Evans writes. "And to end it all, Pinker is largely wrong, about language and about a
number of other things too..."
The commonplace view of "language as instinct" is the myth Evans wants to destroy and he attempts the
operation with great verve. The myth comes from the way children effortlessly learn languages just by
listening to adults around them, without being aware explicitly of the governing grammatical rules.
This "miracle" of spontaneous learning led Chomsky to argue that grammar is stored in a module of the
mind, a "language acquisition device", waiting to be activated, stage-by-stage, when an infant encounters
the jumble of language. The rules behind language are built into our genes.
This innate grammar is not the grammar of a school textbook, but a universal grammar, capable of
generating the rules of any of the 7000 or so languages that a child might be exposed to, however different
they might appear. In The Language Instinct, Pinker puts it this way: "a Universal Grammar, not reducible
to history or cognition, underlies the human language instinct". The search for that universal grammar has
kept linguists busy for half a century.
They may have been chasing a mirage. Evans marshals impressive empirical evidence to take apart
different facets of the "language instinct myth". A key criticism is that the more languages are studied, the
more their diversity becomes apparent and an underlying universal grammar less probable.
In a whistle-stop tour, Evans tells stories of languages with a completely free word order, including Jiwarli
and Thalanyji from Australia. Then there's the Inuit language Inuktitut, which builds sentences out of
prefixes and suffixes to create giant words like tawakiqutiqarpiit, roughly meaning: "Do you have any
tobacco for sale?" And there is the native Canadian language, Straits Salish, which appears not to have
nouns or verbs.
An innate language module also looks shaky, says Evans, now scholars have watched languages emerge
among communities of deaf people. A sign language is as rich grammatically as a spoken one, but new
ones don't appear fully formed as we might expect if grammar is laid out in our genes. Instead, they gain
grammatical richness over several generations.
Source: The New Scientist
Practice 10 Text
Nick Hornby on his first novel in five years

Interview: the Fever Pitch author on his new book, Funny Girl
By Jessamy Calkin
1:00PM BST 24 Oct 2014
One of Nick Hornby’s great strengths is the scope and range of his characters: Funny Girl, his new novel, is
set in the 1960s and is the story of Barbara Parker, who wins Miss Blackpool but resigns after an hour
when she realises what it entails. What Barbara really wants is to become a comedienne, so she moves up
to London, gets a job in Derry & Toms department store, is spotted by an agent and sent to audition for a
pilot for a television comedy. The series, Barbara (and Jim), is taken up by the BBC, and the book – which
spans five decades – is the story of that series, its characters and their relationships.
Barbara’s heroine is Lucille Ball, who was a primary inspiration for the novel. ‘I think the book properly
began with a biography of her that I read, which made me think about why there hadn’t really been any
English comediennes of that magnitude. It was the invention of a character who existed in this gap that we
seem to have,’ Hornby says.
The book ends in 2014, with a Bafta tribute and a theatrical reunion. Hornby knew that his story would
finish in the present day with the characters getting old, but he didn’t know how he was going to get there.
‘The 1960s is a time that people associate with youth, and there’s a poignancy in that generation becoming
elderly,’ he says. The novel is very much of the 1960s, though Hornby didn’t want it to be about the 1960s.
He got in the mood by reading the exhaustive books by the social historian David Kynaston, and watching a
lot of old television (Till Death Us Do Part and The Likely Lads). Real and fictional characters and events
mix seamlessly, and the book is peppered with photographs and illustrations, including a fictional book
cover. The art department at Penguin had fun with that.
It is a sparky, funny, charming book, with lively characterisation, an artful structure and plenty of Hornby’s
fluid, sprightly dialogue. Its central and most beguiling relationship is that of the scriptwriting duo Tony
Holmes and Bill Gardiner, who met in a police holding cell when they were arrested (separately) on
suspicion of importuning, and entertain each other by reciting episodes of Hancock’s Half Hour. They are
both gay (though Tony gets married in the book), but are careful about disguising it. Bill, Hornby writes,
‘always made sure that he knew the Test score, and that he dressed badly, and sometimes he made
careful reference to girls. But then, he was afraid, like a lot of men in his position. He was always one
mistake away from prison.’
The most noted comedy writing partnership of the period was Galton and Simpson (name-checked in the
novel several times), who met in a sanatorium while recovering from TB. ‘So I always liked the idea that
you could meet in this unlikely way and form a partnership,’ Hornby says. ‘But I don’t know much about
their lives other than their work. It was really about the shape of their relationship. I was thinking more
about Lennon and McCartney than Galton and Simpson – the steady one with commercial instincts and the
one who wants to freak out and push everything as far as he can until it collapses – that was the pattern I
used for them.’
Source: The Telegraph, UK
Practice 11 Text
English into Arabic Creative writings
Journalists in Danger
November 3, 2014
American journalist James Foley was killed at the hands of the Islamic State militant group.
Two months ago, the Kurdish journalist Muhanad Akidi was captured by the Islamic State while reporting
from the Iraqi city of Mosul. He was 37 years old and worked for a local news agency. On Oct. 13, he, his
brother and two other civilians were reportedly executed by militants because they refused to pledge
allegiance to the Islamic State. His murder follows the death of an Iraqi cameraman, Raad al-Azzawi, who
was publicly killed by the Islamic State earlier in October.
The individuals who murdered Mr. Akidi and Mr. al-Azzawi are unlikely to be brought to justice. The same
holds true for the men who beheaded the journalists James Foley and Steven Sotloff. Unfortunately, most
individuals who kill journalists are never held accountable—as many as nine out of 10. In the past 10 years,
more than 500 journalists have been murdered, many in grisly circumstances. November 2 marks the
second International Day to End Impunity for Crimes Against Journalists, which seeks to highlight the
targeting of journalists and others for “exercising their right to freedom of expression.”
This initiative builds on the work of the U.N. Security Council, which passed Resolution 1738 in 2006, which
referred to the urgency and importance of protecting journalists. The resolution is welcome, but clearly has
not had the desired impact. Continued attention to the right to freedom of expression, which is enshrined in
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is needed. The United Nations should consider developing
international protocols for responding to the jailing of journalists, as recommended by the Committee to
Protect Journalists.
The urgency of the issue is most evident in Syria. More than 70 journalists have been killed since the civil
war began in 2011, and approximately 30 remain unaccounted for. Many war correspondents no longer
travel into Syria for fear of kidnapping or murder. Journalists also face threats in nearby Egypt and Turkey.
Since the military assumed power in Egypt, 44 journalists have been detained by the government. Three Al
Jazeera reporters were convicted in June of conspiring with the Muslim Brotherhood and filing false reports.
Lina Attalah, the chief editor of Mada Masr, an online newspaper, said, “There is a feeling that we are not
able to practice the journalism we had hoped to after the revolution.” In Turkey, the government continues
to jail journalists at an alarming rate.
The tumult of the Arab Spring is one reason for the targeting of journalists, but the conditions of the new
media age also play a role. Individuals equipped with cell phone cameras can now work as journalists, a
development that can help launch democratic movements but has also put these individuals in danger.
Meanwhile, the diminishment of traditional foreign news reporting, sponsored by newspapers and television
stations, has led to a greater reliance on freelance journalists, who do not receive the same degree of
institutional support. Many freelancers have to pay for their own protective gear and war-zone insurance.
Source: America Magazine
Scaffolding material 1 Parallel texts
English into Arabic

Text 1:
Media Research Report ‫تاِّيِّ البحث العاليم‬
The MRR starts by giving the reader a basis for
understanding what is covered and in which context. PART II, ‫يت هل تاِّيِّ البحث العاليم اب طلء الالحيء خصال ليفهم عىل خسلسه مل قيل ن السالم‬
the core section of report, surveys media coverage on a ‫ و و الاتم اجلو ِّي يف ذا‬،‫ ويت عايص اجلزء الثلين‬.‫واملتلمني ويف خي س يلق قيل‬
thematic basis. Each chapter presents several exhibits of ‫ ويادم لك اصل عدة ِّوض‬. ‫ العغطية العالمية عىل خسلس موضوع اخلطل‬،ِّ‫العاِّي‬
events in the media and extrapolates the key outcomes of the
way the events were covered. A wide selection of media ‫للاداث كنا وحد يف وسلئل العالم ويت عنبف النعلجئ الِّئست ية للطِّياة اليت غطيت هبل‬
sources were chosen for study in order to ensure the report ‫ وقد ارتلح العاِّيِّ لهذه ادلحاسة مجموعة كبرية من املصلدح العالمية ليضمن‬.‫تكل الاداث‬
would document the full range of perceptions of Islam that
exist in the mainstream media. The most significant criteria in ‫ واكُ خمه معيلح يف‬،‫توقيال لادح كبري من العصوحا اليت حتملهل وسلئل العالم التلئدة‬
selecting specific media outlets are their degree of influence ‫ يف اشلحة ا ى‬،‫مطلاذ اعالمي ٍة غعيهنل و ماداح تأقري ل يف طشكيل اخلطل املعلرص‬ َ ‫ارتيلحه‬
in shaping contemporary discourse. This refers to the ‫تأقري املنلاذ العالمية عىل امجلهوح وعىل اجلهل الِّئست ية الفلعةل وعىل دواا العصوحا‬
influence media outlets have on the general public as well as
the key actors and drivers behind media perceptions in the ‫ ويا الاتم العليل من العاِّيِّ يف اجلزء الثللث اذلي يلخص‬.‫العالمية يف الصنلعة العالمية‬
industry. In the next section, PART III is a summary of Muslim ‫املبلدحا السالمية الِّامية ا ى مض صوهتل ا ى املنلقشل الغِّغية ادلائِّة حو السالم‬
initiatives attempting to add their voices to the Western
discussion on Islam & Muslims. Then PART IV details a short ‫ مث يوحد اجلزء الِّاغ قلمئة قصرية جملموعة من ال نا الدغية واسعة النتشلح واليت‬.‫واملتلمني‬
list of widely spread literary works that can be used as ‫من املمكن خُ تكوُ مللل حيعذي ملن يِّغبوُ يف معِّاة الكلري ن كيفية تنلو اخلطل احلليل‬
exemplars for those wishing to know more about how to ‫ وينهيي ذا العاِّيِّ يف اجلزء اخللمس غعِّض ملدة خكرث معال للاِّاء‬.‫من وةة نظِّ اجيلغية‬
approach the current discourse in a positive light. The report
is capped off in PART V with some more in depth material for ُ‫ واملاصود من ذا الاتم خ‬،‫الِّاغبني يف اهم العالم والعصوحا العلمة عىل مت عو خعىل‬
readers wishing to understand the media as well as popular ‫يزود الالحيء غأسلس ليفهم عىل نوح مطه كيفية ادلرو ا ى البة اخلطل التلئد عىل خسلس‬ ‫ح‬
perceptions at a higher level. This section is intended to offer
a basis for a conceptual understanding of how to enter the
.‫املفل مي الواحدة ايه‬
prevalent discourse.
Text 2:
Is it Terrorism to Attack Terrorists? ‫ل يعد اله وم عىل الح لغيني اح ًلاب؟‬
By Allan Thompson
Terrorism is politically motivated violence intended to ‫ اعندمل مت‬.‫الح ل و نف انشئ ن خس بل س يلس ية يِّيم ا ى العخويف وغث الِّ ب‬
intimidate and terrify. When the U.S. Embassies were .‫ قِّح واش نطن الِّد‬،‫قصف سفلحيت الولاي املعحدة المِّيكية يف كينيل واتنزانيل ابلاطلغل‬
bombed in Kenya and Tanzania, Washington decided to
retaliate. On Aug. 20, 1998, the U.S. launched military strikes ‫ رضاب تكِّية عىل مل ا عادوا‬،0992 ‫ خغتطس‬81 ‫ يف‬،‫ شنت الولاي املعحدة‬،‫ذلكل‬
at what they believed were terrorist-related bases in ‫خهنل قواعد مِّتبطة ابلح لغيني يف خاغل ت علُ والتوداُ ل عالدمه خُ ذه امجللعل قلمت‬
Afghanistan and Sudan. They believed these groups played a ‫ ويِّ البعض خُ الانعالم واس ععِّاض الاوة يه من‬.‫غدوح حئسيس يف تفجريا التفلحتني‬
key role in the embassy bombings. Some believe that
retaliation and a show of force are acts of self-defence that will ِّ‫ وي‬. ‫خ نا ادلالع ن النفس اليت س عؤد يف هنلية املطل ا ى الاضلء عىل الح ل‬
eventually result in the destruction of terrorism. Others believe .‫البعض الرِّ خُ ذا اله وم مل يكن سو تظل ِّة قوة غلمشة ضد الشعب الاغلين‬
that this attack was merely a demonstration of power and
brute force against the Afghan people.
‫ولاد صلغت الولاي املعحدة عدة نالط لعربيِّ اله نا الانعالمية يف خاغل ت علُ والتوداُ؛‬
The U.S. has formulated many points to justify the reprisal ِّ‫ ينبغي خل مت‬،‫ملل رض التفلحا المِّيكية‬،‫ "اُ ال نا الح لغية‬:‫اتاو الداحة المِّيكية‬
attacks in Afghanistan and Sudan. "Terrorist acts, such as the
bombing of the U.S. embassies, should not go unpunished", .‫ وجيب كبح مجناح الهديد املععلظم لله نا الح لغية عىل ال دا المِّيكية‬. ‫دوُ ال‬
the US administration says. "The mounting threat of terrorist ُ‫ وجيب ايالاهم قبل خ‬،‫افصلئل الاتةل ؤلء هلم خ دا يععذح ادلالع هنل وقطلغل كثرية‬
attacks on American targets must be controlled. These
murderous factions have untenable goals and unlimited ‫ " وقد خيد الفلء الولاي املعحدة الاذ ووصفوه غأنه‬. ‫يفلت زملم الموح لكبح الح ل‬
bombs, and they must be stopped before terrorism gets out of . ‫مجزء من جمهود علملي حمللحغة الح ل‬
hand." U.S. allies supported the bombings and described
them as part of a global effort to combat terrorism.
‫ جيلد البعض غأُ الولاي املعحدة نفتهل تاوم ابحتاك اح ًلاب دول ًيل‬،‫وعىل النايض من ذكل‬
Conversely, some argue that the U.S. is committing ‫ "اُ ذا الاصف لسس دالعًل ن النفس كنا تد ي‬:‫حيث جيلد حمللوُ س يلس يوُ قلئلني‬
international terrorism themselves. "These bombings are not
self-defense as the U.S. claims because the attacks on the
" ‫مبلرشا عىل البدل نفتهل‬
ً ‫الولاي املعحدة لُ اله نا عىل التفلحا مل متثل هتديدً ا‬
embassies did not pose an immediate danger to the country
itself ", political analysts argue.
Text 3:
The King of Love ‫مكل احلب‬
By Thomas Frederick Crane
Once upon a time there was a man with three daughters, ‫حيىك خُ حجال اكُ هل قالث غنل واكُ يكتب حزقه مجم مل جتود غه الطبيعة من‬
who earned his living by gathering wild herbs. One day he
took his youngest daughter with him. They came to a ‫ ويف خاد الايم اصطحب اغنته الصغِّ مث دحجل ا ى ادياة وغدءا يف مجين‬، ‫خ شل‬
garden, and began to gather vegetables. The daughter ‫ ويف تكل القنلء‬،‫رس انظِّإل جفذتهل لعاتلعهل‬
‫ وقعت ينل الفتلة عىل اجةل خ ح‬. ‫اخلرضوا‬
saw a fine radish, and began to pull it up, when suddenly ‫ "مللذا اتحمت اب س يدي؟ لموا معي عىل الفوح لري‬: ‫ظهِّ حجل تِّيك جفأة وطتلء‬
a Turk appeared, and said: "Why have you opened my
master's door? You must come in now, and he will decide ".‫حخيه بشأُ التمك‬
on your punishment."
They went down into the ground, more dead than alive;
،‫نزلوا ا ى املنطاة احمليطة ابملزن يف الةل اكنوا خقِّ االل ا ى املو مهنم ا ى احليلة‬
and when they were seated they saw a green bird come in ‫و ندمل خخذوا جمللتهم حخوا طلئِّا خررض اللوُ قد خقبل حنو وعلء ميلء ابللنب الغتتل‬
and bathe in a pan of milk, then dry itself, and become a ‫ "مل يبغي‬:‫ مث خلطب الِّجل التيك قلئال‬،ِّ‫ايه مث مجفف نفته وغدا اتيل الو املنظ‬
handsome youth. He said to the Turk: "What do these
persons want?" "Your worship, they pulled up a radish, ‫ لاد اقتلعل جفةل واتحل اب‬،‫ "س يلدتك‬:‫ذاُ الشخصلُ؟" اِّد عليه الِّجل التيك قلئال‬
and opened the door of the cave." "How did we know," ‫ "ومل خدحاان خُ ذا غست جاللعك؟ لاد حخ اغنيت جفةل قد‬:‫" اال خ الفتلة‬.‫الكهف‬
said the father, "That this was Your Excellency's house?
My daughter saw a fine radish; it pleased her, and she
‫ الُ اغنتك ذه ستباى نل‬،‫ "خمل والمِّ كذكل‬:‫" حد الت يد عليه غاوهل‬.‫خجعبهل القتلعهل‬
pulled it up." "Well, if that's the case," said the master, ِّ‫ واذا خحببت خُ ت‬،‫زوجة يل؛ خمل خنت خفذ ذا الكسس اململوء ذ بل وانرص حاشدا‬
"your daughter shall stay here as my wife; take this sack . ‫" اتك الِّجل اغنته وانرص‬.‫ زحان عىل الِّحب والتعة كنك يف غستك‬،‫اغنتك‬
of gold and go; when you want to see your daughter,
come and make yourself at home." The father took leave
of his daughter and went away.
When the master was alone with her, he said: "You see,
‫ "انظِّي اي حوزل (حوزدا)؛ خنت الُ س يدة يف ذا‬:‫و ندمل ارتىل الت يد ابلفتلة قل لهل‬
Rosella (Rusidda), you are now mistress here," and gave ‫ ااكُ من شأُ الفتلة اذ ذاك خُ مغِّهتل التعلدة وخللطت‬،‫" وخ طل ل لك املفلتيح‬.ُ‫املاك‬
her all the keys. She was perfectly happy (literally, "Was .‫شغل قلهبل‬
happy to the hairs of her head").
One day, while the green bird was away, her sisters took it ‫ و ندمل سألو ل‬،‫ زم خروا الفتلة عىل زايحهتل‬،‫ويف خاد الايم والطلئِّ الررض غلئبل‬
into their heads to visit her, and asked her about her
husband. Rosella said she did not know, for he had made
ُ‫ن زوةل خخربهتم خهنل ل تعِّ نه شسئل اذ قد خخذ علالل زوةل هدا خل حتلو خ‬
her promise not to try to find out who he was. Her sisters, ِّ‫ و ندمل علد الطلئ‬،‫ غيد خُ خرواهتل حلو ل عىل معِّاة ذكل مطه‬،‫تعِّ من يكوُ و‬
however, persuaded her, and when the bird returned and ‫ "مل‬:‫ اتألهل زوةل‬،‫ جلء حوزل واحلزُ عىل حميل ل‬،‫خدحاجه وحتو ا ى حجل‬
became a man, Rosella put on a downcast air. "What is
the matter?" asked her husband. "Nothing." "You had ‫" اتكعه يِّدد علالل‬.‫ "جيدح غك خُ ختربيين‬:‫" اال الزوج‬.‫ "ل يشء‬:‫اخلطب؟" االلت‬
better tell me." She let him question her a while, and at ".‫ "خيللطين احلزُ لنين خحغب يف معِّاة امسك‬:‫خس ئلعه ويف الهنلية قللت هل‬
last said: "Well, then, if you want to know why I am out of
sorts, it is because I wish to know your name."
Text 4:
Translators` Practical Approach To Translation ‫مدخل املتمج ا ى التمجة‬
Deen Bahri
Translation is a process of translating from one language
(source language) to a different language (target ‫ اعىل سبيل‬.) ‫التمجة معلية نال من لغة (اللغة املصدح) ا ى لغة خمعلفة (اللغة الهد‬
language). For example, in translating a document from ‫ تكوُ الوقياة الجنلزيية يه النص‬،‫ يف تِّمجة وقياة من الجنلزيية ا ى املللزيية‬، ‫املثل‬
English to Malay, the English document is the source text
while the target text is Malay (the language used in .)‫املصدح يف اني خُ النص الهد ابللغة املللزيية (ويه اللغة املت عخدمة يف مللزياي‬
Malaysia).
When a translator is given a translation job, the translator

.‫ جيب خُ ياِّخ خو ًل الوقياة الصلية هل‬،‫و ندمل يتتمل املتمج خاد خ نا التمجة‬
should read the whole source language document first.
‫ والعابل املمكطة اليت قد يواةهل خال معل‬،‫و ذا رضوحي لعحديد خسلو النص‬
This is necessary to determine the style of the text, the
possible obstacles that may be faced during the ‫ ميكن للمتمج غعد ل‬،‫ واستطلدًا لهذه الموح‬.‫التمجة وتنظمي استاتي يل التمجة املنلس بة‬
translation work and to organize the appropriate .‫خُ ياِّح قبو خو حاض معل التمجة‬
translation strategies. Based on these, the translator could
then decide whether to accept the translation work or not.
:‫ جيب خُ حميِّ خبطوا معلية التمجة العللية‬،‫الُ وااق املتمج عىل معل التمجة‬
If the translator accepts the translation work, the translator
would have to go through the following translation
process:
.‫ حتليل النص املصدح لكتشل معنله‬.0 ‫رطوة‬
Step 1. Analyze the source text to discover its meaning
Step 2. Find the closest meaning in the target language ‫ اجيلد خقِّ معىن يف اللغة الهد‬.8 ‫رطوة‬
Step 3. Arrange and re-express the meanings according
to the sentence structure of the target language. And it ‫ ولغدح‬. ‫ تِّتسب املعلين واعلدة الععبري هنل طباًل لتكيب امجلةل يف اللغة الهد‬.3 ‫رطوة‬
must also be in context with the communication and . ‫خيضً ل خُ يكوُ يف س يلق طبيعة العواصل والثالاة يف اللغة الهد‬
culture of the target language.
After the translation process, the translated text is .‫ الُ النص املتمج يععرب املتودة املبدئية ولسس النتخة الهنلئية غعد‬،‫وغعد معلية التمجة‬
considered as the initial draft and not the completed ‫ لغدح من ارتبلح‬،‫اابل اماكنية طتلميه للعميل خو اماكنية ا عبلحه النتخة الاكمةل للتمجة‬
version yet. Before it can be handed over to the client or
can be considered as the completed translation version, .‫ذه املتودة خو ًل‬
this draft must be tested first.
Why this test is required? It is required in order to make

‫مللذا ذا الارتبلح مطلو ؟ انه مطلو للعأكد من خُ املعىن املناو من خال التمجة‬
sure that the meaning which is conveyed by the .‫ وخُ خسلو اللغة املت عخدمة طبيعي ومطلسب‬،‫دقيق وواحض‬
translation is accurate and clear, and that the style of the
language used is natural and appropriate.
‫ واسأ‬،‫ مق هبذا الارتبلح البت يف للتمجة اذلاتية مبالحنة التمجة ابلنص الصيل‬:‫خو ًل‬
First, do this simple self-translation test by comparing the :‫الس ئةل العللية‬
translation with the original text and ask the following
questions:
‫ل اادَ معىن مل؟‬
Is there meaning which has been lost?
Is there meaning which has been added?

َ ُ‫ل خ‬
‫ضيف معىن مل؟‬
Is there meaning which has been altered? ‫ل تب َّد معىن مل؟‬

Is the arrangement of words in the translation is very
similar to the arrangement of words in the source ُ‫ل تِّتسب اللكنا يف التمجة يش به جدً ا تِّتسب اللكنا يف اللغة املصدح؟ اُ اك‬
language. If that is so, then it is possible that the language ‫ مفن املمكن خُ تكوُ اللغة املت عخدمة غري طبيعية ابلنت بة ا ى مجهوح‬،‫المِّ كذكل‬
which has been used is not very natural to the target
language audience. . ‫اللغة الهد‬
Then, do a second-person test by getting help from a few
other people who were not involve in the translation work ‫اثُ ن طِّيق تلاحي املتلعدة من عدد‬ٍ ٍ ِّ‫ مق غعمل ارتبلح من خال ط‬،‫وغعد ذكل‬
to read the translation aloud. . ٍ ‫قليل من الشخلص الرِّين اذلين مل يشتكوا يف معل التمجة لاِّاءة التمجة غصو ٍ عل‬
During this test, notice the following: :‫وخال ذا الارتبلح لحظ مل ييل‬
Are the readers or listeners able to understand the
information correctly? ‫ل الاِّاء خو املت تمعوُ قلدحوُ عىل اهم املعلومل غصوحة حصيحة؟‬
Is the information clear enough for them, and is it easily ‫ل املعلومل واحضة غدحجة اكاية ابلنت بة هلم وسهةل الفهم؟‬
understood?
‫ل تبدو هلم املعلومل مجيدة وطبيعية؟‬

Does it sound good and natural to them?
Difficulty in reading: :‫الصعوغة يف الاِّاءة‬

This is possibly be caused by unnatural language used in
the translation. .‫حمبل يعود ذا ا ى اللغة غري الطبيعية املت عخدمة يف التمجة‬
Sentences where the reader stops, hesitates or rereads ُ‫ وميكن خ‬.‫اجلمل اليت طت عد ي من الالحئ العوقف خو التدد خو اعلدة قِّاءة يشء مل‬
something. This could possibly mean that the sentences
are understood with difficulty or are not understood at all.
.‫يعين ذا خُ اجلمل صعبة الفهم خو غري مفهومة عىل الطالق‬
After these questions have been answered satisfactorily, .‫ ميكن ااف خُ يكوُ معل التمجة مكتم ًال‬،‫وغعد اجلغة ذه الس ئةل غصوحة مِّضية‬
only then the translation work is completed.
Text 5:
‫احسق نيوتن‬
saac Newton
.....
،‫ي َع ُّد التري احسق نيوتن ال َع َ َمل التِّز من غني خعالم الثوحة العلمية يف الاُِّ التلغ رش‬
The chief figure of the scientific revolution of the َ ‫ و و اذلي َو حس‬،‫اهذا الفزياييئ والِّاييض و من خحىس قواعد عمل العفلضل والعاكمل‬
seventeenth century was Sir Isaac Newton. He was a
physicist and mathematician who laid the foundations of ُ‫ واكتشف قلنو‬،‫ ودحس خليل حِّكة الكواكب‬،‫من مداحكنل ن اللَّوُ والضوء‬
calculus, extended the understanding of color and light, .‫اجللذغية‬
studied the mechanics of planetary motion, and َ
‫ افي‬."‫غ َ ْيدَ خ َُّ العمل ال َج َّل اذلي ق َّد َمه نيوتن و اكتشلاه ملل خسناه "نظلم اجللذغية العلم‬
discovered the law of gravitation.
Isaac Newton's supreme scientific work was his system of ،‫ جلأ نيوتن ا ى مزح عه ِّ ًاب من وابء الطل وُ اذلي رض البالد خنذاك‬،0111 ‫علم‬
universal gravitation. He went to his farm in 1665 to avoid ‫ اس عنبف قلنوُ اجللذغية والاثح املتتبة عليه يف النظلم‬،‫وخال الفتة اليت قضل ل نلك‬
the plague, and during this time he worked out the law of
gravity and its consequences for the solar system. This ِّ‫ "مل اذلي جيعل الام‬:‫ وجلء ذا الالنوُ َحدَّا عىل سؤا تبلدح ذل ن نيوتن‬.‫الشميس‬
law arose from Newton's question: what keeps the moon ‫يت بح يف الكه حو الحض ابنعظلم دوُ خُ حييد ن متلحه قَ ْيدَ خُن ْم َةل؟" لاد قلد ذا‬
in its regular path around the Earth? He concluded that ‫التؤا نيوتن ا ى اس عنتلج خُ مل من يشء يعلل ذه الظل ِّة سو ومجود معلية جتلذ‬
only their attraction for each other could account for it. He
later remarked to a friend that he got the idea while ‫ قد ذكِّ لصديق هل خنه توصل‬،‫ يف اتة لحاة‬،‫ واكُ نيوتن‬.‫غني ذين اجلِّمني التناويني‬
watching an apple fall from a tree in his orchard. .‫ا ى اكِّة اجللذغية ذه خقنلء مِّاقبعه لعفلاة ويه طتاف من جشِّة يف بت علنه‬
Every particle of matter in the universe, he wrote, attracts
every other particle with a force varying in inverse ‫ "اُ خي مجت ٍمي من امللدة يف ذا الكوُ جيذ خي‬:‫وخَل َص نيوتن غالنوُ للجلذغية قلئ ًال‬
proportion to the square of the distance between them, ‫ يف اني خُ ذه الاوة ذاهتل‬،‫ملدي خرِّ غاوة تتطلسب كت ًل م مِّغ املتلاة غسهننا‬
and directly proportional to the product of their masses.
‫مج َت ٍمي ٍ ح‬
".‫تتطلسب طِّدا م انجت رض كعليت ذين اجل َت ْي َم ْني‬
Text 6:
The Manslaye ‫الْاَـلتـل‬

A man committed a murder, and was pursued by the
relations of the man whom he murdered. On his reaching ‫ َوقَل َدتْه‬.‫ْاحتَكَ َب َحج ٌل َمجِّمي َ َة قَتْلٍ َّمث خَ ْطل َ َق َسلقَه ل حلِّحي؛ اَ َط َلحدَه خَقَلح الْاَتيل؛ ل َينَللوا مطْه‬
the river Nile he saw a Lion on its bank and being fearfully ‫ ل َ ْم‬،ٌ‫ اَأَ َصلغَه ر َْو ٌ شَ ديد‬،‫ َو نَلكَ َحخَ خَ َسدً ا ضَ لح ًاي عَ َىل ضَ فَّته‬،‫قَدَ َمله ا َ ى هنَ ِّْ النحيل‬
ِ ْ
afraid, climbed up a tree to escape from the Lion. He
َ َ ْ ‫ َوغَسْط َ َمل يَفْ َعل َذ َكل ا ْذ خَغ‬.‫كل َم َعه الَّ خَ ُْ يَت َ َتل َّ َق َجش ََِّ ًة م َجلو َح ًة للْف َِّاح م ْن تَ َِّاثن ا َل َسد‬
‫رص‬ ‫ي َ ْم‬
found a spotted serpent in the upper branches of the tree, ِ ْ ِ
and again being greatly alarmed, he threw himself into the ‫ َح َّىت خَن َّه‬،‫عَ َىل ا َلغْ َصلُ العلْ َيل للشَّ َ َِّة َحيَّ ًة َحقْ َط َلء؛ اَأَ َصلغَه م َن ُّاذل ِّْ الشَّ ديد َمل خَ َصلغَه‬
river, where a crocodile caught him and devoured him. .‫ َوالْهَ َ َمه‬،‫ َو نَلكَ انْاَ َّض عَل َ ْيه ت ْم َت ٌلح َرش ٌس‬،ِّْ َّ‫خَلْاَى غنَ ْفته يف الهن‬
Thus the earth, the air, and the water alike refused shelter
to a murderer. َّ ‫َو َ كَ َذا َحاَضَ ْت ا َل ْحض َو‬
‫الت َم‬
Text 7:
Mideast Peace Talks ‫حملداث التالم يف الرشق الوسف‬
The highlights of the first week of the Washington round of
talks, which ended last Thursday, were Israel's proposal
‫اكُ خمه موضوع يف واش نطن و املاتال الرسائيلية بشأُ احلمك اذلايت احملدود‬
for limited autonomy for Palestinians in the occupied West ‫للفلتطينسني يف الضفة الغِّغية وقطلع غزة احملعلني وغدء حواح ممثِّ واجيليب غني ارسائيل‬
Bank and Gaza Strip, and the start of a meaningful ‫ ابس عثطلء النغمة الجيلغية والعحتن يف اجلو العلم مالحنة م اجلول‬،‫ ولكن‬.‫وسوحاي‬
dialogue between Israel and Syria. However, beyond the
positive tone and improved atmosphere compared to ‫ مل طتفِّ ذه اجلوةل حىت الُ ن تادم كبري عيل مل يبدو‬،‫التلغاة من احمللداث الثنلئية‬
earlier rounds of bilateral talks, there was little apparent
progress on fundamental issues.
.‫يف الاضلاي اجلو ِّية‬
Israel is offering the Palestinians an elected administrative ‫وتاتح ارسائيل عىل الفلتطينسني طشكيل جملس اداحي مطعخب ملدة مخس س نوا يف‬
council for a five-year period in the occupied territories. In ‫ وتِّ خُ د احمللداث الِّا نة التفلق عيل تفلصيل تِّتسبل مؤقتة‬.‫الحايض احملعةل‬
its view, the purpose of the current talks is to work out an
interim arrangement for limited autonomy, with a final ‫حلمك ذايت حمدود م احجلء الاِّاح الهنليئ ملت عابل الحايض احملعةل ليعاِّح يف مفلوضل‬
decision on the future of the territories being deferred for ‫اتلية اب اتة جتِّيبية من الععليش غني الطِّاني وينظِّ الفلتطينيوُ ايل ذه اخلطوة‬
subsequent negotiations after a trial period of co-
existence. The Palestinians see this as a reworking of ‫عىل خهنل اهنلء اعلدة صيلغة ماتال سلغاة ويِّيدوُ طشكيل يئة تتمع غصالحيل‬
former proposals, and want a body that would have ‫طرشيعية وياو الرسائيليوُ من ةهم اُ ذكل س يكوُ مبثلغة تِّمللُ ذي س يلدة وعىل‬
legislative powers. The Israelis counter that that would . ‫ذكل اهو غري مابو‬
amount to a sovereign parliament and is unacceptable.
Text 8:
The Crow and the Snake ‫الْغ َاِّا َوالْحيَّـة‬

A hungry Crow spied a Snake lying asleep in a sunny
spot, and, picking it up in his claws, he was carrying it off .‫ ومل جيدْ م َن الطعلم مل ي َت ُّد غه َمج ْو َ عَه‬،‫حي َْىك خَ َُّ غِّا ًاب اش ع َّد غه اجلوع يف يو ٍم من الايم‬
to a place where he could make a meal of it without being ُْ َ‫ ومل خ‬.‫ اَغ ََِّّتْه نفته ابلن ْاضلض علالل‬،‫وملل غل َغ غه اليأس مبلغَه حخ حي ًة انمئ ًة يف الظل‬
disturbed, when the Snake reared its head and bit him. It
was a poisonous Snake, and the bite was fatal, and the
‫ وخداح ْ حخ َسهل ا ى الغِّا‬،‫وطلح هبل حىت خالقت الْح َّية من س بلهتل‬
َ ‫خَ ْشَ َب االل خملل َبه‬
dying Crow said, "What a cruel fate is mine! I thought I ‫ واش ع َّد‬، ‫الت ُّم يف مجتد الغِّا‬ ُّ ‫ وملل رس‬.‫الكُهل عىل الحض‬ َ َ‫ اتاف‬، ٍ‫ودلغ ْعه يف ماتل‬
had made a lucky find, and it has cost me my life!" ‫ "اي يل من شا ٍي ت َع ٍس؛ اذ جلبت عىل نفيس‬:‫ىس‬ ً ‫ قل َ يف حرس ٍة وخ‬، ‫غه خَل َم املو‬
".‫ وقد ظننت خَ َُّ يف ذاكَ التبيل سعلديت‬، َ‫الهالك‬
Text 9:
Truth and the Traveler ِّ‫الْ َحاياَـة َوالْم َتلاا‬
A wayfaring man, traveling in the desert, met a woman
standing alone and terribly dejected. He inquired of her, ‫يه يف َا َلةل ا ْح َب ٍلط‬ َّ ‫الْعَاَى َحج ٌل ح َّال ٌةل خَقْنَ َلء َسفَِّه يف‬
َ ‫ َو‬،ً‫الص َح َِّ َاء ا ْم َِّخَ ًة ت َاف َوحيدَ ة‬
ِ
"Who are you?" "My name is Truth," she replied. "And for ‫ َ"و َمل َّاذلي‬: َ ‫ اَاَل‬."‫ " َخانَ الْ َحاياَة‬:‫ " َم ْن خَن ْت؟ اَأَ َجلغ َ ْعه قَلئ َ ًةل‬:‫ اَلقْ َ َت َ مهنْ َل َو َسأَلَهَل‬.‫شَ دي ٍد‬
what cause," he asked, "have you left the city to dwell
alone here in the wilderness?" She answered, "Because in
‫الت ْك َىن َوحيدَ ًة‬ُّ ‫ َو‬، ‫الص ْح َبة الَّيت َل تَنْاَط‬ ُّ ‫ َو‬،‫َدعَلك ا َ ى ََهِّْ الْ َمدينَة َح ْيث الْ َح َيلة الْ َبلذخَة‬
ِ
former times, falsehood was with few, but is now with all ،‫ َاك َُ الْ َبلطل ي َصلحب عَدَ دًا قَلي ًال م َن النَّلس‬،‫ " َلن َّه اميَل َم ََض‬:‫ اَاَلل َ ْت‬."‫نَل يف الْ َ حربيَّة؟‬
men." ."‫ َوالْخَليفَة يف ا َل ْل َوالْ َو َدل‬،َِّ‫التف‬ َّ ‫الصلحب يف القَل َمة َو‬ َّ ‫خَ َّمل الْ َي ْو َم اَه َو‬
ِ
Text 10:
Fighting Continues in Croatia ‫اس تمِّاح الاتل يف كِّواتيل‬
Fighting has been continuing in the Yugoslav Republic of
Croatia, as forces of the federal government keep up their
pressure around various key parts of the republic. The ‫اس تمِّ الاتل يف مجهوحية كِّواتيل اليوغوسالاية غعد خُ واصلت قوا احلكومة الاحتلدية‬
Croats say the situation around several towns to the south ‫ وتاو املصلدح الكِّواتية اُ الوض يف‬،‫ضغطهل يف عدة مطلطق حيوية يف امجلهوحية‬
of Zagreb remains critical, with their forces resisting heavy
attacks by federal army tanks.
‫املنلطق احمليطة غعدة مدُ مجطويب زغِّ ل يزا حِّجل؛ حيث تالوم الاوا الكِّواتية‬
.‫َهنا نيفة طش هنل علالل داباب اجلسش الاحتلدي‬
At the same time, a federal army commander has warned
that his forces might attack Zagreb today, following the fall ُ‫ويف الوقت نفته خنذح خاد قلدة اجلسش الاحتلدي غأُ قواته قد هتلمج زغِّ اليوم غعد خ‬
of an army barracks to the west of the city. The BBC ‫ وياو مِّاسل يئة‬.‫ساطت ثكطة تكِّية يف خيدي الاوا الكِّواتية غِّيب املدينة‬
correspondent in Zagreb says there is a growing sense of ‫الذاعة الربيطلنية يف زغِّ اُ شعوح الالق اذلي يتلوح النلس يف املدينة خخذ يف‬
anxiety there, with air raid sirens sounding continually.
New barricades have been put up around army head ‫ وقد خقميت‬.‫الزتايد؛ نظِّا لُ صفلحا النذاح من الغلحا اجلوية تطلق غصفة مت تمِّة‬
quarters and the main post office building is being ‫ ويعو ى مدنيوُ متلحوُ حناية مكتب الربيد‬.‫متلحيس جديدة حو ماِّ قيلدة اجلسش‬
protected by armed civilians. In eastern Croatia, the ‫ وتاو واكةل النبلء اليوغوسالاية اُ الاوا الاحتلدية والوادا الرصغية احمللية‬.‫الِّئسيس‬
Yugoslav news agency says federal forces and local
Serbian units have made a further advance close to
.‫يف رشق كِّواتيل قد تادمت يف زحفهل ايل مطلطق قِّيبة من خوسسيك‬
Osijek.
Text 11:
Don't Bet on the Accord ‫ل ح لُ عىل اتفلق‬
A look at the latest Palestinian peace deal
‫نظِّة حو اتفلق التالم الفلتطيين الخري‬
Although the conclusion of the Yemeni-brokered peace
deal between Fatah and Hamas in the capital Sanaa is the ‫حمغ خُ وسلطة التالم المينية اليت متت غني حِّكيت اتح وحناس قد ارتتمت خ نالهل يف‬
first official accord between the two parties since they both
went their separate ways in June last year, it was met by
‫العلمصة صنعلء كخطوة خو ى يف سبيل الوصو ا ى اتفلق حمسي غني اجللنبني مطذ وصو‬
less than optimism this week. The editorial of the political ‫ ال خهنل انلت اس عحتلُ قةل من املعفلئلني ذا‬،‫اتفلقية يونيو املليض ا ى طِّيق متدود‬
Jordanian daily Al-Dostour regarded the deal as a step ‫ وصفت‬،‫ افي مة العدد اخللصة مجِّيدة ادلس عوح الت يلسة الحدنية اليومية‬.‫الس بوع‬
forward in the right direction. It said that every Palestinian
or Arab should be relieved and satisfied after the ‫ وقللت اُ الوصو ا ى‬،‫الصحيفة ذا التفلق غأنه رطوة يف اجتله الطِّيق الصحيح‬
conclusion of the deal. However, that feeling is linked to ِّ ‫ وم ذكل اهذه املشل‬. ِّ‫التفلق حبد ذاته من شأنه خُ ينعش خمل الفلتطينسني والع‬
the actual implementation of the deal on the ground in a
way that achieves the rights of the Palestinians.
.‫وتكل المل مِّهتنة غتطفيذ التفلق ومجعهل واقعل ملموسل يصوُ حاوق الفلتطينسني‬
Judging by previous experiences, the editorial warned that ‫ويف تنلولهل لمِّ العجلح التلغاة ااد خحمجعت الصحيفة سبب اةلض اتفلق مكة ا ى‬
the Mecca declaration was aborted as a result of the
interference of external powers. Thus the responsibility is
‫ خمل الُ ااد صلح الكِّة يف ملعب الايلدا الفلتطينية املتمثةل يف‬.‫تدخل قو خلحمجية‬
now in the hands of the Palestinian leaders of both Fatah ‫اتح وحناس ممن يععني علالم غذ قصلح ةدمه للحفلظ عىل ذا التفلق غعيداً ن‬
and Hamas who need to work hard to preserve the new ‫ اهنلك نلرص من اتح وحناس ل تبتغي ال العمل عىل توحيد‬.‫العأقريا اخللحمجية‬
deal and protect it from external influence. "There are
elements within both Fatah and Hamas willing to retain ‫ وعىل النايض من ذكل جند االنا نلرص خرِّ مجعلت مِّاد ل العفِّيق‬، ‫الصفو‬
Palestinian unity whereas there are others which want ِّ‫ وقد يؤثِّ الرصاع غني اجللنبني غصوحة كبرية عىل معلية التالم كنا تذك‬.‫والتش عست‬
nothing but differences. The conflict between the two ‫ وارتتمت احلديث ابلععبري ن المل املنشود و و تفكري اجللنبني حبمكة وحويَّة‬.‫الصحيفة‬
could have a great affect on the peace deal," the editorial
read. It concluded by expressing the hope that Palestinian ‫للخِّوج غامة صنعلء ا ى تِّ الملُ غعيداً ن خي تدخل خلحيج خو خي رصاع داخيل‬
leaders from both sides will act wisely enough to protect .‫ووض املصلحة الفلتطينية اوق خي ا عبلح‬
the Sanaa peace deal from external intervention and
internal conflicts and to put Palestinian interests at the top
of their list of priorities. ‫ذا يف اني اكُ الاكتب واحمللل الت يليس طال ولك خقل تفلؤ ًل من حصيفة‬
‫ وكعب يف حصيفة الايم‬.‫ اذ خشلح ا ى ااتالد التفلق لية ضناان تضمن تنفيذه‬،‫ادلس عوح‬
Talal Owkal was less optimistic than Al-Dostour as he
described the deal as lacking any guarantees. He wrote in ‫اليومية الفلتطينية املت عاةل قلئال اُ حملداث اتح وحناس قبل خايم قليةل من اد‬
the Palestinian independent political daily Al-Ayam that .‫امجامتع الامة العِّغية تثري الشك يف اماكنية جنلح معلية التالم غعد الامة‬
the Fatah-Hamas talks a few days before the convening of
the Arab summit cast doubt on the possibility of the
success of the peace deal after the summit.
In addition, the deal is a mere document that recorded the ،‫وخضل قلئ ًال اُ ذا التفلق مل و ال وقياة تضمنت اتفلق الك الطِّاني عىل النوااي‬
agreement of both parties on intentions but that that sort
of agreement was not enough to raise optimism. Owkal ‫ ومل يِّغب‬. ‫ومن مث اهو اتفلق ل يِّىق ا ى مت عو التفلقل اليت تبعث عىل العفلؤ‬
did not want to appear too pessimistic, saying he would ‫ اال اُ اتفلق التالم ذا يعد رطوة ا ى‬،‫ولك حاياة يف الظهوح مبظهِّ املتشلمئ‬
consider the peace deal a step forward though one which
lacks a number of guarantees, the first of which is that the
‫ خولهل خُ يبدخ الطِّالُ عىل الفوح غوقف‬، ‫ ال خنه يفتاد ا ى كثري من الضناان‬،‫الملم‬
two parties should immediately stop mutual political and .‫محال التشويش املعبلدةل اليت تذيك انح س يلسة العنف والكِّا ية املعأمججة غني اجللنبني‬
disinformation campaigns which is spreading the culture of
violence and hatred towards each other.
‫ويععني خُ طشمل الضناان الرِّ الزتام الك الطِّاني غعاد اتفلقية شلمةل والععبري ن‬
Other guarantees should include the two parties' ‫ وخضل الاكتب‬،‫الِّغبة الصلدقة يف الوصو ا ى رشاكة س يلس ية وحواح واس النطلق‬
commitment to conclude a comprehensive agreement and ‫خنه مبل خُ ارسائيل والولاي املعحدة وغعض الطِّا الرِّ س يعملوُ جل دين عىل‬
their sincere desire to reach a political partnership through
a comprehensive dialogue. The writer added that given ."‫تاويض دعلمئ ذا احلواح "الننل حبلجة ا ى ومجود ضناان ِّغية‬
that Israel, the US and other parties will try to prevent
‫‪Palestinian reconciliation, "we are in need of Arab‬‬ ‫وكعب ولك خنه لزام عىل الالدة العِّ ‪ ،‬خقنلء امجامت هم يف مقة دمشق‪ ،‬خُ يعخذوا قِّاحاً‬
‫‪guarantees.‬‬
‫جد ًاي غعأييد اتفلقية التالم المينية ويواااوا عىل تطبياهل‪ ،‬وخُ علالم خُ ميلحسوا ضغوطل‬
‫عىل لك من حيو دوُ تنفيذ ذه التفلقية‪ ،‬ذكل خُ اناتلم الصف الفلتطيين لن‬
‫ينحرص تأقريه عىل الفلتطينسني وادمه‪ ،‬غل س ميعد لسشمل املنطاة غأرس ل‪.‬‬
‫‪"During the Damascus summit, Arab leaders should issue‬‬
‫‪a clear and strong resolution supporting the Yemeni peace‬‬ ‫ووصفت حصيفة اخلليج الملحاتية املت عاةل اتفلق التالم غأنه اتفلق "انقص"‪ ،‬االك‬
‫‪deal and to agree on ways of implementing it," Owkal‬‬ ‫اجللنبني وق عىل غيلُ قد يتبعه حواح خرِّ غسهننا‪ .‬وابلِّمغ من ذكل اهنلك خال عىل‬
‫‪wrote. Arab leaders should also put pressure on the party‬‬
‫‪or parties that impede the implementation of the deal, as‬‬ ‫الهد من ذا احلواح ومل س يؤدي اليه‪ .‬ويف الوقت نفته اذح التلطل الرسائيلية‬
‫‪the danger of Palestinian divisions does not affect only the‬‬ ‫التلطة الوطنية الفلتطينية من املصلحلة م حناس‪ ،‬واضعة التلطة الفلتطينية غني‬
‫‪Palestinians but the whole region as well.‬‬
‫ريلحين – امل امجِّاء حملداثهتل م ارسائيل خو م حناس‪.‬‬
‫‪The United Arab Emirates independent political daily Al-‬‬ ‫وقللت حصيفة اخلليج الملحاتية يف مة العدد اخللصة‪" :‬لزام عىل اتح وحناس‪ ،‬غعد‬
‫‪Khaleej described the peace deal as incomplete; both‬‬
‫‪parties signed a declaration that could be followed by‬‬
‫الهديدا الرسائيلية اليت تبعت ارتعلم مجوةل املبلحلل يف المين‪ ،‬العوقف والعفكري يف‬
‫‪dialogue between them. However, there are differences‬‬ ‫حد سلمي عىل ذه الهديدا ‪ ،‬وذكل ابعلدة اتح حواح خمال يف الوصو ا ى اتفلق جلد‬
‫‪over the aim of the dialogue and where it would lead them.‬‬ ‫غني الفلتطينسني خيدم مصلحلهم ويوقف خي تدخل يف الش ئوُ الفلتطينية سواء من‬
‫‪Israeli authorities have warned the Palestinian Authority‬‬
‫‪against any reconciliation with Hamas and placed the PA‬‬ ‫قبل ارسائيل خو الولاي املعحدة‪.".‬‬
‫‪before two options -- either talks with Israel or talks with‬‬
‫‪Hamas.‬‬
‫‪"The Israeli threat to the PA after the conclusion of the‬‬ ‫وكعبت حصيفة الادس العِّيب اللندنية اليومية املت عاةل خُ حد الفعل الفلتطيين غعد‬
‫‪Yemeni peace deal should make both Fatah and Hamas‬‬ ‫الهديدا الرسائيلية كشف النال ن ومجود خالال داخل حِّكة اتح نفتهل‪ .‬افي‬
‫‪stop and think of the right response to these threats by‬‬
‫‪reopening a dialogue in the hopes of reaching a serious‬‬
‫الوقت اذلي رصح ايه زام المحد‪ ،‬مطدو اتح يف حملداث صنعلء‪ ،‬خنه طتمل مواااة‬
‫‪Palestinian agreement that would serve the Palestinians‬‬ ‫من الِّئسس الفلتطيين محمود بلس قبل توقيعه عىل التفلقية‪ ،‬الُ متتشلحي بلس‬
‫‪and stop any Israeli or American interference in‬‬ ‫خنكِّوا ذكل‪ .‬كنا خُ بلس نفته وصف التفلقية غأهنل غري ملزمة‪ .‬وا عرب الصحيفة خُ‬
‫‪Palestinian affairs," the Al-Khaleej editorial read.‬‬
‫الاعتاض المِّيل والرسائييل عىل التفلق عالوة عىل هتديد التلطة الفلتطينية و‬
‫التبب اذلي ياف وحاء ارتال املواقف داخل حِّكة اتح‪ ،‬رصوصل خهنل جلء من‬
‫متؤولني كبلح‪.‬‬
‫‪The London-based independent political daily Al-Quds Al-‬‬ ‫ورصح انئب الِّئسس المِّيل ديك طشسين للمِّاسلني‪ ،‬خقنلء زايحته للرشق الوسف‪،‬‬
‫‪Arabi wrote that the Palestinian reaction to the Israeli‬‬
‫‪threats showed differences within Fatah. At a time when‬‬ ‫قلئال خنه لن تكوُ نلك مصلحلة غني اتح وحناس طلملل ظلت حناس مت يطِّة عىل‬
‫‪Azzam Al-Ahmed, the Fatah representative to the talks in‬‬ ‫قطلع غزة‪ .‬وخضلات الصحيفة خُ تكل الارتالال كشفت ن ومجود اجتل ني داخل‬
‫‪Sanaa, said he had received the consent of Palestinian‬‬ ‫حِّكة اتح‪ ،‬الو ياوده بلس غابوهل للرشوط المِّيكية الرسائيلية غعدم اتح خي حواح‬
‫‪President Mahmoud Abbas before signing the peace deal,‬‬
‫‪Abbas's advisors denied such a pledge was made. Abbas‬‬ ‫م حناس ومواصةل العفلوض م ارسائيل‪ ،‬والثلين ياوده غعض الالدة اجلدد ممن يؤمطوُ‬
‫‪himself described the agreement as non-committal. The‬‬ ‫غأُ املفلوضل الفلتطينية الرسائيلية ل جدو من وحاء ل اكملععلد‪ ،‬مفضلني العودة ا ى‬
‫‪editorial regarded the Israeli and American objection to the‬‬
‫‪deal and threats to the Palestinian authorities as the‬‬ ‫املالومة من جديد‪ .‬وا عرب الصحيفة خُ الارتالال داخل حِّكة اتح تعد الكرب‬
‫‪cause of differences within Fatah especially as they came‬‬ ‫والرطِّ من نو هل يف اتحخي املالومة الفلتطينية واليت س عؤدي ل حملةل ا ى واقب‬
‫‪from top officials.‬‬ ‫ورمية عىل الفلتطينسني‪ .‬خضف ا ى ذكل تأقري تكل اخلالال عىل شعبية بلس واحلز‬
‫احللمك غأرسه‪ .‬وخلصت الصحيفة ا ى خُ "حِّكة حناس يه املت عفيد الو من ذه‬
‫الاناتلمل يف س يلسة اتح‪ ،‬رصوصل غعد اتفلقية صنعلء والزتام حناس ابمجِّاء حواح‬
‫مفتوح م اتح"‪.‬‬
‫‪US Vice-President Dick Cheney told reporters during his‬‬ ‫واكُ غتلُ الملم من خكرث الكتل طشلؤمل حيث وصف ذا الس بوع غأنه خس بوع‬
‫‪visit to the Middle East that there would not be any‬‬
‫‪reconciliation between Hamas and Fatah as long as‬‬ ‫الفشل العِّيب‪ .‬وخدحج قلمئة ابلتاطل العِّغية ذا الس بوع متضمنة الوسلطة المينية غني‬
‫‪Hamas did not give up Gaza. The editorial said the‬‬ ‫اتح وحناس والفشل يف احلواح غني املغِّ ومجهبة البولستلحيو‪ .‬وكعب الملم يف مجِّيدة‬
‫‪differences showed there are two trends within Hamas.‬‬
‫‪The first, led by Abbas, accepts the US-Israeli conditions‬‬
‫الرشق الوسف اللندنية الت يلس ية اليومية‪ ،‬قلئال‪" :‬اُ املبلدحة المينية س يكوُ مصري ل‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪http://hammouda-salhi.webs.com/‬‬ ‫‪Page 92‬‬

of not opening any dialogue with Hamas and works on ‫ واُ العنلطح غني اتح وحناس مل زا يعجلوز اميلهننا غامية الوادة واملالومة‬،‫الفشل‬
continuing negotiations with Israel. The second, supported
by younger leaders, believes the Palestinian-Israeli
‫ وطتلء الملم مللذا يعلو صو الاناتلم‬."‫واجلهلد من خجل اهنلء الاحتال الرسائييل‬
negotiations will lead them nowhere and prefers to return ‫ الدلو العِّغية‬.‫ وقد خحمج ذكل ا ى خس بل اتحخيية‬،‫والرصاع عىل صو احلمكة والِّوية‬
to their previous policy of resistance. The editorial ‫ ونتيجة‬. ‫اشلت يف ادحاك خهنل خمة واادة لهل نفس احلضلحة ونفس اللغة ولهل نفس املصل‬
regarded the divisions within the Fatah movement as the
biggest and most dangerous in the history of Palestinian .‫ذلكل الُ وامل العفِّقة يف الوقت احللرض تفوق تكلري وامل الوادة‬
resistance which could have repercussions on the
Palestinians. The rift has also affected the popularity of
Abbas and the ruling party. "Hamas came out as the
biggest winner either from the differences within Fatah or ...
from the Sanaa meeting during which it opened an
unconditional dialogue with Fatah," the editorial
concluded.
Ghassan Al-Imam was the most pessimistic writer as he

described this week as the week of Arab failures. He listed
a number of Arab failures including that of Yemeni
mediation between Fatah and Hamas and the failure of
the dialogue between Morocco and the POLISARIO. "The
Yemeni initiative is bound to fail. The vanity of both
Hamas and Fatah still exceeds their common faith in the
value of uniting their resistance and Jihad to end the
Israeli occupation," Al-Imam wrote in the London-based
political daily Asharq Al-Awsat . He questioned why the
voice of division and conflict is louder than that of wisdom,
ascribing the phenomenon to a historical reason: the Arab
states failed to realise they are one nation that share the
same language and culture, if not the same interests. As a
result, at present, the factors for division far exceed those
of unity.
...
Text 12:
American Perceptions of Muslim Women ‫النظِّة المِّيكية للمِّخة املتلمة‬
The Deep Historical Roots of Contemporary American ‫اجلذوح العلحخيية العمياة للنظِّة المِّيكية املعلرصة للمِّخة املتلمة‬
Perceptions of Muslim Women
‫ جلمعة ديوك (الولاي املعحدة‬،‫ خس علذ ادلحاسل السالمية املتلعد‬،‫مىن حتن‬
Mona Hassan, Assistant Professor of Islamic Studies,
Duke University (USA) )‫المِّيكية‬
This paper presents one facet of my larger research ‫تادم ذه الوحقة خاد خوجه مرشو ي البحيث الكرب النلظِّ يف موضوع املِّخة املتلمة يف‬
project examining Muslim women in the cultural – ‫ اذلي مل حل – حتب الِّؤية اليت خ ِّضهل‬،‫اخليل الثاليف لمِّياك الاُِّ العلس رش‬
imagination of nineteenth-century America, which, as I
‫ وقد لبت تصويِّا املِّخة املتلمة‬،‫ناطة حتو يف تطوح النظِّة المِّيكية لالسالم نفته‬
argue, was a turning point in the development of American
perceptions of Islam. Tied to the increasing fortunes of
‫ احتيلجل حملية‬،‫ م حغطهل ابلرثوا املزتايدة للعوس الاس ععناحي الوحيب‬،‫ذه خيضً ل‬
European colonial expansion, these portrayals of Muslim .‫حئست ية يف مطلقشة الشاك اجلديدة وغري املت عاِّة لعالقل النوع المِّيكية‬
women also fulfilled key domestic needs in negotiating
new and unsettling forms of American gender relations.
Several years ago, I was having a discussion with an

‫خذكِّ نالشً ل داح مطذ عدة س نوا غسين وغني علمل خز ِّي مج غني العمل الغزيِّ والثالاة‬
erudite and highly cultured Azhari scholar about one
Western-educated journalist’s negative perceptions about
‫العللية حو النظِّة التلبية دل حصفية تلات تعلميهل يف الغِّ ملاكنة املِّخة املتلمة‬
the place of Muslim women, pointedly based on her ‫انبنت بشلك ملحوظ عىل تفتري ل للحجل وغعض تِّتسبل الفصل غني اجلنتني يف‬
interpretation of hijab and some segregated seating ‫ وقد خاثح اشلحيت بشلك علتِّ ا ى سلوكهل مكثل لنفس اخلطل املععب‬،‫مطعد ً خز ِّي‬
arrangements in an Azhari forum, and I casually referred ً ‫ ممل مجعلين خدحك خ‬،‫املعهود ن املِّخة املتلمة طتلؤ ًل من حمديث ن ماصدي‬
‫خريا احللجة‬
to her attitudes as more of the same old tiring discourse ‫ا ى تعِّيف الرِّين مبل تعلمه الكلري مطل معرش العلناء املتلمني املاميني يف خوحاب والولاي‬
on Muslim women. That response elicited a question ِّ‫ اوق يف نفيس خنه حمبل يفيد – يف س يلق ذا املؤمت‬،‫املعحدة من خال املعليشة املعكِّحة‬
about what exactly I meant, and so, after finally realizing ‫– خُ خشلحك غبعض خحبليث يف اجلذوح الثالاية والعلحخيية العمياة للنظِّة المِّيكية للمِّخة‬
the need to communicate what many of us Muslim
،‫ وسأحكز بشلك خلص عىل خوارِّ الاُِّ العلس رش‬،‫ مل حص مهنل ومل غطل‬،‫املتلمة‬
scholars living in Europe and the United States have
learned through frequent exposure, I thought it might be ‫ويه الفتة اليت خ عرب ل ناطة حتو هممة يف النظِّة ا ى املِّخة املتلمة يف خوحاب والولاي‬
helpful, in the spirit of this conference, to share some of ‫ خ ين حتديدً ا املنلقشل‬،‫ غل اين لن خحكز ال عىل رشحية واادة من خحبليث‬،‫املعحدة‬
my own research on the deep cultural and historical roots ‫ ويه يف ا عالدي المه يف‬،‫المِّيكية ادلوحية حو احلجل واصل النتلء يف احلِّمكل‬
of American perceptions and misperceptions of Muslim ‫تغذية املنلقشل المِّيكية املعلرصة بشلك خمع وتكل الواقعة اليت مجِّ يف الز ِّ مطذ‬
women. I will focus in particular on the late nineteenth
.‫س نوا عديدة عىل الرص‬
century, which I believe is an important turning point in
how Muslim women have been perceived and represented
in Europe and the United States. And I will focus on only
one slice of my research, specifically American periodical
discussions of the veil and women’s seclusion in the
harem, which I believe is the most relevant for inspiring
contemporary American discussions more generally and
that incident in al-Azhar many years ago more particularly.
‫من املهم جدً ا يف ذا الصدد الشلحة ا ى خُ العصويِّا الوحغية والمِّيكية للمِّخة‬
In this regard, it is very important to note that European
and American portrayals of Muslim women are not static ‫ غل‬،‫ وحىت واُ خظهِّ ل خحصلهبل كذا‬،‫املتلمة لستت اثغعة ول معزوةل ن البعد الزمين‬
and timeless, even if they present themselves as such, but ‫يه مِّتبطة مبِّمجعيل داخلية يف الثالاة والعلحخي الوحيب والمِّيل تعحو م مِّوح‬
rather that they are tied to particular internal references of ‫ وجند غيلانً واا ًيل ذلكل يف حسلةل همجة كهف "التمثيل الغِّيب للمِّخة املتلمة من‬،‫الزمن‬
European and American culture and history that change ‫ حيث نكتشف خُ املِّخة املتلمة متثل يف خدغيل‬،)0999( "‫الصخَّلغة ا ى املتتقة‬
over time. Mohja Kahf’s monograph on Western
‫العصوح الوسطى الوحغية عىل خهنل ذا حتب هممينة ومعالقة رطِّة يعطلب قهِّ ل‬
Representations of the Muslim Woman from Temagant to
Odalisque (1999) is particularly instructive in this vein, for
،‫ ممل كس الاوة الغللبة للمتلمني يف تكل احلابة‬،‫تدخ ًال من املت يحيني الوحغيني‬
we learn that in medieval European literature, Muslim ‫والبوُ شلس غني ذا العصويِّ ومل جنده اليوم من متثيل للمِّخة املتلمة عىل خهنل ظل‬
women were represented as domineering and threatening .‫صلغِّ ماهوح‬
noblewomen and giantesses who needed to be subdued
by European Christians, which reflected the intimidating
power of Muslims in their times. All of this is far cry from
the submissive and oppressed shadows of human beings
we find Muslim women depicted as today.
Text 13:
Press Clippings: Innovations ‫ اغعاكحا‬:‫ماتطفل حصفية‬
* In rural northern Nigeria, there are no refrigerators. Most people ‫ اهو ل‬،‫* اغعكِّ مدحس نيجريي نظل ًمل حلفظ الغذية مذ ًال حمغ بتلطعه‬
don't even have electricity. So perishable food must be eaten ‫ حيث تفتاِّ غعض‬،‫يعطلب خي نوع من خنواع الطلقة اخللحمجية لتشغيهل‬
immediately, or it will go to waste. Mohammed Bah Abba, a local
‫الملكن الِّيفية يف ني ِّاي ا ى الطلقة الكهِّابئية ممل يتتبب نه اتلد كثري‬
teacher, has developed an ingenious solution: the Pot-in-Pot
Preservation Cooling System. A small earthenware pot is placed ‫ والاختاع اجلديد بلحة ن اانء خفلحي صغري‬.‫اوحا‬ ً ‫من الطعلم مل مل يؤلك‬
inside a larger one, and the space between the two is filled with ‫ حيث توض الفواكه خو‬،‫موضوع داخل خرِّ كبري غسهننا حمل حطب‬
moist sand. The inner pot is filled with fruit, vegetables or soft ‫اخلرضاوا خو املرشواب يف الانء ادلاخيل مث تغطى الوادة هل غنت يج‬
drinks; a wet cloth covers the whole thing. As water in the sand ‫ وينتج العربيد ن تبخِّ امللء من الِّمل الم ًال معه احلِّاحة من المجزاء‬،‫مبلل‬
evaporates through the surface of the outer pot, it carries heat,
‫ وقد خظهِّ اس عخدام نظلم العربيد الطبيعي ذا خُ هل خثِّ جعيب يف‬.‫ادلاخلية‬
drawing it away from the inner core. Eggplants stay fresh for 27
days, instead of the usual three. Tomatoes and peppers last for up
‫ ااد امتد اتة صالحية البلذجنلُ مل ًال من قالقة خايم ا ى‬،‫حفظ الغذية‬
to three weeks. A recipient of the Rolex Award for Enterprise, ‫ خلف‬51 ‫ وقد الز املدحس النيجريي مجلئزة قدح ل‬،‫س بعة و رشين يو ًمل‬
Abba, 37, who hails from a family of potmakers, is using his ‫دولح ن ذا الاغعاكح يعزتم اس عخداهمل يف تعممي اختاعه يف اكاة خحنلء‬
$75,000 award to make the invention available throughout Nigeria. .ُ‫ خلف وادة حىت ال‬08 ‫ني ِّاي غعد خُ ابع مطه ابلفعل‬
He has already sold 12,000.
* They are every gardener's nightmare: big, slimy slugs that eat
holes in lettuce leaves and gouge craters in tomatoes. Now Ian
Kelly, a computer scientist at the California Institute of Technology,
has developed a robotic slug catcher that not only identifies and ‫خلصل لعطهري احلدائق‬ً ‫* اغعكِّ علمل مكبيوتِّ يف الولاي املعحدة ا تلانً خل ًيل‬
eliminates slugs but could eventually power itself with its victims'
‫ حيث يتتشعِّ ال تلُ اليل تكل‬،‫من ادليداُ والطفيليل الِّروية‬
bodies. Here's how the Slugbot works: a lawn mower size machine
with a long arm shines red light on the ground to identify a shiny, ‫ مث يلعاف‬،‫الاكئنل وميزي ل ابس عخدام ضوء خمحِّ وخالاي استشعلحية خلصة‬
sluglike object, then analyzes its shape. When it finds a slug, it ‫ وجيهد اخملتع الُ يف اضلاة مزية جديدة‬. ‫مل جيده مهنل ويلاالل يف وعلء جتمي‬
picks it up and drops it in a hopper. Bacteria inside the robot eat ‫مصدحا ذات ًيل للطلقة ن طِّيق تكترياي داخهل‬ً ‫ليكوُ وعلء الع مي كذكل‬
the slimy critters—a process that releases electrons that can be ‫تعغذ عىل "احلصيةل" وتطلق من خال ذه العملية الكتوان ميكن‬
captured and, in theory, keep the bot's batteries perpetually
.‫اس عخداهمل لعلدة حشن غطلحاي ال تلُ اليل غصفة مت تمِّة‬
charged. Kelly says he has perfected the slug-identification-and-
retrieval system but estimates that it will be several years before
the slugbot is ready for market. Biggest hurdle: getting the robot to
convert those captured mollusks into usable energy. While the
concept of microbial fuel cells has worked in laboratory tests,
applying it to slugs turns out to be a sticky proposition.
‫* عىل النايض من العوةل الِّامية ا ى تكديس وظلئف تكطولومجية عديدة‬
* Cell phones are supposed to make our lives easier. So why do
‫ تعجه‬،‫يف خةزة الهلتف اجلوا ملل الشلشل امللونة والتصل ابلنتنت‬
wireless companies keep packing them with pricey extras—like
color screens, Web browsers, games and e-mail—that most ‫غعض الرشاك الُ ا ى انعلج مجوالا قصرية الجل ملن يِّغبوُ يف‬
people don't need? Now several companies are developing ‫ ويبدو خُ خو تكل‬، ‫اس عخداهمل اتة قصرية مث يلاوُ هبل يف سةل املهمال‬
stripped-down, single-use models targeted for casual users who ً ‫الةزة س يظهِّ يف خسواق الولاي املعحدة قِّي ًبل بتعِّ قالقني‬
‫دولحا مالغل‬
just want to take a cell phone on vacation or stash one with their ‫ وخلفض تاكليف النعلج اال حيعوي اجلوا حمدود‬، ‫ دقياة من املاكملل‬31
emergency flashlight. One of the first to market will be the Hop-On
‫ اال‬،‫الاس عخدام ال عىل حغ املكوان املومجودة يف اجلوالا العاليدية‬
Wireless (shown here) priced at $30 for 30 min. of talk time. To
keep costs down, the device (about the size of a deck of cards)
‫ وامنل يوصل املت عخدم غه سناعة‬،‫شلشة هل ول مفلتيح ول سناعة داخلية‬
contains only a quarter of the components found in a typical cell ِّ‫خلحمجية صغرية وجيهِّ ابلِّمق املطلو اياوم اجلوا من خال تاطية العع‬
phone. It doesn't take incoming calls, and there's no keypad or ‫ ويشري مصبلح صغري ا ى قِّ اناضلء املدة‬،‫عىل الصوا ابمجِّاء املاكملة‬
display. Instead, users plug in an earpiece (included) and speak ‫املتموح هبل ابلعحو ا ى اللوُ الصفِّ مث ا ى اللوُ المحِّ ند اناضلهئل‬
the number aloud; voice-recognition technology converts the ‫ ول رو من نفلد البطلحية ادلاخلية اهيي مصممة للعمل مدة‬،‫ابلفعل‬
sounds into digits and places the call. To activate the phone, users
simply push the green call button. Color-coded lights indicate
.‫ عىل ااتاض خُ يباى يشء من ادلقلئق الثالقني ذه املدة‬،‫س نتني‬
when the 30 min. of prepaid talk time is running low (yellow) or out
(red). The lithium-ion batteries will last for up to two years, so your
minutes will probably run out before your batteries do.
‫* خعلنت رشكة جرنا الكتيك ن اغعاكح نوج جديد من اللمبل الكهِّابئية‬
* Ever notice how ordinary light bulbs cast a yellowish glow around ‫ ممل‬،‫ضوءا خغيض اللوُ خش به غضوء الشمس من اللوُ الصفِّ املععلد‬
your rooms? The new GE Reveal bulbs produce a crisper, whiter
ً ‫تعطي‬
light that is much closer to natural sunlight and makes colors look
‫ ولن تزيد خسعلح النو ية اجلديدة ن‬،‫يالمئ املطلخب وخملكن العمل اليدوي‬
brighter. Ideal for kitchens or work areas around the home, the ‫ عل ًمل غأُ رس غيلض ضوهئل و مزج الزجلج‬،‫خسعلح اللمبل العاليدية‬
powder-blue bulbs are no more expensive than regular ones. The ‫املت عخدم االل خقنلء تصنيعه مبلدة اندحة امسهل نيودميوم تعمل عىل تِّش يح‬
secret ingredient is neodymium, a rare earth element that is baked .ِّ‫الضوء من املكوُ الصف‬
into the glass to help filter out the usual yellow hue.
* Forget the down jacket, the long underwear and the extra-thick
‫* خصبح من املأمو الاس عغنلء ن املالبس الثايةل يف الطاس شديد‬
scarf. Designed for extreme cold, the North Face MET5 jacket can ‫ حيث خعلنت ااد الرشاك ن انعلج ستة هبل نظلم تدائة‬،‫الربودة‬
keep you warm all by itself, thanks to a network of microscopic, ‫داخيل ن طِّيق خسالك حِّاحية علزةل للميله دقياة جدً ا حبيث ميكن ت هل‬
waterproof heating elements woven into the fabric. Working a ‫ ويعحمك املت عخدم يف دحجة العدائة‬،‫م اب اخليوط املكونة خللمة التتة‬
control unit stashed near the chest, you can dial the heat up to ‫ ويت تمد نظلم العدائة‬،‫ن طِّيق وادة حتمك صغرية خمبأة ةة الصدح‬
114šF. Small lithium-ion batteries keep the juice flowing for up to
.‫ادلاخيل الطلقة من مجموعة غطلحاي تعمل ملدة مخس سلعل مث يعلد حشهنل‬
five hours.
* Tired of having your cell-phone battery go dead just when you ‫* للعغلب عىل مشلكة نفلد حشنة غطلحاي اجلوا يف خوقل متس احللجة‬
need it most? FreeCharge is a half-pound, hand-cranked ‫ مت اختاع وادة حشن ابلكِّنك ميكن توصيلهل ابجلوا وحشن البطلحية‬،‫اليه‬
generator that you can attach to your cell phone and turn for 30 ،‫ اثنية حشنة تكفي للعحدث ملدة مخس دقلئق‬31 ‫ابداحة ذحاع الكِّنك ملدة‬
sec. to generate enough juice for five minutes of talk time. The first
version will work on most Motorola phones; the next ones will ً ‫وقد س بق خُ شهد السواق المِّيكية جنل ًال‬
ُ‫مهبِّا لِّاديو وكشل يعمال‬
power other makers' phones. This is the third in a series of windup .‫غنفس الطِّياة اليت اكُ الغِّض الصيل مهنل الاس عخدام يف ادلو النلمية‬
electronic devices originally designed for use in developing
nations. The first two—the Freeplay radio and flashlight—have
been surprise hits in the U.S.
‫‪More assignments‬‬ ‫‪Texts‬‬
‫‪Arabic‬‬
‫‪Selected texts for reading‬‬

‫‪Text 1:‬‬
‫احتفلع معدل الطالق يف ايِّاُ مِّتبف غعغري خوضلع املِّخة‬
‫خس بل الطالق تععدد يف ايِّاُ وطشمل املشللك الاقتصلدية واخليلنة والعنف البدين‪ ،‬واحتفلع معدلته طشري ا ى تغري كبري يف اجملتم اليِّاين‪.‬‬
‫[ رش يف ‪ ،8102/01/82‬العدد‪ ،9505 :‬ص(‪])80‬‬ ‫العِّ‬
‫خغلب دعلو الطالق اليت تصل ا ى الاضلء تنهيي ابتفلق ودي غني الزوجني‬
‫غريو ‪ -‬دخغت العلئال اليِّانية عىل اغداق خل ادلولحا عىل حفال الزال اليت طلملل ا عرب ل ال ل خمه املنلس بل التعيدة‪ ،‬ولكن الُ ينفق البعض غبذخ لالحتفل غفتخ ذا‬
‫الِّابط اامي يعِّ حبفال الطالق‪.‬‬
‫وحفلت وسلئل العالم اليِّانية واملدوان يف الشهِّ الخرية غأربلح حفال تالم مبنلس بة انفصلم ِّوة الزواج ل يارص مطظمو ل عىل حتضري د وا سلرِّة وكعكة مضحكة‪ .‬وانترش‬
‫الظل ِّة يف طهِّاُ ومدُ كرب خرِّ ممل دا تِّجل دين ليصب لعنلته عىل من ياميوُ ملل ذه احلفال ‪.‬‬
‫وحمغ ذكل تظل حفال الطالق مؤرشا عىل اجتله ل ميكن اناكحه‪ ،‬و و زايدة الل الطالق يف ايِّاُ‪ .‬ومطذ علم ‪ 8111‬احتف معد الطالق خكرث من مِّة ونصف املِّة اذ تنهيي حنو ‪81‬‬
‫ابملئة من الزجيل ابلنفصل ‪.‬‬
‫وتفيد الحصلءا الِّمسية خُ خكرث من ‪ 80‬خلف د و طالق خقميت يف خو شهِّين من الت نة الفلحس ية “من خوارِّ ملحس ا ى خوارِّ مليو”‪.‬‬
‫ويف الشهِّ املليض نالت واكةل خنبلء الطلبة ن مصطفى غوح محمدي وزيِّ العد احلليل و و خيضل حجل دين قوهل اُ نظِّ ‪ 02‬مليوُ د و طالق خملم الاضلء “ل يتطلسب م النظلم‬
‫الساليم”‪.‬‬
‫وتععدد خس بل الطالق يف ايِّاُ ملل غري ل من ادلو وطشمل املشللك الاقتصلدية واخليلنة وادملُ اخملدحا والعنف البدين‪ .‬ولكن خرباء ياولوُ اُ احتفلع معدل الطالق يشري ا ى‬
‫تغري كبري يف اجملتم اليِّاين‪.‬‬
‫وقل المد حضل جلليبوح خس علذ عمل الامجامتع مجلمعة طهِّاُ “منت الزنعة الفِّدية يف ايِّاُ كثريا ل س امي غني النتلء‪ .‬احتف املت عو الععلميي للنتلء وقدحهتن املللية”‪.‬‬
‫يف احللل اليت يِّاض االل الزوج الطالق ينبغي عىل الزوجة خُ تثبت تعِّضهل لتوء معلمةل خو خُ الزوج غري قلدح عىل الايلم غوامجبلته الزومجية‬
‫واتغ “يف املليض اكنت املِّخة املزتوجة تعحمل خي مطغصل ‪ ،‬ولكن الُ تاِّح الانفصل اني ل تكوُ سعيدة‪ .‬مل يعد من احملظوحا ”‪.‬‬
‫وتاو ايِّانية (‪ 20‬علمل) الصةل عىل شهلدة يف الكمييلء وتعمل يف العالقل العلمة يف مصن غطهِّاُ اهنل حصلت عىل الطالق من زوةل املدمن غعد خحغعة خ وام من العاليض‪.‬‬
‫وقللت‪“ :‬ل يع هبم خُ تطلب املِّخة الطالق” وذكِّ خهنل تعسش يف سعلدة غلمِّة مطذ طالقهل قبل علم‪.‬‬
‫وخضلات خهنل مل حترض خاي من حفال الطالق اليت انترش يف طهِّاُ‪ ،‬ولكهنل اس عطِّد قلئةل “د و عددا من صدياليت لالحتفل اني خحضى طال هنلئيل”‪.‬‬
‫وياو حملموُ اُ الالنوُ اليِّاين و علدة يف صل الِّجل لكن معظم دعلو الطالق اليت تصل ا ى سلاة الاضلء يف الوقت احلليل تنهيي ابتفلق ودي غني الزوجني عىل الانفصل ‪.‬‬
‫ويف احللل اليت يِّاض االل الزوج الطالق ينبغي عىل الزوجة خُ تثبت تعِّضهل لتوء معلمةل خو خُ الزوج يعلين من مشللك نفت ية خو غري قلدح عىل الايلم غوامجبلته الزومجية يك حتصل‬
‫عىل الطالق‪.‬‬
‫وياو حمتن محمدي حئسس مجموعة ايسل للمحلملة يف طهِّاُ “احتف عدد قضلاي الطالق ملت عواي غري مت بوقة خال العلمني امللضيني”‪.‬‬
‫واتغ “مل نكن هنمت غالنوُ الرسة والطالق ولكن نظِّا لزتايد دعلو الطالق ينبغي دحاسة المِّ‪ .‬اكتتب اجللنب الالنوين لاضلاي الرسة والطالق خُهية كرب يف ايِّاُ”‪.‬‬
‫وياو خرباء انه ل يلوح يف الاق خي تغري لالجتله العلم اذلي يتهم يف زايدة معدل الطالق و و زايدة خعداد النتلء املععلنا والعلمال ‪.‬‬
‫وذكِّ واكةل خنبلء امجلهوحية السالمية من واق التجال الِّمسية خُ الطللبل ميثلن ‪ 11‬ابملئة من عدد من العحاوا ابجللمعل يف الت نة ادلحاس ية احلللية‪.‬‬
‫تععدد خس بل الطالق يف ايِّاُ ملل غري ل من ادلو ‪ ،‬وطشمل املشللك الاقتصلدية واخليلنة وادملُ اخملدحا والعنف البدين‬
‫وياو خرباء اُ الزواج مل يعد خولوية خلِّجيل اجللمعة لهنن قلدحا عىل اجيلد اِّص معل وحىت اُ تزومجن الُ الانفصل س يكوُ خيرس اذا واةن مشللك يف زجيلهتن كنا ميكهنن‬
‫الا امتد عىل خنفتهم ملليل بتهوةل‪.‬‬
‫وياو كيفلُ لحيس املديِّ املشلحك ملِّكز ادلحاسل اليِّانية ودحاسل اخلليج الفلحيس مجلمعة تِّينت عوُ‪“ :‬مل يعد المِّ قلرصا عىل الطباة املعوسطة خو النخبة يف شنا طهِّاُ‪ .‬ل ينظِّ‬
‫لطلب الطالق عىل خنه تأقري الغِّ عىل الطباة العليل”‪.‬‬
‫واتغ “التبب تغريا داخل اجملتم ‪ .‬تالس قوة املِّخة مبؤ الهتل وخرباهتل‪ .‬اذا اكُ الاجتله ياترص عىل الطباة العليل مل نكن لرن ملل ذه العداد الكبرية”‪.‬‬
‫ويالق احتفلع معدل الطالق متؤويل احلكومة يف ايِّاُ يف ظل اخنفلض معد املواليد‪.‬‬
‫ويف العلم املليض اقتحت جلنة الشؤوُ الامجامت ية يف الربمللُ ختصيص مبلغ ‪ 0.0‬مليلح دولح لعستري الزواج‪ ،‬ولكن الربمللُ مل ياِّ الاقتاح‪ .‬ونالت واكةل همِّ للنبلء ن حئسس الل نة‬
‫بدالِّضل زيزي قوهل “اذا اكُ خ ضلء الربمللُ واملتؤولوُ يععلطفوُ م الش بلُ س ياِّوُ ملل ذه املاتال ”‪.‬‬
‫وخاثح اقتاح خرِّ اب شلء وزاحة للزواج والطالق جدل خوس وانعاده متؤولوُ قلئلني اُ الوزاحة اجلديدة س ععاد المجِّاءا البريوقِّاطية خكرث ولن تعلجل مشلكة احتفلع معدل الطالق‪.‬‬
‫وهمنا اكنت المجِّاءا اليت س عتبنل ل احلكومة الهنل لن تغري اجتل ل جديدا يعابل الطالق‪.‬‬
‫‪Text2‬‬
‫الانعخلاب يف توس غني المل واخلو‬
‫تأيت الانعخلاب الترشيعيحة اجلديدة تعبريا ن مِّاةل جديدة من اتحخي توس املعلرص من ةة وشل دا هم حمل حو النجلح النت يب للمِّاةل الانعاللية‪.‬‬
‫د‪ .‬املنصف وانس [ رش يف ‪ ،8102/01/81‬العدد‪ ،9502 :‬ص(‪])5‬‬ ‫العِّ‬
‫يععود خال العاود‬ ‫مثحة ارتالال غني العو ت يني يف قِّاءة ظل ِّة الانعخلاب املزم تنظميهل يوم الاد ‪ 81‬خكعوتِّ ‪ .8102‬وميكن الاو ا حُ ارتال الاِّاءا خمِّ ح‬
‫طبيعي يف غدل مل ح‬
‫الت عة الخرية عىل الانعخلاب مللنا نِّا ل يف اجملتمعل الوحوغ حية والمريك حية‪.‬‬
‫اعال‪ ،‬اللنعخلاب الزنإة والش حفلاة ظل ِّة طلحئة عىل اجملتم العو يس غل قل عىل العو ت يني مجيعل‪ .‬مفنذ الت نة الو ى لالس عاال (‪ )0911‬صدح قِّاح س يليس ح‬
‫مضين غـأُ ل تكوُ‬
‫الانعخلاب نزإة ودمياِّاطية‪ .‬السس مبللغة الاو ا حُ خمعلف الانعخلاب اليت ِّاهل تو س يف الفتة الفلصةل غني ‪ 0911‬و‪ 8100‬اكنت حهل ح‬
‫مزوحة ول تعكس‪ ،‬من غعيد خو من قِّيب‪،‬‬
‫تعرب ن تطلحعل العو ت يني يف حِّية الفكِّ وحِّيحة الععبري ح‬
‫حىت واُ اكنت ت بة الميحة مِّتفعة تصل‪ ،‬حتب‬ ‫تطوح اجملتم العو يس وطبيعة ق حواه الت يلس حية والامجامت ية والثالايحة ول ح‬
‫ح‬
‫دحاسل موقحاة‪ ،‬يف النصف الو من س عحسطل الاُِّ العرشين ا ى طتعني ابملئة من مجمل ا ح‬
‫لتاكُ املا حدحين غـثالقة مليوُ تمة‪.‬‬
‫ذلكل تأيت الانعخلاب الترشيع حية اجلديدة تعبريا ن مِّاةل جديدة من اتحخي تو س املعلرص من ةة‪ ،‬وشل دا هم حمل ينضل ا ى شوا د خرِّ حو النجلح النت يب للمِّاةل الانعاللية‬
‫عىل الِّمغ من كثلاة الصعواب الاقتصلديحة واحتفلع املديون حية اخللحمجيحة و”طتوانيم” املطللب الاحتجلمجيحة والنالغية واملهن حية اليت حمعت اجلغِّاايل العو ت حية من خقصل ل ا ى خقصل ل ا ى ا حد‬
‫خهنل جسحلت الِّمق الايليس العلملي خال سنيت (‪ 8108‬و‪ )8103‬مللنا خكد يل ذكل ربري الا املعحدة يف العحول ادلمياِّاط حية‪.‬‬
‫ويه‪ ،‬يف مجو ِّ ل‪ ،‬ح‬

‫تعرب ن ذه الِّغبة الواحضة واجلل حية دل العو ت يني يف اجيلد قطيعة س يلس حية واتحخي حية م العاود الت عحة الخرية ت ح‬
‫لك مل شلهبل من استبداد واس عفِّاد ابلِّخي‬
‫واتلد وغيل احمللس بة الالنون حية والت يلس حية للك الرفلقل الاقتصلدية والامجامت ية اليت توحط االل عدد من املتؤولني اذلين شلحكوا يف احلكومل املععلقبة اليت تداولت عىل التلطة‬
‫يف الفتة الفلصةل غني ‪ 0911‬و‪.8101‬‬
‫ا حُ العو ت يني جيمعوُ اليوم عىل رضوحة خُ تكوُ ذه الانعخلاب انطالقة دمياِّاطية وس يلس حية حايايحة يف جمتم لطلملل تع حطلت ادلمياِّاطية ايه‪ ،‬المِّ اذلي خاَض ا ى الل غِّيبة‬
‫من الا تداد الت يليس ومن سوء توزي الرثوة ومشل ِّ متنلميحة من الحبلط واليأس والل وء ا ى الانعحلح حِّقل‪ ،‬علنا وخ حُ ملل ذا التلوك غِّيب متلمل ن اجملتم العو يس طوا‬
‫العاود الثالقة الخرية‪.‬‬
‫ا حُ ملل ذه المل والانعظلحا صلدقة دل العو ت يني غدليل مل نلمته يف خمعلف مؤستل اجملتم العو يس و يللك احليلة اليوميحة من رو معيق عىل متلح الانعال ادلمياِّاطي‪،‬‬
‫ومن اذح شديد من تأقريا الوض القلميي وادلويل يف تو س‪ .‬السس خلايل عىل خاد خ حُ الوض القلميي املالصق لعو س متأ حزم ويعكس صعواب وحتدحاي عديدة قد ل تادح توس‬
‫يفرس ذا الاقتاُ املفلح والع يب غني المل واخلو من ةة وغني ا حلتقب واحلذح من ةة خرِّ ‪ .‬اللعو يس اليوم كنا نِّاه يف خمعلف جملل‬ ‫عىل جملهبهل مبفِّد ل‪ .‬ولع حل ذكل مل ح‬
‫احليلة كعةل من املشل ِّ املعنلقضة ومن العو حمجتل املعصلحعة ومن القدام واخلو ومن اجلِّخة و حالتدد‪ .‬اهو يِّا ن عىل الانعخلاب الالدمة من خجل حتايق الاس عاِّاح والمن ومغلدحة‬

‫احللةل املؤقحتة والت يطِّة عىل غالء املعسشة واحتفلع العضخحم املليل‪ ،‬ولكحطه يتتشعِّ خملطِّ حمدقة مب تمعه ملل الح ل املو حجه واملم حو من اخللحج وتداحق التالح ح‬
‫مجِّاء الهِّيب يف غسئة‬
‫لك ذه العحدحاي وعىل ارِّاج‬‫اقلمي حية مِّتبكة غل قل شديدة العوتِّ‪ .‬اهو متفلئل ابلنعخلاب ‪ ،‬ولكطحه ل يِّ الطباة الت يلس حية اليت ختطب يوميحل يف وسلئل العالم قلدحة عىل مواةة ح‬
‫البدل من صعوابته ومن تعايداته‪.‬‬
‫عاةل ل تعِّض تِّامج اقتصلديحة وتمنويحة وامجامت حية ماطعة وقلدحة عىل جملهبة الزمل ‪ ،‬اهيي‬
‫كنا يعع حمق ذا العفلؤ احلذح والمل غري املؤك حد حيامن يِّ خحزااب س يلس حية وخشصيل مت ح‬
‫رطب يطغى علالل امحللس والعحمسس والععبئة وتأمجيل الاس عحالقل العمنويحة يف غدل مل يعد يابل ايه العو ت يحوُ تأمجيل مطللب العمنية العلدةل وتِّش يد توزي الرثوة وحتايق العداةل‬
‫يس اليوم تِّامج واحضة ذا قلغل حية عللية للعحاق يف امليداُ غد شعلحا طت هد امحللس الظِّيف والععبئة املؤقتة واملناطةل اليت ل تفيض‬ ‫واملتلواة غني اجلهل واملنلطق‪ .‬يِّيد العو ح‬
‫ِّي جيم غني احلرية والالق ولكن خيضل غني المل والثاة احلذحة‪.‬‬‫يس و اليوم تِّاكُ مشل ح‬‫غللبل ا ى النجلعة وا ى ناةل نو يحة يف املعسش احليليت اليويم للعو ت يني‪ .‬وذلكل اللعو ح‬
‫‪Text3‬‬
‫الزواج يف خاغل ت علُ ملن اس عطلع اليه سبيال‬

‫الش بل الاغلين جيد يف حفال الزال امجلل ية اال ملشلكة العاكليف البل ظة للزواج ويِّ االل مطظمو ل الطِّياة املثىل لعفلدي وقوع مجِّامئ الاغعصل ‪.‬‬
‫حفال الزال اب ظة العلكفة متن الاغلُ من الزواج‬

‫اكغو ‪ -‬يصفق احللرضوُ ندمل يدخل حوايل مئة قنليئ ا ى الالعة‪ ،‬الِّجل مهنم يِّتدوُ غدل سوداء اامي تض النتلء اتلتني غيضلء بت يطة حمتشمة وحيملن خز لحا محِّاء يف‬
‫خيدإن‪ .‬يف اكغو ‪ ،‬تزد ِّ حفال الزال امجلل ية يف خوسلط الش بلُ اذلين ل يت عطيعوُ تكبد النفال البل ظة لهذه املنلس بل ‪.‬‬
‫عىل مدخل قلعة خاِّاح يف العلمصة الاغلنية اكغو ميكن قِّاءة لاتة صغرية كعب علالل “مبلحكة يه املِّخة غري املعطلبة”‪ ،‬يف تأكيد عىل الوقل الصعبة اليت يعسشهل الش بل الاغلين‬
‫اليوم بتبب الضلئاة امللدية‪ ،‬ذلكل يلجأ معظمهم ا ى الزال امجلل ي اذلي ل يلكفهم الكلري‪.‬‬
‫كذكل كعب عىل لاتة خرِّ “يف حينل‪ ،‬يتمح ااف ابلزجيل غري امللكفة”‪ ،‬وذكل خال اس عابل املد وين لهذا الزال “مطخفض العلكفة”‪.‬يف الالعة‪ ،‬ل حقص غل تبلد لدلعلاب‬
‫وتالوة قصلئد وخغلُ تؤدإل اتيل اياعل مبالبس غيضلء‪.‬‬
‫ي‬
‫وياو حئسس احلفل مملزال “علوا العصفيق تاكمل طلقتمك يك تمكطوا من ادلرو يف الوقت ينه‪ .‬ل نِّيد دوحة اثنية من العصفيق كنا حصل يف الانعخلاب ”‪ ،‬يف اشلحة ا ى‬
‫الانعخلاب الاغلنية اليت شهد مِّاواة س يلس ية اس تمِّ خسلغي عدة خال الصيف املنرصم مل اس عد ى تدخال من وزيِّ اخللحمجية المرييك مجوُ كريي‪.‬ويضيف سلرِّا “ ذه‬
‫املِّة لن يكوُ نلك مجوُ كريي حلل مشل مك”‪.‬‬
‫ويف خاغل ت علُ‪ ،‬مت مط الزجيل البلذخة اابُ حمك طللبلُ غني ‪ 0991‬و‪ ،8110‬لكن غعد ساوط النظلم املتشدد‪ ،‬خغِّق الاقتصلد احمليل مبليلحا ادلولحا وخصبح الزواج صنلعة‬
‫حاياية مل خحىس مفل مي امجامت ية جديدة تععلق حبفال الزال اب ظة العلكفة واملليئة ابلس ععِّاض‪.‬‬

‫ازداد الطلب بشلك كبري يف الت نوا‬
‫الخرية غأاغل ت علُ عىل الزجيل امجلل ية‬
‫م خُ ذا الت متلح ابلنت بة ا ى طباة الثِّايء اجلدد يف خاغل ت علُ‪ ،‬لكن الش بلُ غري املستوحين غللبل مل يضطِّوُ ا ى تأمجيل زواةم لت نوا بتبب عدم قدحهتم عىل تكبد‬
‫العاكليف املتتبة عىل ذه اخلطوة‪.‬‬
‫وقد ظهِّ يف الت نوا الخرية صلل خضمة كثرية خمصصة لس عضلاة حفال الزال لزواج يأتوُ بت يلحا “لميوزين” ويشلحك االل مئل املد وين‪ .‬ويف اكغو اليوم‪ ،‬تصل‬
‫تلكفة زال من ذا النوع ا ى مل غني ‪ 01‬و‪ 81‬خلف دولح‪ ،‬مل يوازي س نوا طويةل من العمل ابلنت بة ا ى غللبية الاغلُ‪.‬‬
‫لكن م حفال الزال امجلل ية‪ ،‬ويه ظل ِّة جديدة يف خاغل ت علُ غري خهنل مطترشة يف غدلاُ خس يوية عدة‪ ،‬تعو ى مجعيل خريية اسالمية ملل “خغو الفضل”‪ ،‬دا تاكليف ذه‬
‫املنلس بل غفضل العربعل ‪.‬‬
‫ويوحض جمعىب ححميي البللغ من العمِّ ‪ 82‬علمل‪ ،‬و و حصفي ومجلنبه ِّوس عه “ اد رطوغيت قبل س نتني‪ ،‬لكطين مل خكن خمكل املل املطلو لقلمة حفل زال كبري‪ ،‬مث مسعت ن‬
‫ذه امجلعية عرب وسلئل العالم‪ ،‬اتجلت امسي‪ ،‬واليوم ل خان ختزوج”‪.‬‬
‫وحتصل ذه احلفال يف قلعة كرب يمت االل اصل الِّجل ن النتلء حبلمجز من المعدة اليت تاتم الصلةل ا ى مجزئني‪ .‬ال خُ مجي احللرضين ابس عطل هم حؤية مل جيِّي يف احلفل‬
‫لنلحية املِّامس والعِّوض‪ .‬ويف ذا اليوم‪ ،‬غدخ الزال امجلل ي ند العلسعة صبلال واس تمِّ حىت الثلنية والنصف غعد الظهِّ‪.‬‬
‫ويضيف جمعىب “لسس المِّ بلحة ن حفل اس عابل خضم‪ ،‬غل و حويح خكرث‪ .‬خمل خُ يزيد عدد الزواج اذلين س يزتومجوُ هبذه الطِّياة وخُ يصبح ذكل ِّال يف خاغل ت علُ”‪.‬‬
‫ويف خاغل ت علُ‪ ،‬خاد خااِّ غدلاُ العلمل‪ ،‬اذلي يعتمد بشلك كبري عىل املتلعدا المجطبية‪ ،‬يدا الش بلُ تاكليف حفل الزال واحليل لعِّوس املت عابل واملهِّ للعلئةل‪.‬‬
‫وحتب موىس البللغ من العمِّ ‪ 89‬علمل “احلفال اب ظة العلكفة متن النلس من الزواج”‪ .‬وقد تأرِّ ذا املوظف الِّمسي اذلي اد رطوغعه قبل قالث س نوا ن القدام عىل‬
‫الزواج للس بل امللدية املعِّواة‪ .‬واب موىس يطللب غععممي حفال الزال امجلل ي “للكف ن دا العلئال ا ى انفلق ثِّوا مالغل ليةل واادة”‪.‬‬
‫و ذه التعلدة طشلطِّ ل العِّائس خيضل‪ ،‬وتاو الطمة البللغة من العمِّ ‪ 09‬علمل وقد غطت وةهل غوشلح “خان سعيدة للغلية لنين ختزوج اليوم‪ .‬خمل خُ يصبح ذا النوع من الزجيل‬
‫دامئل يك يتمكن الزواج الش بل من الانطالق مجيدا يف حيلهتم اجلديدة”‪.‬‬
‫يلجأ معظم الش بل الاغلين ا ى الزال امجلل ي نظِّا ا ى اخنفلض‬
‫تاكليفه‬
‫و ف حفل الزال يف ذا اليوم ‪ 11‬خلف دولح‪ ،‬حتب حتن نظمي املتؤو ن مجعية “خغو الفضل” اخلريية‪ .‬وشلحك حنو ‪ 3‬خل مد و ايه‪ .‬وقد دا لك قنليئ من الزواج‬
‫املئة املشلحكني يف احلفل مبلغل ضئيال يتلوي مجزءا يتريا من تاكليف حفال الزال اخللصة احللصةل الليل‪.‬‬
‫ويوحض نظمي “قِّحان تنظمي حفال الزال امجلل ية ذه غعدمل لحظنل خُ العاكليف البل ظة للحفال متثل علئال خملم الش بلُ”‪ ،‬لاتل ا ى خُ الهد من ذكل يتمثل رصوصل يف‬
‫متلعدة العلئال الفارية‪.‬‬
‫وتِّوج مطظمعه لهذه الزجيل امجلل ية يف املتلجد وعرب وةلء الحيلء‪ ،‬وذكل إد خيضل ا ى تفلدي وقوع الش بل الاغلين يف اغواء العالقل اجلنت ية دوُ زواج‪.‬‬
‫ويف ذا الطلح خيضل يؤكد س يد ابقِّ اكظمي و و متؤو خرِّ يف امجلعية خُ حفال الزال امجلل ية لهل مطلا متعددة‪ ،‬اهيي من خال التناح لعدد خكرب من الِّجل ابلزواج تبعد‬
‫كثريين ن التلوكيل “غري الخالقية” والمجِّامية ملل اقلمة عالقل خلحج اطلح الزواج خو الاغعصل ‪.‬‬
‫ويزداد الطلب بشلك كبري عىل ذا النوع من الزجيل ‪ ،‬ااد مجعت مطلس بة خو ى من ذا النوع ‪ 22‬قنلئيل‪ ،‬خمل احلفل الثلين قبل خايم جفم حنو مئة قنليئ‪ ،‬اضلاة ا ى “‪ 811‬قنليئ عىل‬
‫قلمئة الانعظلح” حتب حتن نظمي‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 4‬‬
‫امِّخة واادة ل تكفي شعلح الِّجل غللبل‬

‫الزوجة العرصية تفِّض حصلح ل اذليك حو زوةل‪ ،‬واقتنلع الِّجل العِّيب غأُ امِّخة واادة تكفي خو ل تكفي مبين عىل غعض وامل الِّدع النفيس‪.‬‬

‫الزوجة تِّاض حاضل قلطعل عالقة زوةل ابمِّخة خرِّ‬
‫الال ِّة‪ -‬ايمل “امِّخة واادة ل تكفي” اذلي قلم غبطولعه الفطلُ خمحد زيك‪ ،‬طِّح قضية هممة ويه خُ الِّجل قلحنا يكتفي يف حيلته ابمِّخة واادة‪ ،‬وحيعلج ا ى خكرث من امِّخة ختعلف‬
‫لك واادة ن الرِّ ‪ ،‬ال ى خي مد يبدو ذا الالكم حصيحل؟‬
‫خكد دحاسة امجامت ية اديثة خُ ‪ 11‬ابملئة من الش بل والزواج ماتنعوُ غأُ امِّخة واادة تكفي‪ ،‬وميكهنل خُ تاوم غأدواح الرِّاي ‪ ،‬لُ اتيل وس يدا اليوم لتن كنا اكُ‬
‫عليه احلل ابلمس الاِّيب‪ ،‬ويف املالغل يِّوي ‪ 21‬ابملئة خُ امِّخة واادة ل تكفي‪ ،‬و نلك غعض الِّجل خيعلفوُ م ذه ادلحاسة‪ ،‬حمغ خُ كثريا من اجلنس النلمع ماتنعل متلملً‬
‫غنتلجئهل‪.‬‬
‫خكد محمود خمحد‪ ،‬حجل خ نا ‪ ،‬غعد خُ احتد قيل الشجلعة خُ جتِّغعه اذلاتية خري دليل‪ ،‬حيث قل ‪ :‬تزومجت يف غداية حيليت من اغنة معي وتومست االل جمِّد زوجة حتلاظ عىل‬
‫غسيت‪ ،‬لهنل تِّغت يف غسئة مغلاة متلم ًل‪ ،‬واكُ ذكل مطذ ‪ 01‬علمل‪ ،‬وحمغ مجنالهل لكهنل مل تكتشف خرساح خنوثهل‪ ،‬اكطت خشعِّ خهنل جمِّد امِّخة يف حيليت‪ ،‬وخان غطبيعيت برش ويل ا امتمليت‬
‫واحتيلجليت‪ ،‬وحبمك معيل واحتاكيك غأرِّاي خجعبت ابادا ن‪ ،‬ملافة وذكية جدا ومنوذج لت يدة ال نا النلحجة‪ ،‬حخيهل خمعلفة متلمل ن زومجيت‪ ،‬وشعِّ ابحتيليج لهل يف حيليت‪،‬‬
‫خلصة غعدمل خصبحت تتدد عىل رشكيت‪ ،‬لهنل اكنت تعمل مطدوغة طتويق لرشاك مكبيوتِّ‪ ،‬ومل يطل تعلحيف هبل ومل خشعِّ ال غطليب الزواج مهنل‪ ،‬اوااات‪ ،‬لكطين للسف‬
‫شعِّ غضيق من معلهل وتعلملهل م خرِّين‪ ،‬واتفاطل عىل خُ تتك معلهل وتعفِّغ يل‪ ،‬وابلطب ااد مزيهتل اليت خجعبتين ووجدهتل تخة مكِّحة من زومجيت الو ى‪ ،‬ااد خُهلت نفتهل‬
‫تغري نفتهل اأصبحت خكرث مجنا ًل وخنوقة‪ ،‬واقتحت ع حيل خُ‬ ‫ومل توظف ذاكء ل خو معلهل وطموهحل يف اطلح رشكيت‪ ،‬وشسئ ًل اشسئ ًل ادث الطالق‪ .‬لكن جفأة حخيت زومجيت الو ى ح‬
‫تعمل يف رشكيت‪ ،‬اوااات ملدامت ابلاِّ مين‪ ،‬واكتشفت خهنل تصلح غطبيعهل كت يدة خ نا وجمتم من الطِّاز الو ‪ ،‬وتأكد خنه ابلفعل ميكن لادا ن خُ تاوم غبل خدواح‬
‫الرِّاي ااف‪ ،‬مل علالل ال خُ تكتشف ذاهتل وقدحاهتل‪ ،‬وتعِّ حجلهل وطبيععه مجيد ًا‪.‬‬
‫الِّجل حملرص غفتيل اللكيبل وموجل العِّي يف الفضلئيل وشلشل الاطوا العلفزيونية اخملعلفة اليت تلعب عىل خواتح الغِّائز‬
‫تغري متلمل يف جمتمعلتنل العِّغية ومل تعد اكملليض‪ ،‬خلصة غعدمل تعلمت اتلة اليوم من خرطلهئل واس عو بت ادلحس مجيدا واهمت‬ ‫وياو ايرس انيج‪ ،‬موظف غأاد البنوك‪ :‬الظِّو ح‬
‫طبيعة الِّجل‪ ،‬اأصبحت تعان لك الدواح سواء س يدة املزن خو الم خو احلبسبة خو امجليةل ذا النوقة واجللذغية‪ ،‬ااد اس عطل ت اِّض حصلح ل اذليك حو حجلهل‪.‬‬
‫خمل ند خمحد‪ ،‬طللبة جلمعية اتاو ‪ :‬لن خ لمج الِّجل خو الش بل لصل النتلء الاليت خحا ن مارصا ‪ ،‬وجيب خُ نكوُ حمليدين يف خحائنل‪ ،‬الناذا ل تعخيحل ااداان نفتهل ماكُ‬
‫الِّجل؟! ابلطب ستتمىن خكرث من حجل يف حيلهتل‪ ،‬اذا ملتت امين تِّتبف غه تاصريا كُ يكوُ جمِّد زوج ااف خو جمِّد خةل لعواري لامة العسش‪ ،‬لكن لك مل حيدث خُ الِّجل يف‬
‫يعرب ن احتيلجه لرِّاي وكثريا يف حيلته غطِّياة رصحية‪ ،‬غعكس النتلء الاليت حمبل حتبتن حغبلهتن وخمطيلهتن يف اولهن وقلوهبن‪،‬‬ ‫جمتمعنل العِّيب خكرث مجِّخة من املِّخة‪ ،‬و ح‬
‫اللِّجل حملرص غفتيل اللكيبل وموجل العِّي يف الفضلئيل وشلشل الاطوا العلفزيونية اخملعلفة اليت تلعب عىل خواتح الغِّائز ايعطل ذلكل‪ ،‬ابلضلاة طبعل للفتيل يف‬
‫الشواحع الاليت خصبحت لك ا امتهمن مبالبتهن ومكيلةن وجذ النظِّا ‪ .‬لكن غعد الزواج يعالىش لك ذا الومه واخلداع وهتمل يف نفتهل غدلً من تطويِّ قدحاهتل‪ ،‬اأان خح‬
‫خُ الِّجل ندمل ياِّح‪ ،‬وياو اُ امِّخة واادة ل تكفي‪ ،‬امنل و تعبري ن ساوط املِّخة وحسوهبل واشلهل‪.‬‬
‫وتاو جنالء علد خس علذة عمل الامجامتع‪ :‬اُ تصلحع الدواح والتنا الامجامت ية غني رشاحئ وائل من النتلء والفتيل العِّغيل ‪ ،‬يؤدي ابلعليل ا ى خلق الةل من الرصاع الفِّدي‬
‫رص عىل خنه مل يعد‬‫دل الِّجل العِّيب اذلي قبل خُ ياِّح ارتيلح اادا ن مبالحنهل ابلرِّاي ‪ ،‬وخُ ذه العملية امجامت ية حبعة تِّتبف غعكوينه الامجامت ي والرسي اذلي ملزلت خ ح‬
‫يظهِّ غعد‪ ،‬اهنلك علدا وتالليد وقواغت دينية وخخالقية يتمح من خاللهل الِّجل خو ل يتمح لنفته ابختاقهل وجتلوز ل ند عالقته غأية امِّخة‪ ،‬وذلكل اهيي تنصلع ملل تميه‬
‫غظل ِّة الاجتله التلئد امجامت يل‪ ،‬واليت تِّ خُ نظِّة الِّجل وعالقلته غأكرث من امِّخة يف حيلته نوع من الع ِّمي الامجامت ي اذلي حيلو غطِّياة خو غأرِّ العحليل عليه من خال‬
‫اطلح حمسي امجامت ي مابو ؛ و و الزواج‪.‬‬
‫تصلحع الدواح والتنا الامجامت ية غني رشاحئ وائل من النتلء والفتيل العِّغيل ‪ ،‬يؤدي ابلعليل ا ى خلق الةل من الرصاع الفِّدي دل الِّجل العِّيب‬
‫خمل علد خمحد خس علذ عمل النفس‪ ،‬اياو ‪ :‬اُ خحاء الش بل والِّجل والفتيل والت يدا يف ذه الاضية طشغل ا امتم كثريين‪ ،‬ادامئلً اخلربا اذلاتية يه معيلح احلمك وتكوين الحاء‬
‫واملععادا والاجتل ل ‪ ،‬والِّجل العِّيب الليل مل يعد يف حمكه عىل الفتلة خو املِّخة مِّتكزا عىل جمِّد الانطبلعل الشخصية‪ ،‬لُ الع ِّغة علحمعه يف الععلمل معهل خُ يكوُ حمكه‬
‫علالل مِّتبط ًل غعجلحغه وخرباته وعالقلته‪ ،‬سواء اكُ ذكل غصوحة مبلرشة خو غري مبلرشة ن طِّيق الصدقلء خو العلفزيوُ وادلحامل والفضلئيل ‪ ،‬و ندمل ينظِّ الِّجل للمِّخة حتمكه‬
‫وامل نفت ية خمعلفة خُههل مالحنعه غسهنل وغني الرِّاي لكتشل خوجه متزي ل و يوهبل هنن‪ ،‬كنا خُ الِّجل غطبيععه البرشية دليه مجموعة الجل س يكولومجية غعضهل ات يولومجية‬
‫اطِّية تِّتبف ابلنلحية امللدية واجلتدية والغِّائزية‪ ،‬اكحتلسه مجنالهل وخنوثهل عىل ا عبلح مِّكزية اجلتد النثوي و ذه ااد سنا احليلة املعلرصة‪ ،‬وغعض ذه احللجل امجامت ية‬
‫يِّكز عىل الصفل املعنوية والعالية للمِّخة كشخصيهل ودوح ل وخُهيهل يف حيلته وطِّياة تفكري ل‪ ،‬وابلطب مفن النلحية احليلتية ل ميكن الفصل غني ذين النوعني من احللجل ‪،‬‬
‫تعكوُ قطلعل نفت ية دل الِّجل متكحطه من احلمك عىل املِّخة اليت يِّتبف هبل يف حيلته ومالحنهل ابلرِّاي ‪.‬‬
‫وغنلء عىل ذكل ح‬
‫ومن النلحية النفت ية الامجامت ية الُ حخي الِّجل العِّيب‪ ،‬سواء اقتنلعه غأُ امِّخة واادة تكفي خو ل تكفي‪ ،‬مبين عىل غعض وامل الِّدع النفيس سواء اذلاتية املتمثةل يف عذا‬
‫لعفِّد‪ ،‬وقد تكوُ ذه العوامل الِّادعة ذا طبيعة دينية خو امجامت ية متمثةل يف‬‫الضمري ونظِّته لنفته يف التناح لعفكريه وعالقلته ابجلنس الرِّ‪ ،‬خُ يكوُ خسلسه الععددية خو ا ُّ‬
‫علدا وتالليد معينة‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 5‬‬
‫تو س تكِّم حواد اطوُ ادلىم وريل الظل العِّيب‬

‫امللعاى العِّيب لفطوُ ادلىم وريل الظل إد ا ى الععِّيف هبذا النوع املرسيح واحلديث ن مت عابهل وس بل تنش يطه يف الفضلءا التغوية العِّغية‪.‬‬
‫خمحد ابشل [ رش يف ‪ ،8102/01/82‬العدد‪ ،9505 :‬ص(‪])05‬‬ ‫العِّ‬
‫ان قِّيب من نبض الشلحع وحيليك واقعه غطِّياة ااك ية‬

‫تعاد الهيئة العِّغية للمرسح النتخة الثلنية من امللعاى العِّيب لفطوُ ادلىم وريل الظل يف علمصة املرسح العِّيب تو س‪ ،‬وذكل يف الفتة الواقعة غني العرشين‬
‫واخللمس والعرشين من الشهِّ اجللحي‪ .‬وتأيت ادلوحة الثلنية‪ ،‬غعد خُ اد ادلوحة الو ى يف الشلحقة العلم املليض‪.‬‬
‫طتعى الهيئة العِّغية للمرسح طتليف الضوء عىل ذا النوع املرسيح‪ ،‬اذلي يعد من خقدم الشاك املرسحية الو ى اليت ِّاهل العِّ ‪ ،‬الحامجوز واحلكوايت‬
‫وريل الظل بشلك خلص‪.‬‬
‫ويف نفس املتعى خقلمت الهيئة عدة وحشل سلغاة يف مطل العلم احلليل لعدد من املش عغلني يف املرسح العِّيب هبد تطويِّ اخلربا العِّغية الشلغة يف ذا‬
‫اجملل ‪.‬‬
‫خحلاته بتوق خلص لدلىم مضن اعلليل خايم الشلحقة الثالاية وذكل مبشلحكة ‪ 00‬اطلان ِّغيل‪ .‬ويف نفس املتعى متح اصداح كعل “مرسح العِّائس” املتمج ن‬
‫اللغة التش يكية‪ ،‬تِّمجه العِّا سلمي اجلزائِّي‪.‬‬
‫يف ذا العلم‪ ،‬يالم يف خايم امللعاى عدد من الندوا الفكِّية اليت هتد ا ى الععِّيف ابملصطلح‪ ،‬ابلضلاة ا ى ندوا ن مت عابل ذه الفطوُ وخليل‬
‫تنش يطهل يف الفضلءا التغوية العِّغية‪.‬‬
‫تعاد خيضل‪ ،‬وحش علُ متوازيعلُ م عدد من املشتكني العِّ ‪ ،.‬وس ععِّض خحغعة خ نا مرسحية تو ت ية خال خايم امللعاى‪.‬‬
‫يكِّم امللعاى اطلنني ِّغيني‪ ،‬ويامي معِّضل لنعلةنا الفين‪ .‬الو و الفطلُ املرصي انيج شلكِّ (‪ ،)0938‬واذلي يش عغل ملدة س عني علمل مكصمم لدليكوح‬
‫املرسيح وللغِّاايك‪ ،‬ابلضلاة ا ى معهل كس علذ يف ية الفطوُ امجليةل‪.‬‬
‫خمل الشخصية الثلنية اهو الفطلُ العو يس حميي ادلين تن بدهلل املش عغل مطذ خكرث من خحغعني س نة يف ميداُ مرسح العِّائس‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 6‬‬
‫ربري يف الالنوُ يعوق خُ طشهد توس مأزق دس عوحية غعد الانعخلاب‬

‫اخلبري يف الالنوُ قسس سعيد يؤكد خُ الانعخلاب س عكوُ حمكومة ابحلتلاب الت يلس ية الضياة ويوحض خُ ت بة املشلحكة غدوح ل س عكوُ حمدحدة‪.‬‬
‫وائل تن اِّج [ رش يف ‪ ،8102/01/81‬العدد‪ ،9502 :‬ص(‪])1‬‬ ‫العِّ‬
‫الانعخلاب ستشلك امتحلان لمل لعو س‬

‫يعو حجه العو ت يوُ‪ ،‬غدا الاد‪ ،‬ا ى ماكتب الاقتاع لرتيلح الا ‪ 805‬ممثال هلم يف الربمللُ (جملس نوا الشعب) يف اطلح خو انعخلاب طرشيعية حِّة‪.‬‬
‫وتبدو ح لان الانعخلاب وتأقرياهتل‪ ،‬خمعلفة ن اقتاع ‪ 83‬خكعوتِّ ‪ ،8100‬واق اخلبري يف الالنوُ ادلس عوحي‪ ،‬قسس سعيد‪ ،‬اذلي خكد يف حواح م‬
‫“العِّ ” خُ العاصري اذلي اصطبغ غه الداء احلكويم خال الثالث س نوا امللضية‪ ،‬مجعل طرشيعية توس اليوم تتاوح غني ارية النلرب و زواه‬
‫وملضوية الربامج والو ود‪.‬‬
‫يوم وااد يفصل العو ت يني ن انعخلابهتم الترشيعية‪ ،‬اليت حتاِّح امجِّاؤ ل يف التلدس والعرشين من خكعوتِّ اجللحي‪ ،‬يف ظ حل مشهد س يليس وانعخليب‬
‫“اب ت”‪ ،‬ل يمن ن حناسة حتدو النلربني لهذا احلدث الهلم‪ ،‬واق غعض املِّاقبني‪.‬‬
‫حو طبيعة ذا املشهد ومتلئل خرِّ متفِّعة نه ومتعلاة غه‪ ،‬الوح “العِّ ” قسس سعيد‪ ،‬خس علذ الالنوُ ادلس عوحي ابجللمعة العو ت ية‪ ،‬اذلي ِّ‬
‫دل العو ت يني غأحائه اجلِّيئة‪ ،‬اليت طلملل خللفت التلئد ورِّمجت ن املألو ‪.‬‬
‫مطذ الحتة اديثه‪ ،‬خعلن قسس سعيد خنه س يخوض يف قِّاءة مشهد متحِّك يف ظل ِّه‪ ،‬غري خُ الثلنوي ايه يد عىل مجود‪ ،‬خنع عه الةل اس عنتلخ للربامج‬
‫يكِّحوهنل يف لك مطلس بة من ذا الابيل‪.‬‬
‫والو ود الانعخلغية اليت مل ائت املتحشوُ خحزااب ومت عالني‪ ،‬ح‬
‫يف ذا الت يلق‪ ،‬خضل سعيد‪ ،‬خو “متنيب الالنوُ”‪ ،‬كنا حيلو لبعض طلبعه اجللمعيني طتميعه‪“ ،‬خ حُ العو ت يني اليوم خيعلفوُ كثريا ن تو ت حيي ‪8100‬‬
‫اذلين شلحكوا يف انعخلاب اجمللس الوطين العأسسيس حيهنل‪ ،‬حىت خاالهمم مل تعد يه ذاهتل غعد خُ شهدوا اةلض معظمهل عىل خيدي س يلس يني وعدوا ابلعمنية‬
‫واحلِّاي والكِّامة والِّخلء‪ ،‬اأنعج حمكهم الةل خبتف مل يال هنل اهنل مل تكن واية لعكل الو ود ومل تكن قدح العطلعل ”‪.‬‬
‫حاتغة الو ود خنع ت العزو‬
‫ح‬
‫لعغري يف طبيعة النلرب العو يس‪ ،‬اذلي يبدو خنه ااد شسئل من امحللسة جتله معلية الاقتاع‪ ،‬غعد خُ خضنت اك هل مصل ب احليلة اليومية اليت قلت‬ ‫ذا ا ح‬
‫معهل مادحته الرشائية واس ععِّ االل انح السعلح‪ ،‬خنعج حتب قسس سعيد “الةل من العزو ميكن تاصالل والوقو عىل مؤرشاهتل من خال معلية‬
‫عاةل لالنعخلاب ‪ ،‬واليت خقبتت ابلاكشف خ حُ عدد العو ت يني اذلين توةوا لتت يل خسناهئم يف‬ ‫التت يل الحادي لالنعخل اليت خداحهتل الهيئة العليل املت ح‬
‫املدة الو ى مل يعجلوز الت عني خلفل‪ ،‬و و حمق ضعيف‪ ،‬هل دللته وانعاكسلته الالحاة عىل سري العملية الانعخلغية يف املت عابل”‪ ،‬واق تعبريه‪.‬‬
‫الةل من العزو ‪ ،‬يِّ سعيد خهنل “تواص ٌل حللةل مت حتمِّة من احلرية وعدم الاطمئنلُ وكذكل عدم الاكتاث ابلو ود الانعخلغية اليت خث حِّ احتفلع سافهل‪ ،‬اذلي‬
‫يعلنق اخليل خحيلان‪ ،‬عىل مصداقية احلدث الانعخليب دل عل حمة الشعب”‪ ،‬ويه كذكل “مبثلغة حسلةل مضمونة الوصو ا ى الت يلس يحني حىت يغريوا من‬
‫لكف ن الععلمل معه مبنطق الصو الانعخليب اذلي يتعى لك طِّ ا ى امجتذاغه مج حل الوسلئل‪ ،‬مرشوعة اكنت خو غري‬ ‫خسلليب تفلعلهم م النلرب وا ح‬
‫مرشوعة”‪.‬‬
‫‪ 51‬خلف نرص خمين ومجطدي س ياوموُ غعأمني الانعخلاب‬
‫ذا العو يس اذلي “مل يعد ينتمي ا ى الاُِّ املليض”‪ ،‬واق تعبري سعيد‪“ ،‬خحضى وا يل خكرث من خي وقت مَض غأل يب الت يلسة ورفلاي ل‪ ،‬حىت خ حُ‬
‫الميني خحضوا يعلغعوُ الشأُ العلم وجيهدوُ لس عنبلط حتليالهتم الشخصية‪ ،‬امل يعد العال ب مبشل ِّمه يتريا كنا اكُ المِّ يف التلغق‪ ،‬و ذا مل خسهم‬
‫بشلك خو غأرِّ يف هبعة الحزا ومجعلهل خلحج الت يلق”‪.‬‬
‫الانعخلاب الترشيعية‪ ،‬يِّ قسس سعيد خهنل س عكوُ “حمكومة ابلعوازان واحلتلاب الت يلس ية الضياة ومعلية توزي احلالئب اليت ستتلو العالُ ن‬
‫النعلجئ”‪ .‬موحضل “خ حُ ت بة املشلحكة غدوح ل س عكوُ حمدحدة غدحجة كبرية”‪ .‬كنا خملح ا ى “خنه ل مطلص من ظهوح مأزق دس عوحية ستااق املِّاةل الالدمة‬
‫اليت ستتلو الانعخلاب ”‪.‬‬
‫لك غذوح الزمل الت يلس ية اليت‬ ‫حيث خوحض “خ حُ ادلس عوح العو يس اذلي متت صيلغعه واملصلدقة عليه يف الت نوا الثالث امللضية‪ ،‬حيمل يف ط حيلته ح‬
‫س ععاب الانعخلاب الالدمة”‪ ،‬مؤكحدا خُ “تو س مِّحشة لالقبل عىل خزمل عديدة يف املت عابل الاِّيب”‪.‬‬
‫دوح ادلوائِّ المجطبية‬
‫يف مل يععلحق ابدلوح احملتمل اذلي حمبل تلعبه خطِّا خلحمجية يف حمس مالمح اخللحطة الت يلس ية العو ت ية اليوم‪ ،‬خوحض سعيد يف ترصحيه لا”العِّ ”‪ ،‬خن حه‬
‫“جيب التفلق خول عىل خ حُ تدخحل الاِّاح اخللحيج ينطلق دامئل وخغدا من رضوحة احلفلظ عىل مصل دوائِّ تكل الاِّاحا ‪ ،‬و و يؤث حِّ حيامن حتاِّح الطِّا‬
‫ادلاخلية الاحهتلُ لعكل الحادة اخللحمجيحة حبثل ن العأييد يف ذه العلمصة خو تكل”‪ ،‬مشريا ا ى “خ حُ ذا الاحهتلُ جيعل الطِّا ادلاخلية يف موق ضعف‬
‫نظِّا ا ى اماكنية ختيل الطِّا ادلامعة هنل اذا مل تغري املصل وتب حدلت الظِّو ”‪.‬‬
‫يعوح وُ يف التصل ابدلوائِّ المجطبية‪ ،‬ويابلوُ ادلوح اذلي تلعبة ذه‬ ‫وعىل الِّمغ من ذكل‪ ،‬ااد خملح سعيد ا ى خنه “وللسف‪ ،‬نلكل الكلريين اذلين ل ح‬
‫ادلوائِّ‪ ،‬دوُ مِّاعلة مهنم ملبدخ اس عاال الاِّاح الوطين”‪.‬‬
‫ختو هل‬ ‫لك من ح‬ ‫ويف ذا الت يلق‪ ،‬شدحد قسس سعيد عىل “رضوحة خُ يكوُ الاِّاح الوطين مت عاال ول يتتطد عىل غري الحادة العو ت ية”‪ ،‬مطللبل ح‬
‫مصلحعه ابلعدخل يف الشأُ العو يس غا”خُ حيتم احادة العو ت يني‪ ،‬مللنا مه حيتموُ احادة شعو الحض قلطبة”‪ ،‬عىل ا حد تعبريه‪.‬‬
‫ل سلطة للِّئسس من دوُ صالحيل‬
‫قسس سعيد‪ ،‬اذلي طلملل تواتِّ امسه‪ ،‬خقنلء اش عداد الزمل الت يلس ية وانغالق الاق مِّا عديدة‪ ،‬لعحمل مطلصب سلمية يف ادلوةل‪ ،‬سواء اكنت حئلسة‬
‫احلكومة خو حئلسة امجلهوحية‪ ،‬خثِّ اليوم خلح يتحش ا ى خي مطصب اكُ‪ ،‬طرشيعيل اكُ (جملس النوا ) خو تنفيذاي (حئلسة امجلهوحية)‪ ،‬ودل سؤالنل هل ن‬
‫خس بل موقفه ذا‪ ،‬قل “ا حُ د وا التحش اليت غلغعين‪ ،‬خلصة للِّئلس ية‪ ،‬كنت خمجيب خحصلهبل غأ حُ الاض حية اليوم لستت مطوطة ابلتلطة‪ ،‬غل يه خسلسل‬
‫قضية من يتب من‪ ،‬ومن القدح عىل حتايق الحادة الشعبية‪ ،‬مل الفلئدة من سلطة دوُ مرشوع وطين هتعدي غه وطتري عىل مهنجه”‪ ،‬مضيفل ابلاو ‪“ :‬من‬
‫ةيت مل خقل يومل اين غري قلدح عىل حت حمل املتؤولية لكن ابملالغل جيب خُ تعواِّ يل خليل العمل‪ ،‬ول خقبل خغدا خُ خكوُ حئستل خليل الوالض من‬
‫الصالحيل ”‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 7‬‬
‫دوةل التطني غني الاعتا الفِّيس واملنلوحة الربيطلنية‬

‫العصويت الربيطلين 'الِّمزي' عىل الاعتا ابدلوةل الفلتطينية لن يؤثِّ عىل س يلسل حكومة لندُ‪ ،‬واِّتل تعحدث ن اماكنية الاعتا‬
‫املت عابيل هبذه ادلوةل‪.‬‬
‫الاعتا ابدلوةل الفلتطينية يثري غضب املععلطفني م ارسائيل‬

‫لندُ‪/‬ابحيس ‪ -‬علد املتأةل الفلتطينية ا ى طلول النالشل الوحوغية مِّة خرِّ غعد خُ خلات التويد مبلدحة يف الاعتا غدوةل التطني‬
‫واق احلدود املِّسومة س نة ‪ ،0915‬لععأمجج معهل حدود الاعل اخملعلفة‪ ،‬مهنل من ينوي التري عىل رطل ل ملل اِّتل ومهنل من متلمل والعجأ ا ى‬
‫الو العفلاية ليهِّ من الحِّاج العاليم وادلويل ملل تِّيطلنيل‪.‬‬
‫ابعد خكرث من مختة وس عني علمل مِّ عىل الاحتال الرسائييل لحض التطني مل يت عط العلمل العوصل خاللهل ا ى ال لهذه الاضية اليت تععرب‬

‫الكرب يف العلمل‪ ،‬وعىل الِّمغ من اتفلقل “اكمب ديفيد” وتوجه الفلتطينسني حنو احلل التلمي غعد خُ اكُ الشعلح املِّاوع و حتِّيِّ التطني من‬
‫الهنِّ ا ى البحِّ‪ ،‬الُ ارسائيل مل تتب سو املناطةل دوُ خُ تعنبه ا ى خُ تِّك ذه الاضية دوُ ال يعين خُ تواجه ذه ادلوةل مالومة رشسة لن‬
‫حتاق من خاللهل مل تصبو اليه‪.‬‬
‫ااد جلأ تِّيطلنيل ا ى العصويت الِّمزي يف جملس العموم “لكن دوُ خُ تكوُ لنعلجئ العصويت قوة الزامية يف الاعتا غفلتطني” يف رطوة‬
‫للهِّ الِّمسي من حاض الاعتا ‪ ،‬وقد جلء ذا املوقف عىل لتلُ النلئب الربيطلين غِّا لم موحيس‪ ،‬مالغل تأكيد اِّتل عىل خُ “الوقت قد‬
‫الُ لالعتا غدوةل للفلتطينسني” لهنلء الةل الاضطِّا يف املنطاة‪ ،‬مللنا خكد النلطق ابمس وزاحة اخللحمجية الفِّت ية حوملُ اندا ‪.‬‬
‫مل حين الوقت غعد لالعتا غدوةل التطني‬
‫خمجِّ خ ضلء يف الربمللُ الربيطلين ند ظهِّ خمس تصويعل حمزاي عىل مل اذا اكُ جيب خُ تعت احلكومة غدوةل التطينية ويه رطوة من غري‬
‫املِّحج خُ حتدث حتول يف الت يلسة الِّمسية ولكهنل هتد ا ى ااثحة الوض الت يليس للاضية‪ ،‬نظِّا لطو مدة املفلوضل الخرية اليت ح هل‬
‫الولاي املعحدة المريكية غني التطني والرسائيليني واليت ختللهل حِّ شنهل الاوا الرسائيلية عىل الفلتطينسني اب ارتطل وقتل ح لئن‬
‫يف الضفة الغِّغية‪ .‬ول تصنف تِّيطلنيل الحايض الفلتطينية عىل خهنل دوةل ولكهنل تاو اهنل ميكن خُ تفعل ذكل يف خي وقت اذا ا عاد خُ ذكل‬
‫سستلعد يف تطويِّ معلية التالم غني التطني والرسائيليني‪ .‬وقد خكد ضو جملس العموم الربيطلين غِّا لم موحيس يف خكرث من مطلس بة س بات‬
‫يوم العصويت ويوم العصويت ذاته خُ متأةل الاعتا غفلتطني من عدهمل لستت مِّتبطة ابلربمللُ ااف‪ ،‬وامنل مِّتبطة مبنظومة العفكري دل‬
‫الت يلس يني ومعوم الربيطلنيني‪ .‬اتلحخي العالقة غني ارسائيل وتِّيطلنيل “ل يعأثِّ مبثل ذه املنلس بل اليت هتد ااف للعذكري غاضية مل ولسس خخذ‬
‫الاِّاح بشلك هنليئ”‪.‬‬
‫وخضل غِّا لم انه “من غري املِّحج خُ تأيت النتيجة ابملواااة لُ ذا خيللف الت يلسة الِّمسية ولكن حىت اذا متت املواااة عليه اهو قِّاح غري ملزم‬
‫ولن يِّمغ احلكومة عىل تغيري موقفهل ادلغلومليس”‪.‬‬
‫وقل غِّا لم موحيس ضو جملس العموم من حز العنا املعلحض والِّا ي لعملية العصويت “انه ضد موقف احلكومة ولكطه لسس َهومل علالل‪،‬‬
‫“اطحن شعِّ ااف خُ الوقت الُ لل نرصخ غصو مِّتف غأُ ذكل جيب خُ حيدث”‪.‬‬
‫وقد س بق خُ صدح تالحيِّ حصفية ن العديد من ومجوه املعلحضة اليت تؤكد خنه “الُ الوقت للعذكري ابلزتامل تِّيطلنيل جتله قضلاي الرشق‬
‫الوسف وخلصة املتأةل الفلتطينية”‪ .‬و ذا مل واةعه احلكومة وادلوائِّ الِّمسية ابلِّاض متعلةل غأُ “الوقت غري مطلسب ذلكل”‪.‬‬
‫ويف مالغل ترصحيل غعض النوا التلغاني والومجوه الت يلس ية املعِّواة عىل غِّاح مجوحج غللوي اذلي قل اُ “اقلمة دوةل لستت ااف حال‬
‫للشعب الفلتطيين ل ميكن انزتاعه مطه وامنل خيضل الاعتا غفلتطني يضخ حيلة جديدة لعملية التالم اليت وصلت ا ى طِّيق متدود”‪ ،‬لكن‬
‫الةل العالمية الربيطلنية مل تعوقف ن نفي واناكح مل يِّوج ن اماكنية اعتا تِّيطلنيل غفلتطني‪.‬‬
‫ونال ن النلئب غِّا لم موحيس خُ العصويت يف جملس العموم يف ملل ذا الاضلاي يكوُ حتب قطلعل النلئب يف اد ذاته ولسس العصويت‬
‫حتب خوامِّ حزغية خو توجه علم داخل تكتل خو تيلح‪.‬‬
‫موحيس‪ :‬اذا متت املواااة عىل الاعتا غفلتطني اهو قِّاح غري ملزم‬
‫و ذا المِّ يض النوا خملم حمك العصويت “خلحج الضغوطل ” مبل يعِّي حاياة مل اذا اكنت تِّيطلنيل س ععت غفلتطني خم ل‪.‬‬
‫و ذا التسطلحيو و اذلي س يحدث ابلعأكيد حتب النلئب موحيس‪.‬‬
‫ويأيت ذا المجِّاء يف الوقت اذلي تعزتم ايه حكومة التويد الاعتا حمسيل غفلتطني يف رطوة خاثح انعالدا ارسائيل‪.‬‬
‫ويف الت يلق ذاته عرب دوائِّ ماِّغة من اخللحمجية الربيطلنية ن متلمل واحض من اعالُ التويد زهمل الاعتا حمسيل غدوةل التطني عىل ادود‬
‫‪.0915‬‬
‫ويِّيد الفلتطينيوُ اقلمة دوةل مت عاةل يف الضفة الغِّغية وغزة علمصهل الادس الرشقية‪ ،‬طتعى من خجلهل التلطة الفلتطينية تلك الومجوه اليت‬
‫تعلقبت علالـل‪.‬‬
‫وقل متحدث ابمس وزاحة اخللحمجية الربيطلنية “نععاد خُ املفلوضل جتله ال ادلولعني يه خاضل طِّيق لعحايق الطموال الفلتطينية يف الواق‬
‫وعىل الحض ولكن الوقت مل حين غعد لننل حنس خُ نوااي الطِّاني لستت يف اجتله مل نتمنله”‪.‬‬
‫الاعتا غفلتطني رضوحة ملحة‬
‫خكد اِّتل جمدد ًا الرضوحة “امللحة” لعحايق تادم يف مفلوضل ال ادلولعني‪ ،‬مشددة عىل خنه “سستعني يف وقت مل الاعتا ابدلوةل‬
‫الفلتطينية”‪ ،‬وذكل غعد خايم عىل اعالُ التويد قِّاحا هبذا الصدد‪.‬‬
‫وقل النلطق ابمس وزاحة اخللحمجية الفِّت ية حوملُ اندا ‪“ :‬من امللح حتايق تادم يف ال ادلولعني‪ ،‬والعوصل ا ى اقلمة دوةل التطينية مت عاةل‬
‫حتيل يف سالم وخمن ا ى جلنب ارسائيل”‪.‬‬

‫وخضل ‪“ :‬انه احلل اذلي يدمعه اجملتم ادلويل”‪ .‬و و العرصحي اذلي ا عربته عديد ادلوائِّ العالمية نتيجة مِّاقبة اِّتل املكلف للوض يف مططاة‬
‫الرشق الوسف مطذ مدة طويةل حتب تاِّيِّ حصفي جلء يف حصيفة لوموند‪.‬‬
‫وخضل اندا قلئال‪ “ :‬ذا يعين خنه سستعني يوم ًل الاعتا ابدلوةل الفلتطينية”‪ ،‬مِّددا مل قلهل وزيِّ اخللحمجية لوحاُ الغيوس يف معه خملم‬
‫التفِّاء الفِّت يني هنلية خغتطس املليض ندمل ا عرب خال اله وم الرسائييل ادلايم عىل غزة ذا الصيف خُ “اجملتم ادلويل جيب خُ يفِّض‬
‫طتوية س يلس ية للرصاع الفلتطيين – الرسائييل”‪ .‬وذكل غعد خُ قلمت الاوا الرسائيلية بشن حِّ مكلفة ضد الفلتطينسني يف قطلع غزة‬
‫مل خد ا ى استشهلد مل يالح ‪ 0511‬خشص ومجِّح رشا الل ‪ ،‬دوُ خُ يغري اله وم شسئل يف الواق الت يليس والقلميي‪.‬‬
‫ومل يوحض النلطق ل تنوي ابحيس الاعتا قِّيب ًل ابدلوةل الفلتطينية‪ ،‬مضيف ًل يف لالئه م العالميني خُ “التالم ميِّ مبفلوضل ‪ ،‬و ذه‬
‫املفلوضل جيب خُ تهم بشلك علجل يف اس عئطلاهل يف اطلح معتمد”‪.‬‬
‫ويأيت ذا العرصحي غعد توقف املفلوضل غني التطني والرسائيليني يف الشهِّ امللضية غعد صيف سلرن قلم ايه الرسائيليوُ غاط املفلوضل‬
‫اليت اكنت تِّعلية مبلرشة من خمريكـل والِّغـل ي ادلولاي‪.‬‬
‫وقد اصل النلطق ابمس وزاحة اخللحمجية الفِّت ية حوملُ اندا خس بل اختلذ اِّتل ملوقف مل مطلوئ لرسائيل وادلامع لالعتا غفلتطني‪ ،‬ا ى‬
‫الاِّاحا الرسائيلية الخرية يف غنلء ‪ 8101‬مطلز يف مت عوطنة مجفعل لملتوس وعدة رطوا خرِّ هتم الا عالل العشوائية الخرية يف‬
‫الضفة الغِّغية ويف املعلتِّ اليت ميِّ مهنل خل الفلتطينسني للعمل لك يوم‪.‬‬
‫وقل حوملُ يف ذا الصدد‪“ :‬س يكوُ خو غنلء استيطلين يف مططاة الادس الرشقية‪ ،‬و ذا الاِّاح إدد حبل ادلولعني”‪.‬‬
‫وخضل يف غيلُ‪“ :‬يف ال الغالء عىل ذا الاِّاح اهو س يكِّس قيلم مت عوطنة جديدة يف الادس الرشقية للمِّة الو ى مطذ خكرث من ‪ 01‬علمل”‪.‬‬
‫اندا ‪ :‬من امللح حتايق تادم يف ال ادلولعني‪ ،‬والعوصل ا ى اقلمة دوةل التطينية مت عاةل‬
‫و و مل س يعِّقل متلح التالم “اذلي ميِّ حامت عرب الاعتا غدوةل التطني عىل ادود ‪ ”0915‬حتب تعبري النلطق ابمس اخللحمجية الفِّت ية‪.‬‬
‫وخعلد حوملُ اندا العأكيد عىل خُ دوائِّ الاِّاح الرسائيلية ل تِّيدا عرب الشلحا التلبية اليت تبهثلا الوصو م الاو ادلولية والا املعحدة ا ى‬
‫ال مفصيل يؤدي ا ى هنلية الرصاع يف التطني‪ .‬واتغ املتؤو الفِّيس موحضل‪“ :‬اُ ذا العالُ (الايلم غبطلء مت عوطنل جديدة) إدد بشلك‬
‫مبلرش ال ادلولعني والمل غأُ تكوُ الادس علمصة لدلولعني‪ ،‬يف الوقت اذلي يعومجب ايه تومجيه لك اجلهود حنو قيلم التالم‪ .‬ل ميكن الادعلء‬
‫ابدل وة ا ى ال‪ ،‬ويف الوقت نفته العرص ضده من دوُ خُ جيِّي اس عخالص العرب‪ ،‬ورصوصل داخل الاحتلد الوحويب”‪.‬‬
‫وقد اكُ الكمه موةل خسلسل ا ى ادلو اليت تتدد الُ يف العالُ ن اعتااهل غفلتطني عىل غِّاح تِّيطلنيل وخمللنيل وغعض ادلو الرِّ اليت مل‬
‫طتكل متكل لك من التويد واِّتل‪ .‬وخرص املعحدث ابمس وزاحة اخللحمجية حوملُ اندا خنه من امللح الُ اقلمة دوةل التطينية‪“ ،‬ويه دوةل‬
‫س يعت هبل العلمل ه”‪ ،‬وطللب اندا ابلعودة الرسيعة للمفلوضل من خجل الاعتا ابدلوةل الفلتطينية‪.‬‬
‫اِّتل تعلن نسهل الاعتا غفلتطني وارسائيل حتعج‬
‫ابحيس ‪ -‬استطلدا ا ى سفري التطني يف ابحيس ليل الفل وم‪ ،‬ااد غدخ متأةل الاعتا غفلتطني تنلقش يف ابحيس‪ ،‬غعد خُ طِّحت خال‬
‫لالء هنلية سبتمرب املليض غني الِّئستني اِّتوا ولند ومحمود بلس‪.‬‬
‫وقل الفل وم يف ترصحي اعاليم “خمل يف خُ تاوم اِّتل‪ ،‬اليت تعد احملفز يف ذا الشأُ‪ ،‬هبذه البلدحة قِّيبل”‪ ،‬غعد خُ ابدح التويد ابلعالُ ن‬
‫نسهل الاعتا غفلتطني عىل لتلُ حئستهل‪.‬‬
‫واكنت التويد قد خعلنت يف وقت سلغق زهمل الاعتا غا”دوةل التطني”‪ ،‬و و مل قِّحته اعال س ب دو خ ضلء يف الاحتلد الوحويب يف‬
‫الت نوا امللضية‪ ،‬حبتب مصلدح التطينية‪ .‬وقد خشلد التلطة الفلتطينية هبذا الاِّاح مطعادة غعنف الولاي املعحدة وارسائيل اللعني ا عربات‬
‫ذا الاِّاح “سلغالً لوانه”‪.‬‬
‫وحد وزاحة اخللحمجية الرسائيلية ابس عدعلء سفري التويد اكح ملغنوس نستري‪ ،‬وخ ِّغت هل ن “احتجلةل وريبة خملهل” من قِّاح حئسس الوزحاء‬
‫التويدي ستيفلُ لوان الاعتا غدوةل التطني‪ ،‬حمذحة من خُ ذه اخلطوة “لن طتهم يف حتتني العالقة غني ارسائيل والفلتطينسني غل‬
‫س ع علهل خسوخ”‪.‬‬
‫الاعتا الفِّيس غفلتطني سو يعطي داعة جديدة للمفلوضل غني الطِّاني ويعيد امجلي ا ى طلوةل النالش‬
‫وقللت اُ ترصحيل لوان “س عالل اِّص العوصل ا ى اتفلق لهنل ختلق دل الفلتطينسني توقعلً غري معيل غأُ ابماكهنم حتايق داهم يف شلك‬
‫خالدي ولسس من خال العفلوض م ارسائيل”‪.‬‬
‫وخضلات اُ الاِّاح “خمِّ مت عغِّ ” نظِّ ًا ا ى الاضطِّااب واحلِّو “وخ نا الح ل اليومية” اليت جتِّي يف املنطاة‪.‬‬
‫وتؤكد ارسائيل خُ الفلتطينسني لن حيصلوا عىل دولهم املو ودة ال من خال املفلوضل املبلرشة ولسس من خال غري ل من الاطوا‬
‫ادليبلوملس ية‪ .‬ومل تعلق التفلحة التويدية يف ارسائيل عىل اللالء اذلي مجِّ غعد قالقة خايم من اعالُ لوان خال رطل تنصيبه خملم الربمللُ‪.‬‬
‫وواق تالحيِّ اعالمية خمعلفة‪ ،‬الُ ‪ 008‬دوةل عىل القل اعتات غدوةل التطني‪ ،‬غري خُ التلطة الفلتطينية تعحدث ن ‪ 032‬غدلا‪ ،‬غسهنل س بعة‬
‫خ ضلء يف الاحتلد الوحويب (طش يكيل واجملِّ وغولندا وغلغلحاي وحوملنيل ومللطل وقربص) اكنت اعتات غفلتطني قبل انضناهمل ا ى الاحتلد‪.‬‬
‫وخالد حصيفة “ أحطس” خُ التفلحة التويدية خعلنت خُ التويد س ععت ابدلوةل الفلتطينية اليت س عالم نتيجة مفلوضل عىل خسلس ال‬
‫ادلولعني‪ .‬وخضلات خُ ذا املوقف جلء عىل مل يبدو نتيجة لالنعالدا الرسائيلية الشديدة‪.‬‬
‫وخالد حصيفة “يديعو خحِّونو ” اُ ارسائيل قلاة جداً من قِّاح التويد لس بل عدة‪ ،‬غسهنل خهنل دوةل خوحوغية كبرية ذا تأقري يف الاحتلد‬
‫الوحويب‪ ،‬ويه يف الواق ادلوةل الو ى من غني ادلو السلس ية يف الاحتلد اليت تعت ابدلوةل الفلتطينية‪ ،‬ابس عثطلء دو اشتاكية اعتات‬
‫غفلتطني قبل درولهل الاحتلد‪.‬‬
‫وخضلات الصحيفة خُ ارسائيل ختىش من خُ يدا قِّاح التويد دول خوحوغية خرِّ للعرصحي غنسهل الاعتا ابدلوةل الفلتطينية‪ .‬وكعبت خُ‬
‫ارسائيل تععاد خُ ترصحيل حئسس احلكومة التويدية مِّتبطة خول غأاداث س يلس ية داخلية يف التويد‪ ،‬غسهنل خُ ‪ 1‬ابملئة من ساكُ التويد‬
‫متلمني‪ ،‬وخُ غللبسهم صوتت للحز الاشتايك ادلميوقِّاطي‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 8‬‬
‫طِّد اتن مجو ابيدُ من البحِّية لععلطيه اخملدحا‬

‫الفحوصل تكشف تعلطي نت تعلطيه مللدة الكواكيني اخملدحة اامي مل يصدح خي حد اعل حمسي ن مكتب وادله انئب الِّئسس المرييك‪.‬‬
‫ابيدُ الاتن يعرب ن شعوحه ابلحِّاج ملل حصل‬

‫واش نطن ‪ -‬كشفت حصيفة “وو ستيت مجوحان ” خُ خاد خغنلء مجو ابيدُ انئب الِّئسس المرييك طِّد العلم اجللحي من جسش الاحتيلط للبحِّية‬
‫المريكية غعد خُ تبني خنه يععلطى اخملدحا ‪.‬‬
‫ااد قلمت البحِّية المريكية غترسحي ضلغف الاحتيلط نت ابيدُ غعد خُ خكد الفحوصل اليت خمجِّيت هل غعد خخذ ينة من دمه تعلطيه مللدة‬
‫الكواكيني اخملدحة‪ ،‬اامي مل يصدح خي حد اعل حمسي ن مكتب انئب الِّئسس‪.‬‬
‫واكُ ابيدُ الاتن قد العحق ابلبحِّية كضلغف احتيلط يف علم ‪ ،8108‬لكن نعلجئ الفحص اذلي خمجِّي هل العلم املليض ىتت ببت يف طرسحيه يف اربايِّ من‬
‫ذا العلم‪.‬‬
‫وعرب خصغِّ خغنلء انئب حئسس الولاي املعحدة البللغ من العمِّ ‪ 22‬علمل ن شعوحه ابلحِّاج ملل حصل‪ ،‬موحضل خنه يعفهم قِّاح املتؤولني يف البحِّية‪.‬‬
‫وقل يف غيلُ خحسهل ا ى الصحيفة “اكنت رشال يل اخلدمة يف صفو البحِّية المريكية واين خسف حال وخشعِّ ابلحِّاج خُ يكوُ سلويك خد ا ى‬
‫طِّدي‪ ،‬ااتم قِّاح البحِّية وسأميض قدمل غفضل دمع خرسيت وحهبل”‪.‬‬
‫ويأيت ذا املوقف احملِّج لنلئب الِّئسس غعد خُ اضطِّ ا ى الا عذاح لتكيل والملحا العِّغية املعحدة قبل خسلغي قليةل غعد خُ اهتمهنا يف خاد ترصحيلته‬
‫غدمع الح ل ‪.‬‬
‫واكُ نت ححش يف مليو العلم املليض لالنضنام ا ى البحِّية المريكية بشلك حمسي حيث يعمل غدوام مجزيئ مكتؤو للعالقل العلمة‪.‬‬
‫لكن غعد شهِّ من ذكل وحتديدا يف يونيو رض لفحص كشف اخملدحا يف وادة الاحتيلط اليت ينتمي الالل يف قلعدة “نوحاوكل” يف ولية اريمجينيل‬
‫الواقعة رشق الولاي املعحدة وجلء النتيجة اجيلغية وخقبتت تعلطيه الكواكيني‪.‬‬
‫وحاضت البحِّية المريكية الععليق عىل املوضوع متذحعة ابلاوانني املععلاة ابحليلة اخللصة‪ ،‬لكن مصلدح ماِّغة من امللف اكنت وحاء طرسيب تكل املعلومل‬
‫ا ى الصحلاة ليفتضح خمِّ نت املعحصل عىل شهلدة حاوق و و الليل رشيك يف مؤستة استامثح‪.‬‬
‫يذكِّ خُ النجل الرِّ لبليدُ ويد ى غو يعادل مطصب املد ي العلم يف ولية ديالويِّ حيث يِّيد التحش ملنصب المك الولية و و كذكل حيمل حتبة‬
‫“مي وح” يف احلِّس الوطين للولية‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 9‬‬
‫بدالفتلح موحو‪ :‬السالميوُ خرطأوا وشعلحمه الحغ‬

‫الايلدي يف حِّكة الهنضة بدالفتلح موحو ينصح احلِّاك السالمية ابمجِّاء مِّامجعة للظِّو املت عجدة والقِّاح ابلعيلحا الت يلس ية الرِّ ‪.‬‬
‫موحو يععرب خُ حِّاك الفتة الانعخلغية حِّاك وطين‬

‫تو س‪ -‬انعاد بدالفتلح موحو‪ ،‬اس عخدام ادلين يف الت يلسة مدينل ظوا ِّ العطِّ اخلطرية اليت متث حلهل دا ش وامجللعل اجلهلدية‪.‬‬
‫وكِّح موحو مواقفه الِّااضة لندالع السالم الت يليس حنو احلمك‪ ،‬محمال اايه متؤولية النكتل اليت خصسب هبل خال جتلحغه احلديثة يف احلمك‪.‬‬
‫وخكد خُ شعلح “السالم و احلل” شعلح الحغ واضفلض ل يعلجل بشلك االين مشللك النلس العملية‪.‬‬
‫ونصح موحو‪ ،‬مؤسس حِّكة الاجتله الساليم اليت حتولت لحال ا ى حِّكة الهنضة‪ ،‬ويشغل الليل مطصب انئب الِّئسس داخلهل‪ ،‬يف مالغةل خمجِّيت‬
‫معه يف تِّانمج “جسلل ” اذلي يادمه العاليم محمد قواص‪ ،‬احلِّاك السالمية ابمجِّاء مِّامجعة تأخذ غعني الا عبلح الظِّو املت عجدة والقِّاح‬
‫ابلعيلحا الت يلس ية الرِّ ‪.‬‬
‫وذكحِّ موحو خُ ل شلك مادسل ادده السالم للحمك‪ ،‬وخُ خمِّ ذكل برشي ل شأُ لدلين غه‪.‬‬
‫وا عرب موحو خُ احلِّاك اليوم و حِّاك وطين‪ ،‬خمللفل غذكل السالميني اذلين يععربوُ ذكل جلنبيل ول يعتاوُ ابحملددا الوطنية احلديثة‪.‬‬
‫وحدا عىل سؤا حو مل اذا اكنت حِّكة الهنضة طت عغل رطلغه املنفتح لعلمي صوحهتل الانعخلغية‪ ،‬مل ينف موحو ذكل مضيفل غأنه متمتك هبذا‬
‫اخلطل يف سعي ا ى مجِّ احلِّاك الساليم حنو ذا الانفتلح‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 10‬‬
‫اشل اداحة حكومل الهنضة لالقتصلد يضغف عىل ريلحا العو ت يني‬
‫مِّاقبوُ يِّوُ خُ خنظلح العو ت يني يف الانعخلاب ستتجه ا ى التجل الاقتصلدي احملبف خلصة وخهنم يععربوُ حز الهنضة الساليم مجزءا من‬
‫املشلكة‪.‬‬
‫سالم رسالُ [ رش يف ‪ ،8102/01/81‬العدد‪ ،9502 :‬ص(‪])00‬‬ ‫العِّ‬
‫تِّامج الت يلاة العنواُ التِّز لتامج الثاة غعو س خال اتة حكومل حِّكة الهنضة السالمية‬
‫لندُ – تو س ‪ -‬تبدو امللفل الاقتصلدية من خكرث العوامل تأقريا يف ريلحا النلربني العو ت يني خال الانعخلاب الترشيعية العو ت ية‪ .‬ويِّ‬
‫حمللوُ خُ اس ععلدة احلكومة املؤقتة جلزء من قاة املتتمثِّين الجلنب‪ ،‬معات موقف العو ت يني التلرف عىل خرطلء احلكومل التلغاة اليت‬
‫قلدهتل حِّكة الهنضة السالمية‪.‬‬
‫ياو مِّاقبوُ اُ خنظلح العو ت يني يف انعخلاب الغد‪ ،‬ستتجه ا ى التجل الاقتصلدي احملبف للحكومل التلغاة‪ ،‬والرطلء الكبرية اليت احتكبهل‬
‫لعض الاقتصلد عىل الاة الاالس‪.‬‬
‫وسلعد العادم الطفيف اذلي خحِّزته احلكومة املؤقتة خال وقت قصري يف اس ععلدة مجزء من قاة املؤستل املللية ادلولية واملتتمثِّين الجلنب‪،‬‬
‫سستهم يف تومجيه اللوم ا ى احلكومل اليت قلدهتل حِّكة الهنضة السالمية اليت خد ا ى ِّو املتتمثِّين وتعرث الاطلع الت يليح وتِّامج مجي‬
‫املؤرشا املللية والاقتصلدية وتفلمق البطلةل‪.‬‬
‫ويِّ اخلرباء خُ اخليلحا الاقتصلدية ستتحللف م اخليلحا المطية‪ ،‬حيث يِّ معظم العو ت يني خُ الحزا السالمية‪ ،‬وخلصة حز الهنضة‬
‫مجزءا من املشلكة‪.‬‬
‫كنا خُ املؤستل املللية وادلو امللحنة واملتتمثِّين‪ ،‬وخلصة ادلو اخللي ية‪ ،‬غدخ تعحِّك حنو الاقتصلد العو يس يف هد احلكومة املؤقتة‪ ،‬و نلك‬
‫و ود كبرية‪ ،‬ميكن خُ تعلك اذا الز الحزا السالمية يف الانعخلاب ‪ ،‬واذا مل اكُ لهل دوح كبرية يف قيلدة احلكومة اليت ستتمخض هنل‬
‫الانعخلاب ‪.‬‬
‫ويبدو واحضل خملم النلرب العو يس خُ انععلش الاقتصلد مِّتبف غتامج دوح الحزا السالمية يف العملية الت يلس ية‪.‬‬
‫مؤرشا حئست ية للوض الاقتصلدي‬
‫‪ 2.2‬مليلح دولح الع ز العجلحي املعوق‬
‫للعلم احلليل‬
‫‪ 5‬ابملئة ت بة تِّامج الصلدحا مطذ غداية‬
‫العلم‬
‫‪ 02‬ابملئة تِّامج سعِّ رص ادلينلح مطذ‬
‫‪8100‬‬
‫‪ 1‬ابملئة العضخم يف الحقلم الِّمسية‬
‫املعحفظة‬
‫‪ 2‬ابملئة من النلجت احمليل المجنايل جعز‬
‫املوازنة‬
‫‪ 11‬ابملئة من النلجت احمليل جحم ادليوُ‬
‫اخللحمجية‬
‫وتظهِّ الفتة الاصرية اليت تولت خاللهل حكومة همدي مجعة مالليد التلطة مؤرشا كثرية عىل اماكنية حتتن الاقتصلد‪.‬‬
‫ااد حصلت تو س يف العلم املليض عىل رف ائامتُ غامية ‪ 0.5‬مليلح دولح من صندوق الناد ادلويل مبومجب اتفلق لترسي الصالال‬
‫الاقتصلدية‪.‬‬
‫ويه تعطل للحصو عىل مبلغ ‪ 111‬مليوُ دولح جديدة من الصندوق كداعة جديدة من الاِّض الئامتين‪ ،‬املِّ وُ غتطفيذ توصيلته بشأُ اصالح‬
‫مطظومة ادلمع والعخلص العدحجيي من خ بلء صندوق ادلمع احلكويم‪.‬‬
‫و اد يف الشهِّ املليض مؤمتِّ “الاستامثح يف تو س‪ ″‬اذلي جلء مببلدحة خطلاهل الِّئسس الفِّيس اِّتوا ولند‪ ،‬واذلي اس عاطب عددا كبريا من‬
‫ادلو واملؤستل ادلولية واملتتمثِّين اخللي يني والجلنب‪ ،‬وشهد و ودا كبرية لالستامثح يف توس‪.‬‬
‫وخطلق متتمثِّوُ خلي يوُ خال املؤمتِّ مرشوعل معالقل لقلمة “مدينة توس الاقتصلدية” ابستامثحا تصل ا ى ‪ 11‬مليلح دولح‪ .‬كنا خعلنت‬
‫الولاي املعحدة خال املؤمتِّ خهنل س ععاد مؤمتِّا استامثحاي واسعل يف توس يف ملحس املابل وخهنل س عد و خكرب عدد ممكن من املتتمثِّين المريكيني‬
‫غغِّض طش يعهم عىل الاستامثح يف مجموعة كبرية من املشلحي الهلمة يف تو س واليت سسمت تادميهل هبذه املنلس بة‪.‬‬
‫وقللت خُ ابتِّسن‪ ،‬متلعدة وزيِّ اخللحمجية حيهنل‪ ،‬اُ احلكومة المريكية غصدد دحاسة متويل عدد من املشلحي اليت مت ِّضهل خال املؤمتِّ والبللغ‬
‫عدد ل امجنال ‪ 88‬مرشوعل وطشمل خسلسل الاطلع الصنل ي والطلقة والبنية العحعية والصحة والنال والت يلاة‪.‬‬
‫ويعوق حمللوُ خُ تكوُ انعخلاب الغد ناطة حتو كرب غعد تزايد التش ي ادلويل لبوادح رِّوج تو س من املِّاةل الانعاللية‪ ،‬خلصة اذا تِّامج‬
‫نفوذ حِّكة الهنضة السالمية يف الربمللُ واحلكومة املابةل‪.‬‬
‫وتعأححج تاديِّا اخلرباء واحملللني يف تو س وتاديِّا خرباء املؤستل ادلولية غني العفلؤ املرشوط ابلايلم ابصالال صلحمة وغني التشلؤم‬
‫املتتطد ا ى التكة الثايةل اليت خلفهل احلكومل اليت قلدهتل حِّكة الهنضة مطذ قوحة ينليِّ ‪.8100‬‬
‫وياو اخلبري الاقتصلدي العو يس‪ ،‬معز اجلودي‪ ،‬اُ تد وح الوض الاقتصلدي والامجامت ي ميكن خُ يؤدي ا ى قوحة جديدة نتيجة الت يلسل‬
‫اخللطئة للحكومل التلغاة‪ ،‬وخُ الانعخلاب اِّصة حاياية للخِّوج من ذا املأزق‪.‬‬
‫وخكد لا”العِّ ”‪ ،‬خُ “اقتصلد تو س مبين ابلسلس عىل الاستامثح المجطيب والعصديِّ والت يلاة واخلدمل املرصاية‪ ،‬ويه قطلعل حتلسة‬
‫تعتمد ابلسلس عىل البسئة ومطلخ ال نا ”‪.‬‬
‫وخشلح تاِّيِّ للبنك ادلويل يف سبتمرب ا ى خُ الرشاك العو ت ية تنفق الليل قِّاغة ‪ 02‬ابملئة من ايِّاداهتل الت نوية عىل ال بلء البريوقِّاطية ومل‬
‫يعصل هبل من الل الفتلد الصغرية‪.‬‬
‫وياو حمللوُ اُ خملم النلربني اليوم ريلح اصالح الاقتصلد واس عاطل الاستامثحا المجطبية وغني العودة ا ى الفوىض وعدم الكفلءة اليت‬
‫وضعت الاقتصلد عىل الاة الاالس‪.‬‬
‫ويِّ اجلودي خُ انعدام الاس عاِّاح الت يليس والمين مطذ قوحة ينليِّ ‪ 8100‬تِّااق م خداء حكويم اب ت ومِّتبك يف هد احلكومل اليت قلدهتل‬
‫حِّكة الهنضة السالمية‪ ،‬المِّ اذلي حامك املشللك ا ى خُ خصبح الوض “اكحقيل تلك مل لللكمة من معىن”‪.‬‬
‫ومحل حكومل حِّكة الهنضة متؤولية مل وصل هل الوض الاقتصلدي يف البالد‪ ،‬لُ وزحاء ل مل تكن دلإم خربة اقتصلدية وس يلس يل‬
‫واستاتي ية واحضة‪ ،‬وقل اهنم ا تموا مبصلحلهم الت يلس ية عىل حتل مصل البالد‪.‬‬
‫وياو حمللوُ اُ اغععلد النلربني ن خحزا السالم الت يليس من شأنه خُ يعيد الثاة للمتتمثِّين الجلنب واحملليني وخيلق مشلحي جديدة‬
‫طتلمه يف رفض معدل البطلةل يف تو س اليت تبلغ الليل ‪ 01‬ابملئة‪.‬‬
‫ومه يِّحجوُ خُ تضغف تكل امللفل الاقتصلدية عىل ريلحا النلربني بتبب الفشل الكبري للحكومل اليت قلدهتل حِّكة الهنضة السالمية خال‬
‫الت نوا املابةل‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 11‬‬
‫كيف جتِّ الانعخلاب الترشيعية يف توس‬

‫الالنوُ العو يس ينص عىل خُ الك من الانعخلاب الِّئلس ية والربمللنية والاس عفتلء جتِّ غواسطة َوحقة تصويت موادة تعو ى الهيئة تصمميهل وطبل هل‬
‫تلك وضوح ودقة‪.‬‬

‫الانعخلاب الترشيعية مِّاةل جلمسة من اتحخي توس‬
‫جتِّي الانعخلاب الترشيعية العو ت ية واق نظلم الالمئة النتبية غضواغف معينة لاتتل النعلجئ‪ .‬ويعتمد الالنوُ الانعخليب العو يس تمد عىل نظلم‬
‫يع‬
‫الالمئة النتبية م ا امتد خكرب البوا ‪ ،‬خي خُ الانعخلاب تمت عىل مت عو لك دائِّة حيث يمت االل حرص امجنايل عدد الصوا اليت تعحصل علالل‬
‫لك قلمئة يف ادلائِّة لياتم عىل عدد املالعد يف تكل ادلائِّة الانعخلغية‪ ،‬ويتمى الِّمق النلجت ن ذه العملية احلتلغية املعحصل علالل احللصل‬
‫الانعخليب‪.‬‬
‫غعد ذكل يمت توزي املالعد عىل الاوامئ اخملعلفة غادح عدد املِّا اليت حتصلت االل الالمئة عىل احللصل الانعخليب‪ ،‬ويف ال غالء مالعد غري موزعة‬
‫يمت الل وء ا ى قلعدة “خكرب البوا ” لعوزي ذه املالعد عىل اب الاوامئ حيث يمت ا طلء الولوية يف العوزي للاوامئ احللصةل خكرب البوا مث اليت‬
‫تلالل ا ى خُ يمت توزي لك مالعد ادلائِّة‪”.‬‬
‫ويضبف الالنوُ الانعخليب العو يس الصلدح يف مليو ‪ 8102‬كيفية امجِّاء معلية الاقتاع كنا حتدد اصوهل خيضل طِّق الفِّز واعالُ النعلجئ ولك مل‬
‫ينص الفصل ‪ 081‬من ذا الالنوُ عىل خُ الك من الانعخلاب الِّئلس ية والربمللنية والاس عفتلء جتِّ غواسطة َوحقة‬ ‫يععلق ابلعملية الانعخلغية‪ .‬و ح‬
‫تصويت موادة تعو ى الهيئة تصمميهل وطبل هل تلك وضوح ودقة لع نب وقوع النلرب يف رطل‪ .‬وحتدد خسناء املتحشني والالمئل غطِّياة معودية‪.‬‬
‫وواق الالنوُ نفته‪ ،‬النه ل ميكن مجلنب الهيئة املرشاة عىل الاقتاع لغري املالحظني واملِّاقبني احملليني خو ادلوليني ( حوايل ‪ 00‬خلف)‬
‫والعالميني املعتمدين درو مِّاكز الاقتاع لع نب خي شلط انعخليب خو دعليئ داخل ذه املِّاكز خو يف حميطهل‪.‬‬
‫ن موعد اعالُ النعلجئ الولية الِّمسية‪ ،‬ينص الفصل ‪ 022‬من الالنوُ الانعخليب عىل خُ “الهيئة تعو ى العالُ ن النعلجئ الولية لالنعخلاب مبل‬
‫االل قِّاحا الغلء نعلجئ الفلئزين يف خجل خقصله الايم الثالقة الو ى اليت تيل معلييت الاقتاع والانهلء من الفِّز (‪ 1‬خايم تاِّيبل) ويمت تعليق النعلجئ‬
‫مباِّا الهيئة وادحاةل مبوقعهل الالكتوين مصحوغة غنتخ من حملرض معلية الفِّز وابلاِّاحا اليت اختذهتل الهيئة"‪.‬‬
‫خمل العالُ ن النعلجئ الِّمسية الهنلئية لالنعخلاب الُ الفصل ‪ 022‬ينص عىل خُ “الهيئة ترصح ابلنعلجئ الهنلئية لالنعخلاب يف خجل ‪ 22‬سلعة من‬
‫توصلهل غأرِّ حمك صلدح ن اجللتة العلمة الاضلئيحة للمحمكة الداحية يف رصوص الطعوُ احملتمةل املععلاة ابلنعلجئ الولية لالنعخلاب ‪ ،‬وذكل غاِّاح‬
‫ينرش ابملوق اللكتوين للهيئة وابلِّائد (اجلِّيدة الِّمسية) لل مهوحية العو ت ية“‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 12‬‬
‫من املوصل ا ى خغوجل‪ :‬خمنوذج دا ش يزحف غِّاب حنو خاِّيايل‬

‫مِّاقبوُ يِّوُ خُ غيل احلومكة الِّش يدة والتلطة الاوية والربامج المنلئية سلمه يف انتشلح الح ل رسيعل يف دو مجطو الصحِّاء ليحلرص املنطاة‬
‫العِّغية‪.‬‬

‫خ ليل الطفل اخملطواني من قبل مجناعة غوكو حِّام املعطِّاة يف مظل ِّة للمطللبة ابعلدة خغنلهئم‬
‫تو س ‪ -‬قد يذ ب البعض ا ى الاو خُ الح ل املعنليم يف خحنلء عديدة من الالحة الاِّياية تعوقف خس بلغه ند ضعف ادلوةل يف خ ناق خاِّيايل‬
‫وانتشلح المية والفاِّ واحللجة مل يتهل عىل امجللعل الح لغية اس عاطل خعداد مزتايدة من النلس‪ .‬و ذا المِّ حصيح عىل مت عو العحليل‬
‫الويل لظل ِّة انتشلح الح ل والفكِّ الساليم املعطِّ يف خحنلء عديدة من دو خاِّيايل خلصة تكل املعلمخة للبوااب احلضلحية والعلحخيية‬
‫للمنطاة العِّغية‪ .‬لكن المعق من تكل الس بل يمكن يف خُ خاِّيايل قلحة ل تزا “عذحاء” ومل تؤلك ثِّواهتل بشلك اتم غعد‪ ،‬ممل يدا الاو ادلولية‬
‫بش ىت اجتل لهتل ا ى العصلحع اوق البهل بشلك غري مبلرش‪ ،‬و و مل تعرب نه امليلسش يل املععددة واملعفِّقة‪.‬‬
‫اذا اكُ تنظمي “ادلوةل” الح ليب املعِّو اعالميل ابمس “دا ش”‪ ،‬جيتد واقعل ملموسل يف مطلطق نفوذه يف العِّاق وسوحاي‪ ،‬ال حُ اماكنية امتداده‬
‫متفِّقة خلرباء يف جمل امجللعل السالمية‬ ‫ح‬ ‫ا ى الالحة الاِّياية ل ينبغي خُ يؤخذ عىل خن حه رطِّ متتبعد‪ ،‬غل كهديد وش يك‪ ،‬واال لشهلدا‬
‫الح لغية‪.‬‬
‫طتبب العغيري اذلي خادقه مل مسي اعالميل غا”الِّغي العِّيب” والعحو الت يليس واحلِّ اليت خ ابعه يف ليبيل بشلك خلص‪ ،‬يف ظهوح مجموعل‬
‫اح لغية من جديد‪ ،‬صنعت من التلال الاِّياي معاال مطيعل لالح ل ادلويل‪ ،‬و و مل مكن تنظمي “الالعدة يف غالد املغِّ الساليم”‪ ،‬من‬
‫لك من‬ ‫الانتشلح واعلدة خخذ املواق واق خلحطة جديدة خلحج معاهل الِّئسيس و و اجلزائِّ‪ ،‬ليعيد متِّكزه يف غعض خمجزاء التلال الاِّياي العلغعة ل ح‬
‫موحيعلنيل ومليل والني ِّ‪ ،‬والمِّ س حيلُ ابلنت بة مجللعة “العوحيد واجلهلد يف غِّ خاِّيايل” (ميغلو) املتمِّكزة يف الشنا املليل‪ ،‬و”غوكو حِّام” يف‬
‫نيجرياي‪ ،‬وحِّكة “خنصلح ادلين”‪ ،‬ختِّز اجملموعل املتلححة شنايل مليل‪.‬‬
‫اذاح من مطح دا ش رصلل يلكية ل تعواِّ دليه اهو مجموعة من املِّتزقة والعمالء ولسس تنظامي الكس يكيل‬
‫معني‪ ،‬وتنشف بشلك مطفصل‬ ‫ذه اجملموعل املتلححة اليت تعو حاد خحيلان‪ ،‬عرب اقلمة حتللفل تدمعهل خ دا مشتكة خو قِّاغة خو مجواح خيديولويج ح‬
‫تطِّال يف مططاة الغِّ الاِّياي يعطلغق اكِّاي م “دا ش” ويات مهنل سلوكيل يف المجِّام اجلنوين‪ ،‬ويعخذ من‬ ‫يف خغلب الحيلُ‪ ،‬تعكس وةل م ح‬
‫الالحة الاِّياية معومل “ دال سهل املنل ‪ ،‬بتبب ضعف احلومكة”‪ ،‬حبتب مديِّ مِّكز العحليل الت يليس والاقتصلدي مبليل “ايتيلُ سستوكو”‪،‬‬
‫واذلي خلص ا ى ومجود “هتديد اعيل متثهل دا ش يف مططاة التلال (الاِّياي) واملغِّ العِّيب”‪ ،‬و”رصوصل يف مل يععلق ابس عاطل الش بل‬
‫وجتلحة السلحة”‪.‬‬
‫وخوحض اخلبري املليل “سستوكو” خ حُ “اجملموعل املتلحة قلدحة اليوم عىل احتاك خ و الفظلعل ال تلنية”‪ ،‬لاتل ا ى خهنل اكنت “يف التلغق‬
‫مض متلال ا ى نفوذ ل‪ ،‬لكهنل يف الوقت الِّا ن طت عويح‪ ،‬عىل مت عو شلك النشلط‪ ،‬خسلليب معلهل اجلديدة من‬ ‫العوس ‪ ،‬خي ح‬
‫تبحث ن ح‬
‫دا ش”‪ ،‬مشريا ا ى خ حُ ذه اجملموعل تبدو وكهنح ل ساطت حتت “حسِّ” خو “اغِّاء” طِّق معل دا ش وخسلليهبل يف العِّاق وسوحاي‪ ،‬يف اشلحة‬
‫ا ى معليل ذحب ح لئن غِّغيني مؤرِّا يف مططاة التلال‪.‬‬
‫املاِّغة من العنظمي‬
‫افي ‪ 31‬يونيو املليض‪ ،‬خعلن املعحدحث ابمس “ادلوةل السالمية” خغو محمد العدانين‪ ،‬يف رشيف ايديو تداولعه املواق اللكتونية ح‬
‫اجلهلدي‪ ،‬قيلم “اخلالاة السالمية” يف “العِّاق والشلم”‪.‬‬
‫غضعة خايم اثِّ ذكل‪ ،‬خكد مجموعة “غوكو حِّام” السالمية املتشددة‪ ،‬واليت خعلنت حمتِّد ل مطذ العلم ‪ ،8119‬بشنايل نيجرياي‪ ،‬يف رشيف ايديو‬
‫رش يف يوليو املليض‪ ،‬دمعهل لا “دا ش”‪ .‬وتععرب “غوكو حِّام” ذه اجملموعة املتلححة اليت خود معليلهتل ادلموية حبيلة حوايل ‪ 01‬خل خشص‪،‬‬
‫يف غضوُ ‪ 1‬س نوا ‪ ،‬واال لبيلان الا املعحدة ومطظمة العفو ادلولية‪ .‬ويف ‪ 82‬خغتطس املليض‪ ،‬خعلن ز مي “غوكو حِّام” “خغو تكِّ ش ياكو”‬
‫قيلم “اخلالاة السالمية” شنا رش نيجرياي‪ ،‬واال لرشيف ايديو حصل عليه موق املعلومل املت عا حل “مِّاسلو الصحِّاء” وذكل خسوة غدا ش‬
‫ملكىن خغو مصعب بد الودود‪ ،‬حاض ا ى ا حد‬ ‫يف الرشق العِّيب‪.‬وحمغ خ حُ ز مي تنظمي “الالعدة يف غالد املغِّ الساليم” بد امللكل دحدواك ا ح‬

‫الُ‪ ،‬مبليعة “دا ش”‪ ،‬لس بل تععلحق حبِّ الزعلمل والايلدة‪ ،‬ال خ حُ العديد من كوادح العنظمي حقِّحوا الانضنام ا ى صفو تنظمي “ادلوةل” يف‬
‫الرشق الوسف يف س يلق معلية ا شالق ابمجلةل‪.‬‬
‫طتبب العغيري اذلي خادقه "الِّغي العِّيب" يف ظهوح مجموعل اح لغية صنعت من خاِّيايل معاال لالح ل ادلويل‬
‫حتول مجة خصلغت خسس تنظمي الالعدة غنوع من الهشلشة‪ ،‬وذكل‬ ‫ويف رضم العحمس ملل خقدمت عليه مل يتمى ابدلوةل السالمية‪ ،‬ادقت ح‬
‫اب رتلحته لبعض نفوذه يف الالحة الاِّياية‪ ،‬مالغل صعود “دا ش” يف خقىص الرشق‪ .‬غيد خ حُ تأقريا ذا الصعود اكنت “سطحية” عىل‬
‫اجملموعل املتلححة يف غِّ خاِّيايل‪ ،‬حبتب البلحث مبِّكز الرشق الوسف وشنا خاِّيايل مجلمعة مونتاي الكطدية “خديب تن رشيف”‪.‬‬
‫وقد اذح اتن رشيف‪ ،‬يف قِّاءته لل وانب العنظميية لح لغيي ادلوةل السالمية قلئال‪“ :‬اذاح من الاِّاط يف مطح دا ش رصلل يلكية ل تعواِّ‬
‫مؤستة خو رشكة متعكل اِّوعل اقلميية غعالقل وخدواح حمدحدة غوضوح”‪ .‬ولفت اخلبري ا ى خنه ينبغي‬‫دليه”‪ ،‬اذ “من اخلطأ تص حوح دا ش يف شلك ح‬
‫تنلو “الولءا غني اجملموعل (املتلحة) عىل غِّاح خنصلح الرشيعة وميغلو‪ ،‬اضلاة ا ى تنظمي مجطد اخلالاة‪ ،‬بشلك متحصل ومتتلتل”‪.‬‬
‫وقد طشلكت تنظامي خرِّ ملل تنظمي “مجطد املو ”‪ ،‬و و تنظمي ينشف اامي يعِّ غا “مللحث املو ” ابجلزائِّ‪ ،‬حؤوسه الثالقة ح‬
‫تتشلك من‬
‫يزتمعه “غوحي بد امللكل” املد و‬ ‫حملاظل “تزيو وزو” و”غومِّداس” والبويِّة”‪ ،‬املعال الِّئسيس لعنظمي “الالعدة يف غالد املغِّ الساليم”‪ ،‬و ح‬
‫خلدل خغو سلاميُ‪.‬‬
‫واتغ خديب تن رشيف قلئال‪“ :‬متلمل مللنا و الشأُ ابلنت بة لظهوح اجملموعل املِّتبطة ابلالعدة‪ ،‬ال حُ غعض الولءا ل تعجلوز نطلق رطلاب‬
‫ادلمع‪ ،‬مل يعين خهنل حمزية حفتب‪ ،‬خي خهنح ل مجزء من استاتي ية التصل الت يليس املعتمدة”‪ ،‬الح خ حُ ذكل ل مين ومجود “غعض اجملموعل اليت ح‬
‫تعبىن‬
‫خسلليب وطِّق معل دا ش”‪ ،‬ولعل ختِّز ملل عىل ذكل و ماتل “ايِّايه غوحديل” متتلحق اجلبل الفِّيس اذلي رطف وقتل يف سبتمرب‬
‫املليض‪ ،‬عىل خيدي تنظمي “مجطد هللا” وقد خوحت العملية الح لغية غنفس خسلو قط الِّؤوس اليت ياوم غه “دا ش”‪ .‬وم ذكل‪ ،‬يباى من غري‬
‫يعبىن العنظمي يف املت عابل ذا السلو ويكِّح اعلعه‪.‬‬‫املؤكد خُ ح‬
‫ويف احملصةل‪ ،‬يؤكد مجي املِّاقبني واخلرباء يف شؤوُ امجللعل السالمية يف خاِّيايل‪ ،‬خنه وغغض النظِّ ن شلشة البىن الامجامت ية والسلس ية يف‬
‫متلال واسعة من دو خاِّيايل (مجطو الصحِّاء) ال خُ غيل احلومكة الِّش يدة والتلطة الاوية والربامج المنلئية الاستاتي ية طتلمه بشلك‬
‫خو غأرِّ يف انتشلح الح ل رسيعل يف تكل املنلطق‪ ،‬ليحلرص املنطاة العِّغية تاِّيبل من مجي اجتل لهتل و ذا “لسس حمض صداة”‪.‬‬
‫‪Text 13‬‬
‫ل تن ح توس يف الوصو غع ِّتهل ادلمياِّاطية الوليدة ا ى تِّ الملُ‬

‫اامي يعخبف الاقتصلد العو يس وطت تمِّ الهديدا المطية ي حتمىن غعض العو ت يني خُ يأيت حجل قوي يض البالد عىل املتلح الصحيح من جديد‪.‬‬
‫ريبة المل يف انعخلاب ‪ 8100‬وكرثة املِّحشني تودلاُ خمجواء من الالعبلس دل النلربني العو ت يني‬
‫تو س ‪ -‬تواصل حصيفة “العِّ ” حصد خمجواء الانعخلاب الترشيعية (الربمللنية) املزم روضهل يوم الاد الالدم (‪ 81‬خكعوتِّ ‪ )8102‬يف رطوة‬

‫ينظِّ الالل يف توس والعلمل عىل خهنل حااد خسليس من حوااد معلية الانعال ادلمياِّاطي اليت انطلات مطذ ‪ 02‬ينليِّ ‪ 8100‬وشهد عدة مطعِّجل‬
‫وتالحبل يأمل العو ت يوُ خُ يمت تصحيح متلحا الثوحة اليت احنِّات ن تطلعلهتم من خال ذه الانعخلاب ‪ ،‬اليت وصفهل البلحلة سلحة مريش‬
‫غا”انعخلاب تو س امللعبتة”‪.‬‬
‫قل‬
‫تعلغ مِّاكز الحبلث وادلحاسل ال ميية وادلولية الانعخلاب العو ت ية (الترشيعية والِّئلس ية) اب امتم ابلغ‪ ،‬نظِّا ملل لهذا الاس عحالق من دلل‬
‫وانعاكسل عىل البالد‪ ،‬اليت انطلات مهنل رشاحة “الِّغي العِّيب”‪ .‬ويشري اخلرباء ا ى خُ انعخلاب ‪ 8102‬لن تكوُ مملقةل لنعخلاب ‪،8100‬‬
‫لرتال املشهد العلم يف البالد ودرو خحزا س يلس ية خرِّ الت بلق و ودة غعض حموز نظلم تن عيل ولرتال موازين العحللفل غني‬
‫الحزا الت يلس ية وخيضل اشل غعض الحزا ‪ ،‬وعىل حخسهل حِّكة الهنضة السالمية‪.‬‬
‫الاداث اليت علش هل تو س عىل مد الت نوا الثالث امللضية‪ ،‬جتعل العو ت يني اليوم خملم ارتبلح مصريي وصعب‪ ،‬اطجلح الثوحة العو ت ية‬
‫من عدهمل سستطِّه ذا املوعد الانعخليب‪.‬‬
‫من س يخعلح العو ت يوُ؟‬
‫ح‬
‫متؤولية العو ت يني كبرية يف ارتيلح ممثلالم يف الربمللُ‪ ،‬وبتبب مل علشوه من قبل‪ ،‬تبدو احلرية عىل حميل الكلري مهنم‪ ،‬ندمل يتألوُ ن مِّحشالم‬
‫يف الانعخلاب الترشيعية‪ ،‬اليت وصفهل البلحلة سلحة مريش غا”انعخلاب تو س امللعبتة”‪.‬‬
‫وتِّمج سلحة مريش‪ ،‬مضن حتليل صدح ن مِّكز اكحنغي‪ ،‬ذا الالعبلس واحلرية ا ى ريبة خمل العو ت يني يف النوا اذلين انعخبومه يف اجمللس‬
‫املِّحشني الاِّاد وانتشلح الحزا الت يلس ية يف معظم النالشل الانعخلغية‪ ،‬مجعل‬ ‫العأسسيس يف خكعوتِّ ‪ .8100‬كنا خُ التكزي الشديد عىل ح‬
‫املتلئل امللحة عىل احملك وخلحج دائِّة الا امتم ا ى اد كبري‪ .‬و ذا ل يزيد من احبلط النلربني حفتب‪ ،‬واق سلحة مريش‪ ،‬غل يفتح اجملل خملم‬
‫الشخصيل املِّتبطة غنظلم الِّئسس التلغق زين العلغدين تن عيل لعحايق نعلجئ ل يت هلُ هبل يف الانعخلاب ‪.‬‬
‫ل يشلك تعدد الحزا علئال؟‬
‫جسحلت الانعخلاب الترشيعية (‪ 81‬خكعوتِّ ‪ )8102‬والِّئلس ية (‪ 83‬نومفرب ‪ ،)8102‬خحقلمل قيلس ية غري مت بوقة يف اتحخي تو س من حيث عدد‬
‫املِّحشني االنا‪ .‬و ذه الحقلم‪ ،‬ولنئ تعكس يف جلنب مهنل مظهِّا دمياِّاطيل مطلواب اب عبلح ل جتتد الععددية الت يلس ية‪ ،‬ال خُ تواصل توادل‬
‫الحزا ‪ ،‬يف ظل ِّة يععاد خهنل مؤقحتة وانمجة ن الاكتتل املفلمجئ للحِّاي الت يلس ية‪ ،‬يتتبب يف جلنب خرِّ يف احابك العو ت يني‪ ،‬واق‬
‫حتليل سلحة مريش‪ ،‬الصحفية املت عاةل املامية يف توس‪.‬‬
‫مبل خُ اس عطالعل الِّخي ممنوعة يف املِّاةل اليت طت بق الانعخلاب ‪ ،‬ومبل خُ الت يلس يني يبدحلوُ انامتءاهتم احلزغية ابس تمِّاح‪ ،‬تباى العوقحعل حو‬
‫احلز اذلي س يفوز ابلعدد الكرب من املالعد يف اجمللس اجلديد ند ادود العكهحنل ‪ .‬وتعوق شلحة مريش خُ تكوُ حِّكة الهنضة‪ ،‬اليت الت يف‬
‫املِّتبة الو ى يف انعخلاب ‪ ،8100‬من الاو السلس ية‪ ،‬وكذكل المِّ ابلنت بة ا ى حز نداء توس املنتمي ا ى ميني الوسف‪ ،‬واذلي يادحم نفته‬
‫غديال علنانيل ن الهنضة‪.‬‬
‫تِّوج حِّكة الهنضة لفكِّة المجناع عىل ح‬
‫مِّحش تواااي‪ .‬ويِّكحز احلز‬ ‫يف اني خعلن حئسس حز نداء تو س‪ ،‬البليج قليد التبيس‪ ،‬ح‬
‫تِّحشه للِّئلسة‪ ،‬ح‬
‫الساليم غدل من ذكل عىل الانعخلاب الترشيعية‪ ،‬معلحال المِّ غأُ الربمللُ سستحخذ الاِّاحا السلس ية‪ ،‬عىل النايض من الِّئسس اذلي س يكوُ‬
‫دوحه متثيليل ا ى اد كبري‪.‬‬
‫ولن يفلجأ العو ت يوُ‪ ،‬واق مريش‪ ،‬اذا مجِّ التفلق عىل تالمس التلطعَني العنفيذية والترشيعية غني ذين احلزغَني املعنلاتني‪ ،‬ولطلملل اكُ ذا‬
‫المجِّاء موض نالش اب عبلحه اخملِّج الكرث تِّمجيحل‪.‬‬
‫خمل احلزابُ الرِّاُ يف الئعال احلكويم التلغق غايلدة الهنضة‪ ،‬خي املؤمتِّ من خجل امجلهوحية والعكتحل‪ ،‬ااد ررسا خال العلمني امللضيني‪،‬‬
‫مطِّدة‪ ،‬العأييد يف اس عطالعل الِّخي‪ ،‬كنا غلدح نا عدد من ال ضلء‪ .‬غيد خُ خاِّقلء خرِّين يظهِّوُ عىل التلاة وحيلولوُ شق طِّيق‬ ‫وغصوحة ح‬
‫اثلث يف املشهد الت يليس العو يس الشديد الاس عاطل ‪.‬‬
‫من ؤلء الاِّقلء حز خالق تو س الليربايل املو حجه حنو قطلع ال نا اذلي انضم ا ى احلز امجلهوحي يف علم ‪ 8108‬قبل خُ يصبح مت عاال‬
‫مِّة خرِّ يف صيف ‪ ،8103‬واذلي يعادحم صعودا يف صفو الِّخي العلم العو يس‪ ،‬حمغ خنه ل يزا غعيدا جدا ن حتايق مت عو واس من ادلمع‬
‫الشعيب‪ .‬يعوق العحللف الش يو ي اجلهبة الشعبية نعلجئ قوية رصوصل يف مططاة مجطو غِّ البالد‪ ،‬يف اني يضم ائعال الاحتلد من خجل توس‬
‫مل تباحى من الاحتلد اذلي اكُ يضم قو س يلس ية علنانية واكُ خكرب تكلري قبل اغعيل محمد تِّاُهي يف يوليو ‪.8103‬‬
‫لن تكوُ انعخلاب ‪ 8102‬مملقةل لنعخلاب ‪ 8100‬لرتال املشهد العلم يف البالد‬
‫وقِّح روض الانعخلاب مبفِّد ل‪ ،‬رش ية تضلؤ‬ ‫لكن رسعلُ مل غلدحته الحزا الكرب ‪ ،‬ملل نداء توس واحلز امجلهوحي واجلهبة الشعبية‪ ،‬ح‬
‫نفوذ ل يف حتللف خوس ‪ .‬خمل مل تباحى من الاحتلد من خجل توس اياترص يف شلك خسليس عىل حز املتلح (اذلي اكُ يعِّ حبز العجديد يف‬
‫هد تن عيل‪ ،‬وابلاطب ادلمياِّاطي احلدايث يف علم ‪ ،)8100‬اضال ن حز العنا الوطين ادلمياِّاطي وغعض ح‬
‫املِّحشني املت عالنيء‪.‬‬
‫خي ماكُ للع م يف انعخلاب ‪8102‬؟‬
‫تواصل سلحة مريش حتليلهل للتلاة احلزغية العو ت ية‪ ،‬مشرية ا ى خُ ال ضلء التلغاني يف الع م ادلس عوحي ادلمياِّاطي ح‬
‫يشلكوُ العلمل اجملهو‬
‫الكرب يف الانعخلاب ‪ .‬ويادحم ؤلء خنفتهم غأشاك خمعلفة ويف مطلطق متن حوعة يتمعحعوُ غنفوذ االل‪ .‬من ؤلء الشخلص كنا مِّجلُ‪ ،‬خرِّ وزحاء‬
‫اخللحمجية يف هد تن عيل وحئسس حز املبلدحة‪ ،‬اذلي يادحم نفته مِّحشل للِّئلسة‪ .‬ومهنم خيضل املِّحش املت عال مطذح الزانيدي‪ ،‬وكذكل بدالِّحمي‬
‫الزواحي من احلِّكة ادلس عوحية‪ ،‬و نا خيضل اكان وزيِّين يف هد تن عيل‪ .‬وكذكل المِّ ابلنت بة ا ى مصطفى كنا النلغيل‪ ،‬اخلبري الاقتصلدي يف‬
‫ععرب الُ عىل نطلق واس ربريا مت عاال‪ .‬وتاو مريش اُ‬ ‫البنك ادلويل‪ ،‬الِّئسس التلغق للمرص املِّكزي العو يس ووزيِّ يف التتعينل ‪ ،‬لكطه ي َ‬
‫“ ذه “الزمِّة الادمية”‪ ،‬كنا يت حمالل العو ت يوُ‪ ،‬قد طت عفيد من الشعوح العلم غعدم الملُ اذلي يِّاود عددا من العو ت يني”‪.‬‬
‫‪ 1‬ماليني و‪ 821‬خلفل و‪031‬جسلوا خسناهئم للعصويت يف الانعخلاب‬
‫اضال ن ذكل‪ ،‬اامي يعخ حبف الاقتصلد العو يس للهنوض عىل قد َميه غعد الثوحة‪ ،‬وم اس تمِّاح الهديدا المطية يف املنطاة‪ ،‬يزداد احلنني للزمن‬
‫الغلتِّ وي حتمىن غعض العو ت يني لو يأيت حجل قوي ويض البالد عىل املتلح الصحيح من جديد‪ .‬وحمغ خُ ؤلء الت يلس يني مل يعودوا ميلكوُ قلعدة‬
‫لتاكُ كنا يف التلغق‪ ،‬ال خهنم يتمعحعوُ غدمع حاخس من حجل ال نا ‪ .‬افي اني طللت قضلاي الفتلد الشخصيل التِّز اليت‬ ‫قوية يف خوسلط ا ح‬
‫دمعت نظلم تن عيل وانعفعت مطه‪ ،‬لتزا الهيللك الادمية قلمئة‪ ،‬وابلعليل لتزا املنظومة عىل اللهل‪ .‬لستت دل طباة ال نا العو ت ية مصلحة يف‬
‫تب ُّد ذه املنظومة‪ ،‬ذلكل ستتعى عىل الححج ا ى الغالء عىل ومجود قوي لاو النظلم التلغق‪.‬‬
‫ختلص سلحة مريش ا ى خُ العداخل الكبري يف امحلال الانعخلغية‪ ،‬ا ى جلنب انتشلح الحزا اليت خادقت رشخل يف صفو النلربني‬
‫العو ت يني‪ ،‬وغيل التكزي عىل الربامج والاضلاي املهمة‪ ،‬وادلمع اذلي يِّ َّمجح خُ يادحمه جمتم ال نا لا”الزمِّة الادمية”‪ ،‬ح‬
‫يودل خمجواء من الالعبلس‬
‫واحبلطل دل النلربني العو ت يني‪.‬‬

EAPCOUNT-Based Glossaries
Glossary 1:
English French Arabic
fragment retention film; anti-shatter film de protection contre les bris de verre; film ‫رشيف لصق‬/‫حقلئق ملنعة للتشظي؛ غشلء‬
film de sécurité; film anti-éclats
‫ملن للتشظي‬
Film-makers United against Film-makers United against Apartheid ‫احتلد صلنعي الاالم ملنل ضة الفصل العنرصي‬
Apartheid
International Federation of Film Fédération internationale des archives du film ‫الاحتلد ادلويل حملفوظل الاالم‬
Archives
United Nations Association Film Festival du film de l'Association des Nations ‫املهِّجلُ التسامنيئ لِّاغطة الا املعحدة‬
Festival Unies
International Centre of Films for Centre international du film pour l'enfance et ‫املِّكز ادلويل لاالم الطفل والش بل‬
Children and Young People la jeunesse
Panafrican Film and Television Festival panafricain du cinéma et de la ُ‫املهِّجلُ الاِّياي للتسامن والعليفزيو‬
Festival of Ouagadougou télévision de Ouagadougou
‫لواغلدوغو‬
Convention concerning Facilities for Convention relative aux facilités des ‫التفلقية املععلاة غتتهيال املبلدل ادلولية‬
International Exchanges of Films for échanges internationaux de films à des fins
Educational Purposes éducatives ‫للاالم للغِّاض التغوية‬
talking points points de discussion; éléments de discusion ‫نالط للمنلقشة‬
[gén.]; éléments de langage [Fce]
talking book livre parlé; livre parlant ‫كعل مسعي‬
Inter-Sudanese Peace Talks on the Pourparlers de paix intersoudanais sur le ُ‫حملداث التالم غني الطِّا التودانية بشأ‬
Conflict in Darfur; Abuja Peace conflit du Darfour; Pourparlers de paix
Talks; Intra-Sudanese Peace Talks d'Abuja ‫الرصاع يف داحاوح‬
European Union’s Special Envoy for - ‫مبعوث الاحتلد الوحويب اخللص ا ى حملداث‬
Status Talks
‫حتديد وض كوسواو‬
participation drive - ‫محةل مشلحكة‬
trunking handie-talkie walkie-talkie (multiplex) ‫ةلز لسلل يدوي متعدد الاطوا‬
Six-Party Talks pourparlers à six pays ‫احمللداث التداس ية الطِّا‬
handy talky talkie-walkie; émetteur-récepteur portatif de ‫ةلز خملطبة لسلل يدوي؛ ةلز احسل‬
radio
‫واس عابل يدوي‬
Manhasset talks pourparlers de Manhasset ‫حملداث ملهنلست‬
general handie-talkie walkie-talkie ordinaire ‫ةلز لسلل يدوي علم‬
direct talks pourparlers directs; entretiens directs ‫حملداث مبلرشة‬
secure handie-talkie walkie-talkie sécurisé ‫ مؤمن‬- ‫ةلز لسلل يدوي‬
Six-Party Ministerial Meeting - ‫الامجامتع الوزاحي التدايس‬
Juba talks pourparlers de Djouba ‫حملداث مجواب‬
UN Talks on Afghanistan Pourparlers des Nations Unies sur ُ‫حملداث الا املعحدة بشأُ خاغل ت عل‬
l'Afghanistan
double-talk duplicité; langue de bois ‫خلدع‬/‫مِّاوغة؛ الالكم اخللدع؛ الكم مِّاوغ‬
UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize prix Sasakawa de l'environnement du PNUE ‫جلئزة سلسلكوا للبسئة املادمة من تِّانمج الا‬
‫املعحدة للبسئة‬
United Nations Prize in the Field of Prix des Nations Unies pour la cause des ُ‫جلئزة الا املعحدة يف ميداُ حاوق ال تل‬
Human Rights droits de l'homme
World Food Prize World Food Prize ‫اجللئزة العلملية للغذاء‬
World Press Freedom Prize Prix mondial de la liberté de la presse ‫اجللئزة العلملية حلِّية الصحلاة‬
Trust Fund for the Sasakawa Fonds d'affectation spéciale du Prix ‫الصندوق الاستامئين جللئزة سلسلكوا ادلولية‬
Environment Prize Sasakawa pour l'environnement
‫للبسئة‬
International Prize Court Cour internationale des prises ‫حممكة الغنلمئ ادلولية‬
UNESCO Prize for Peace Education Prix UNESCO de l'éducation pour la paix ‫جلئزة اليو تكو للععلمي من خجل التالم‬
Distribution and Reproduction Unit Groupe de la distribution et de la reproduction ‫وادة العوزي والاس عنتلخ‬

distribution point point de distribution ‫ناطة توزي ؛ مِّكز توزي‬
distribution range; species range; aire de répartition; aire de distribution ‫نطلق العوزع؛ نطلق النواع؛ نطلق‬
range
Glossary 2:

Planetary Citizens Citoyens planétaires ‫حاغطة مواطين الحض‬
House Committee on Foreign House Committee on Foreign ‫جلنة الشؤوُ اخللحمجية العلغعة جمللس النوا‬
Affairs; House Foreign Affairs Affairs; House Foreign Affairs
Committee Committee ‫المِّيل‬
European Union High Haut Représentant de l'Union ‫املمثل التليم للت يلسة اخللحمجية والمطية‬
Representative for the Common européenne pour la politique
Foreign and Security Policy étrangère et de sécurité commune ‫املشتكة لالحتلد الوحويب‬
Foreign and Commonwealth Office Ministère des affaires étrangères et ‫وزاحة اخللحمجية والكومطولث‬
du Commonwealth
Foreign Affiliate Trade in Services échanges de services des filiales ‫جتلحة اِّوع الرشاك المجطبية يف اخلدمل‬
étrangères
European Council on Foreign European Council on Foreign ‫اجمللس الوحويب املعين ابلعالقل اخللحمجية‬
Relations Relations
Movement for the Emancipation of - ِّ ‫حِّكة حتِّيِّ دلعل الني‬
the Niger Delta
Ministry for Foreign Affairs and - ‫وزاحة الشؤوُ اخللحمجية والعالقل ادلولية‬
International Relations
Foreign and Commonwealth Office Ministère des affaires étrangères et ‫وزاحة اخللحمجية والكومطولث‬
du Commonwealth
Foreign Affiliate Trade in Services échanges de services des filiales ‫جتلحة اِّوع الرشاك المجطبية يف اخلدمل‬
étrangères
European Council on Foreign European Council on Foreign ‫اجمللس الوحويب املعين ابلعالقل اخللحمجية‬
Relations Relations
Movement for the Emancipation of - ِّ ‫حِّكة حتِّيِّ دلعل الني‬
the Niger Delta
Ministry for Foreign Affairs and - ‫وزاحة الشؤوُ اخللحمجية والعالقل ادلولية‬
Foundation for the Improvement of Foundation for the Improvement of ‫مؤستة حتتني تِّتسبل الساكُ للموظفني‬
Housing Arrangements for Official Housing Arrangements for Official
Foreign Personnel, Inc. Foreign Personnel, Inc. ‫الِّمسيني الجلنب‬
Annual Coordination Meeting of the Réunion annuelle de coordination ‫امجامتع العنت يق الت نوي لوزحاء خلحمجية‬
Ministers for Foreign Affairs of the des ministres des affaires
Organization of the Islamic étrangères de l'Organisation de la ‫مطظمة املؤمتِّ الساليم‬
Conference Conférence islamique
Annual Meeting of the Ministers for Réunion annuelle des ministres ‫الامجامتع الت نوي لوزحاء خلحمجية مجموعة‬
Foreign Affairs of the Group of 77; des affaires étrangères du Groupe
Ministerial Meeting of the Group of des 77; Réunion ministérielle du ‫الت بعة والت بعني الامجامتع الوزاحي جملموعة‬
77 Groupe des 77 ‫الت بعة والت بعني‬
Declaration by the Ministers for Déclaration des Ministres des ‫العالُ الصلدح ن وزحاء خلحمجية مجموعة‬
Foreign Affairs of the Group of 77 affaires étrangères du Groupe des
77 ‫الت بعة والت بعني‬
International Investment Centre International Investment Center ‫مِّكز الاستامثح ادلويل‬
Women's Foreign Policy Council Women's Foreign Policy Council ‫اجمللس النتليئ للت يلسة اخللحمجية‬
two-tiered exchange rate double taux de change ‫سعِّ الرص املزدوج‬
High Representative of the Haut Représentant de l'Union ‫املمثل التليم لالحتلد الوحويب املعين‬
European Union for Foreign Affairs européenne pour les affaires
and Security Policy étrangères et la politique de ‫ابلشؤوُ اخللحمجية والت يلسة المطية‬
sécurité
Council of Ministers for Foreign Conseil des ministres des affaires ‫جملس وزحاء اخللحمجية‬
Affairs étrangères
Common Foreign and Security Politique étrangère et de sécurité ‫الت يلسة اخللحمجية والمطية املشتكة‬
Policy commune
Meeting of the Ministers for Foreign Réunion des ministres des affaires ‫امجامتع وزحاء خلحمجية حِّكة غدلاُ عدم‬
Affairs of the Movement of Non- étrangères du Mouvement des

Aligned Countries to Discuss the pays non alignés sur la question de ُ‫الاحنيلز ملنلقشة قضية التالم وس يلدة الالنو‬
Issue of Peace and the Rule of Law la paix et de la primauté du droit
in International Affairs dans les affaires internationales ‫يف الشؤوُ ادلولية‬
Council of Ministers for Foreign Conseil des ministres des affaires ‫جملس وزحاء اخللحمجية ملؤمتِّ المن والععلوُ يف‬
Affairs of the Conference on étrangères de la Conférence sur la
Security and Co-operation in sécurité et la coopération en ‫خوحواب‬
Europe Europe
Activities of Foreign Affiliates in base de données sur les activités ‫خ شطة اِّوع الرشاك المجطبية يف جمل‬
Manufacturing des filiales étrangères
‫الصنلعة العحويلية‬
Office of Foreign Disaster Office of Foreign Disaster ‫مكتب املتلعدة اخللحمجية يف الل الكواحث‬
Assistance Assistance
Agreement on the Settlement of Accord relatif au règlement des ‫اتفلق بشأُ طتوية املنلزعل غني خوغندا‬
Disputes and the Normalization of différends et à la normalisation des
Relations between Uganda and the relations entre l'Ouganda et le ‫والتوداُ وتطبي العالقل غسهننا‬
Sudan Soudan
Minister of People’s Power for - ‫وزيِّ سلطة الشعب للشؤوُ اخللحمجية‬
Foreign Affairs
Special Ministerial Meeting of the Réunion ministérielle spéciale du ِّ‫الامجامتع الوزاحي الاس عثطليئ ملكتب املؤمت‬
Bureau of the Islamic Conference Bureau de la Conférence islamique
of Foreign Ministers des ministres des affaires ‫الساليم لوزحاء اخللحمجية‬
étrangères
foreign exchange changes; devises ‫الاط المجطيب؛ العمةل المجطبية رص خمجطيب‬
Asia-Pacific Foreign Direct Réseau Asie-Pacifique de ‫ش بكة خس يل واحمليف الهلدئ لالستامثح املبلرش‬
Investment Network for Least l’investissement étranger direct
Developed and Landlocked pour les pays les moins avancés et ‫المجطيب لقل البدلاُ منواً والبدلاُ النلمية غري‬
Developing Countries; Asia-Pacific les pays en développement sans ‫التلالية‬
Foreign FDI Network for Least littoral
Developed and Landlocked
Developing Countries
Expansion of foreign direct Essor des investissements ‫توس ي نطلق الاستامثح املبلرش المجطيب‬
investment and trade in services étrangers directs et du commerce
dans le secteur des services ‫والاجتلح ابخلدمل‬
inter-model zeroing réduction à zéro concernant ‫العصفري املعبلد غني الامنذج؛ العصفري غني‬
plusieurs modèles [prop.]
‫الفئل‬
Additional Protocol to the European Protocole additionnel à la ‫الربوتوكو الضليف لالتفلقية الوحوغية يف جمل‬
Convention on Information on Convention européenne dans le
Foreign Law domaine de l'information sur le ‫املعلومل ن الالنوُ المجطيب‬
droit étranger
independent expert on the effects Expert indépendant chargé ‫اخلبري املت عال املعين غأاثح ادليوُ اخللحمجية‬
of foreign debt and other related d'examiner les effets de la dette
international financial obligations of extérieure et des obligations ‫لدلو ومل يعصل هبل من الزتامل مللية دولية‬
States on the full enjoyment of all financières internationales ،ُ‫خرِّ يف التمع الاكمل مجمي حاوق ال تل‬
human rights, particularly connexes des États sur le plein
economic, social and cultural rights exercice de tous les droits de ‫وخلصة احلاوق الاقتصلدية والامجامت ية‬
l'homme, en particulier des droits ‫والثالاية‬
économiques, sociaux et culturels
Independent expert on the Expert indépendant sur les effets ‫اخلبري املت عال املعين غأاثح س يلسل العكيُّف‬
effects of structural adjustment des politiques d’ajustement
policies and foreign debt on the full structurel et de la dette extérieure ‫الهيلكي وادليوُ اخللحمجية عىل التمع الاكمل‬
enjoyment of all human rights, sur la jouissance effective de tous ‫ وخلصة احلاوق‬،ُ‫مجمي حاوق ال تل‬
particularly economic, social and les droits de l’homme, en particulier
cultural rights des droits économiques, sociaux et ‫الاقتصلدية والامجامت ية والثالاية‬
culturels
Council on Foreign Relations Council on Foreign Relations ‫جملس العالقل اخللحمجية‬
Separate Maintenance Allowance indemnité d'entretien de la famille ‫غد عدم اصطحل الرسة‬
dans un lieu différent
The Hague Declaration of the Déclaration de la Haye, issue de la ‫اعالُ ل لي الصلدح ن امجامتع وزحاء‬
Meeting of the Ministers of Foreign Réunion des ministres des affaires
of the Movement of Non-Aligned étrangères du Mouvement des ‫خلحمجية حِّكة غدلاُ عدم الاحنيلز ملنلقشة‬
Countries to Discuss the Issue of pays non alignés sur la question de ُ‫قضية التمل وس يلدة الالنوُ يف الشؤو‬
Peace and the Rule of Law in la paix et de la primauté du droit
International Affairs dans les affaires internationales ‫ادلولية‬
Berlin Statement by Foreign Déclaration de Berlin sur le ُ‫غيلُ تِّلني الصلدح ن وزحاء اخللحمجية بشأ‬
Ministers on nuclear disarmament désarmement et la non-

and non-proliferation prolifération nucléaires adoptée par ‫نزع السلحة النووية ومط انتشلح ل‬
les Ministres des affaires
étrangèress
chief negotiator négociateur en chef ‫كبري املفلوضني‬
Special Negotiator on State Négociateur spécial pour les ‫املفلوض اخللص املعين غاضلاي خالاة ادلو‬
Succession Issues questions de succession d'États;
Négociateur spécial pour les
questions de succession
stand-off countermine operation opération de contreminage à ‫معلية ازاةل اللغلم من غعد‬
distance de sécurité
stand-off minefield breacher filet explosif de déminage à ‫ش بكة اتح حال اللغلم من غعد‬
stand-off mine-detection system système de détection des mines à ‫نظلم كشف اللغلم من غعد‬
stand-off weapon arme tirée à distance de sécurité; ‫سالح غعيد املد ؛ سالح يعمل من متلاة‬
arme à distance de sécurité
‫خمطة؛ سالح لله وم ن غعد‬
stand-off distance à distance de sécurité ‫عىل متلاة خمطة‬/‫املِّاغطة عىل مبعدة‬
Airborne Stand-off Minefield- système aéroporté de détection de ‫نظلم مجوي لكشف حاو اللغلم من غعد؛‬
Detection System champs de mines à distance
[prop.]; système ASTAMIDS ‫نظلم محمو مجوا لكشف حاو اللغلم من غعد‬
New Deal for Engagement in New Deal pour l'engagement ‫رطة جديدة لالخنِّاط يف متلعدة ادلو‬
Fragile States international dans les États
fragiles; New Deal pour ‫الهشة‬
l'engagement dans les États
fragiles
Green New Deal nouvelle donne écologique [prop.]; ‫التفلق البسيئ اجلديد‬
New Deal écologique
arms dealer; dealer in arms; dealer intermédiaire [armes légères] ‫اتمجِّ خسلحة؛ همِّ خسلحة؛ وس يف يف جتلحة‬
‫السلحة‬
Global Green New Deal for nouveau pacte écologique mondial ‫التفل البسيئ العلملي اجلديد من خجل تمنية‬
Sustainable Development pour le développement
durable[prop.] ‫مت عدامة‬
lead paint; lead-based paint peinture au plomb; peinture à base ‫د لُ حصليص‬
de plomb
implementation lead time délai d'exécution; délai de mise en ‫الفتة الالزمة للعنفيذ؛ همةل العنفيذ‬
oeuvre
Permanent Central Opium Board Comité central permanent de ُ‫الهيئة املِّكزية ادلامئة للايو‬
l'opium
Permanent Central Narcotics Comité central permanent des ‫الهيئة املِّكزية ادلامئة للمخدحا‬
Board stupéfiants
Permanent Central Board Comité central permanent ‫الهيئة املِّكزية ادلامئة‬
Permanent Mission to the United Mission permanente auprès de ‫غعثة دامئة‬
Nations; Permanent Mission l'Organisation des Nations Unies;
Mission Permanente
permanent membership nombre des membres permanents ‫ضوية دامئة‬
du Conseil de sécurité; groupe des
membres permanents;
appartenance à la catégorie des
membres permanents; statut de
membre permanent
permanent status statut permanent ‫الوض ادلامئ‬
Permanent Observer Observateur permanent ‫املِّاقب ادلامئ‬
non-permanent membership nombre de membres non ‫ضوية غري دامئة؛ خ ضلء غري دامئني‬
permanents du Conseil de sécurité;
groupe des membres non
permanents; appartenance à la
catégorie des membres non
permanents; statut de membre non
permanent
United Nations Trust Fund for Fonds d’affectation spéciale des - ‫صندوق الا املعحدة الاستامئين للرشااك‬
Partnerships – Permanent Nations Unies pour les partenariats
Memorial – Mémorial permanent

‫النصب العذاكحي ادلامئ‬
Group of Four Groupe des Quatre ‫مجموعة الحغعة‬
Permanent Representative Représentant permanent ‫ممثل دامئ‬
non-permanent seat membres non permanents ‫ماعد غري دامئ‬
permanent member membre permanent ‫ضو دامئ‬
Permanent Committee on GIS Comité permanent de ‫الل نة ادلامئة املعنية ابلهيلك السليس لنظم‬
Infrastructure for Asia and the l'infrastructure des SIG pour l'Asie
Pacific et le Pacifique ‫املعلومل اجلغِّااية لس يل واحمليف الهلدئ‬
Permanent Representatives Comité des représentants ‫جلنة املمثلني ادلامئني‬
Committee; Committee of permanents
Permanent Representatives
Permanent Civilian Mission Mission civile permanente ‫البعثة املدنية ادلامئة‬
Committee of Permanent Comité des représentants ‫جلنة املمثلني ادلامئني دل مِّكز الا املعحدة‬
Representatives to the United permanents auprès du Centre des
Nations Centre for Human Nations Unies pour les )‫للمت عوطنل البرشية (املوئل‬
Settlements (Habitat); Committee établissements humains (Habitat);
of Permanent Representatives to Comité des représentants
UN Habitat permanents auprès d’ONU-Habitat
Technical Consultative Committee Comité consultatif technique et ‫الل نة الاستشلحية العاطية والل نة ادلامئة‬
and Permanent Committee of the Comité permanent du projet
Green Belt Project for the Arab Ceinture verte pour les États ‫ملرشوع احلزام الررض لدلو العِّغية يف شنا‬
States of North Africa arabes d'Afrique du Nord ‫خاِّيايل‬
Agreement on Permanent Accord sur le cessez-le-feu ‫اتفلق وقف اطالق النلح ادلامئ وطِّائق تنفيذ‬
Ceasefire and Security permanent et les modalités de
Arrangements Implementation mise en oeuvre des arrangements ‫التتسبل المطية خال الفتة مل قبل الانعاللية‬
Modalities during the Pre-Interim de sécurité au cours des périodes ‫والفتة الانعاللية‬
and Interim Periods de prétransition et de transition;
Accord de cessez-le-feu
Permanent Council of the Islamic Conseil permanent du Fonds de ‫اجمللس ادلامئ لصندوق العضلمن الساليم‬
Solidarity Fund solidarité islamique
Facilities Management Service Service de la gestion des ‫دائِّة اداحة املِّااق‬
installations
Facilities Management Division Division de la gestion des ‫شعبة اداحة املِّااق‬
installations
facilities management expert spécialiste de la gestion des ‫ربري اداحة املِّااق‬
installations
effectiveness of sanctions 1. efficacité des sanctions; 2. ‫اعللية (خو نتيجة) اجلزاءا‬
résultat des sanctions; objectif
atteint grâce aux sanctions; effet
recherché par les sanctions;
réussite des sanctions 3. degré
d'application des sanctions
enforcement of sanctions imposition des sanctions ‫انفلذ اجلزاءا‬
easing of sanctions assouplir les sanctions; atténuer ‫ختفيف اجلزاءا‬
l'impact des sanctions; réduire la
portée des sanctions
imposing sanctions adoption de sanction; fait de ‫اِّض مجزاءا‬
décréter des sanctions
Stockholm Process on the Processus de Stockholm sur la ‫معلية س عكهومل لعنفيذ اجلزاءا احملددة الهد‬
Implementation of Targeted mise en oeuvre de sanctions
Sanctions ciblées
tightening of sanctions renforcement des sanctions; ‫التشدد يف تطبيق اجلزاءا‬
resserrement de l'application des
sanctions
dumb sanctions; comprehensive sanctions générales; sanctions ‫مجزاءا غبية؛ مجزاءا شلمةل‬
sanctions classiques
Security Council Working Group on Groupe de travail du Conseil de ‫الفِّيق العلمل العلغ جمللس المن املعين‬
General Issues of Sanctions sécurité sur les questions
générales relatives aux sanctions ‫ابملتلئل العلمة املععلاة ابجلزاءا‬
Diamond Sanctions Review Comité d'examen des sanctions ‫جلنة اس ععِّاض اجلزاءا املععلاة ابمللس‬
Committee concernant les diamants

sanctions monitoring surveillance de l'application des ‫حصد اجلزاءا ؛ حصد تنفيذ اجلزاءا‬
sanctions
smart sanctions; targeted sanctions sanctions ciblées; sanctions ‫مجزاءا ذكية؛ مجزاءا حمددة ال دا‬
"intelligentes"
enforcing sanctions faire respecter les sanctions; faire ‫انفلذ اجلزاءا‬
appliquer les sanctions
imposition of sanctions adoption de sanctions ‫اِّض اجلزاءا‬
sanctions busting violation systématique et organisée ‫انهلك (مطظم) لل زاءا‬
des sanctions; violation concertée
des sanctions; contournement du
régime de sanctions; contrebande
enfreignant les sanctions
Monitoring Mechanism on Instance de surveillance ‫خلية حصد (تنفيذ) اجلزاءا املفِّوضة عىل‬
Sanctions against UNITA; concernant les sanctions contre
Monitoring Mechanism l'UNITA ‫الاحتلد الوطين لالس عاال العلم لنغول‬
sanctions measure sanction ‫امجِّاءا مجزائية؛ تداغري مجزائية‬
appropriation resolution; budget résolution portant ouverture de ‫قِّاح بشأُ الا امتدا ؛ قِّاح متعلق ابملزيانية‬
resolution crédits; résolution sur le budget
resolution résolution; limite de résolution ‫العحليل‬
[gén.]; définition [TV]
seismic resolution pouvoir de résolution sismique; ‫حتليل زلزايل‬
résolution sismique; pouvoir
séparateur
high-resolution image images à haute résolution ‫صوح عللية الاستبلنة‬
ground resolution résolution au sol ‫العحليل الحيض‬
Panel of Experts on the Democratic Groupe d’experts sur la République ‫اِّيق اخلرباء املعين مجمهوحية كوحاي الشعبية‬
People's Republic of Korea; Panel populaire démocratique de Corée;
of Experts established pursuant to Groupe d'experts créé en ‫ادلمياِّاطية؛ اِّيق اخلرباء املنشأ مع ًال غاِّاح‬
Security Council resolution 1874 application de la résolution 1874 )8119( 0252 ‫جملس المن‬
(2009) (2009) du Conseil de sécurité
United Nations escrow account compte séquestre créé par la ‫حتل الضناُ العلغ للا املعحدة املنشأ معال‬
established pursuant to Security résolution 1958 (2010) du Conseil
Council resolution 1958 (2010); de sécurité ‫)؛ حتل‬8101( 0912 ‫غاِّاح جملس المن‬
escrow account established 0912 ‫الضناُ املنشأ معال غاِّاح جملس المن‬
pursuant to Security Council
resolution 1958 (2010) )8101(
Monitoring Group established Groupe de suivi créé par la ‫اِّيق الِّصد املنشأ مع ًال غاِّاح جملس المن‬
pursuant to Security Council résolution 1363 (2001) du Conseil
resolution 1363 (2001) de sécurité )8110( 0313
Plan for the Ongoing Monitoring Plan de contrôle et de vérification ‫رطة الِّصد والعحاق املت تمِّين لمتثل العِّاق‬
and Verification of Iraq's continus de l'exécution par l'Iraq
Compliance with Relevant Parts of des dispositions des parties ‫للمجزاء ذا الصةل من اجلزء مجمي من قِّاح‬
Section C of Security Council pertinentes de la section C de la )0990( 125 ‫جملس المن‬
resolution 687 (1991); Ongoing résolution 687 (1991) du Conseil
Monitoring and Verification Plan de sécurité
Good Agricultural Practice bonnes pratiques agricoles ‫اجليدة‬/‫املناحسل الزحا ية التلمية‬
good offices bons offices ‫املتل ي امحليدة‬
good offices mission - ‫هممة متل ي محيدة‬
Council of Europe Secretary Secrétaire Général du Conseil de ‫المني العلم جمللس خوحواب‬
General; Secretary General of the l'Europe
Council of Europe
Secretary of State Secrétaire d’État ‫وزيِّ اخللحمجية؛ وزيِّ دوةل‬
Executive Secretary of the Secrétaire exécutif du Comité de ‫المني العنفيذي لل نة العحِّيِّ العلغعة ملنظمة‬
Liberation Committee of the libération de l'Organisation de
Organization of African Unity l'unité africaine ‫الوادة الاِّياية‬
MDG Breakthrough Strategy - ‫استاتي ية العادم الرسي حنو حتايق ال دا‬
‫المنلئية لللفية‬

Glossary 3:
outrage of modesty 1. attentat à la pudeur; 2. outrage ‫خدش احليلء؛ خدش احليلء العلم‬
public à la pudeur
outrage upon personal dignity atteinte à la dignité de la personne ‫الا عداء عىل الكِّامة الشخصية‬
doubtful data données douteuses ‫البيلان املشكوك االل‬
allowance for doubtful account - ‫ا امتد خمصص حلتل غري مضموُ العحصيل‬
reasonable doubt doute raisonnable ‫شك معاو‬
doubtful account créance douteuse ‫حتل غري مضموُ العحصيل؛ حتل مشكوك ايه‬
United Nations Commission on Commission des sociétés ‫جلنة الا املعحدة املعنية ابلرشاك عرب الوطنية؛‬
Transnational Corporations; transnationales de l'ONU; Commission
Commission on Transnational des sociétés transnationales
‫الل نة املعنية ابلرشاك عرب الوطنية‬
Corporations
corporate welfare assistanat des entreprises ‫انعلش الرشاك‬
Joint Unit on Transnational Groupe commun des sociétés ‫الوادة املشتكة للرشاك عرب الوطنية‬
Corporations transnationales
Transnational Corporations Transnational Corporations Journal ‫جمةل الرشاك عرب الوطنية‬
Journal
Group of Eminent Persons to Groupe de personalités chargé ‫اِّيق الشخصيل البلحزة دلحاسة تأقري الرشاك‬
Study the Impact of d'étudier les effets de sociétés
Multinational Corporations on multinationales sur le développement et
‫املععددة اجلنت يل يف العمنية ويف العالقل ادلولية‬
Development and on sur les relations internationales
Glossary 4:
blast e-mail - ‫اغِّاق ابلِّسلئل اللكتونية‬
blast hazard zone; blast zone; zone de risque de souffle ‫مططاة رطِّ الععِّض لعصف الانفجلح‬
blast danger area
scatterable anti-personnel blast mine antipersonnel dispersable à effet ِّ‫لغم صفي مضلد للاِّاد قلغل للعنلث‬
mine de souffle
blast protection protection contre les effets du souffle ‫حناية من صف الانفجلح‬/‫وقلية‬
boosted blast mine mine antichar à effet de souffle ‫لغم صفي معزز‬
renforcé; mine à effet de souffle à
charge renforcée [prop.]
blast fishing; dynamite fishing pêche à l'explosif; pêche à la dynamite ‫صيد السناك ابس عخدام املعف ِّا‬
scatterable anti-vehicle blast mine antivéhicule dispersable à effet de ‫لغم صفي مضلد للمِّكبل قلغل للنرث‬
mine souffle
stealth bomber bombardier furtif ‫قلذاة الاطلغل الش بح؛ قلذاة قطلغل رفية‬
bomber bombardier )‫قلذاة (قطلغل‬
victim bomber bombe humaine ‫املف ح ِّ الضحية؛ قطبةل برشية‬
exploding foil initiator initiateur à feuille explosive ‫ابدئ العفجري الِّقلئاي‬
on-plot sanitation assainissement lié à un lot de terrain ‫رص حصي خلص غاطعة خحضية حمددة‬
[prop.]
plot (2) champ; terrain ‫قطعه خحض‬
plot X against Y tracer la courbe (de la variation) de X ‫حمس س مالغل ص‬
en fonction de Y
plot (to -) a point faire le point ‫عني ناطة‬
Interagency Coordination in the Interagency Coordination in the Event ‫العنت يق اامي غني الواكل يف الةل وقوع َهوم اح ليب‬
Event of a Terrorist Attack of a Terrorist Attack Using Chemical or
Using Chemical or Biological Biological Weapons or Materials
‫ابلسلحة واملواد الكمييلئية خو البيولومجية‬
Weapons or Materials
special attack vehicle; light 1. buggy; autodune [gén.]; 2. véhicule ‫مِّكبة َهوم خلصة؛ مِّكبة َهوم رسيعة‬
strike vehicle d'investigation et d'intervention dans la

profondeur [Fce]
navigation and attack suite chaîne de navigation et d'attaque ‫طلمق املالاة واله وم‬
attack helicopter hélicoptère d'attaque ‫ ليكوغت َهومية‬/‫طلئِّة معودية‬
fast attack craft 1. patrouilleur rapide; patrouilleur; 2. ‫زوحق َهوم رسي‬
vedette rapide d'attaque
Joint Surveillance Target Attack Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar ‫نظلم الِّاداح املشتك ملِّاقبة وهملمجة ال دا‬
Radar System; Joint STARS System; Joint STARS
full-width attack mine mine toute largeur [OTAN]; mine à ‫لغم َهويم غعِّض متلح الاختاق‬
action toute largeur; mine à effet de
chenille et de plancher
attack phase accès palustre; accès fébrile ‫طوح النوغة‬
ground attack aircraft avion d'attaque au sol ‫طلئِّة لالغلحة عىل خ دا خحضية‬
side attack mine mine à action horizontale ‫لغم خااي الفعل‬
Glossary 5:
e-accessibility accessibilité électronique; e-accessibilité ‫اماكنية الاس عفلدة من الفضلء الالكتوين‬
open access libre accès ‫متلح لالس عخدام‬
United Nations Access Control système de contrôle de l'accès aux locaux ‫نظلم مِّاقبة ادلرو ا ى الا املعحدة‬
System; Access Control System de l'ONU
iSeek Global Access - ‫ علملي ًل‬iSeek ‫؛ ااتاة‬iSeek ‫الاتاة العلملية لا‬
access control contrôle des accès ‫مِّاقبة ادلرو‬
Web Content Accessibility Règles pour l'accessibilité des contenus ‫املبلدئ العومجالية للنفلذ ا ى حمعو الشلتكة‬
Guidelines Web
universal access accès universel ‫الاس عفلدة لل مي‬
access accès ‫وصو ؛ درو‬
access control restrictions d'accès ‫تاييد ادلرو‬
Ad-Hoc Open-ended Working Group Groupe de travail spécial à composition non ‫الفِّيق العلمل املفتوح العضوية اخملصص املعين‬
on Access and Benefit-sharing limitée sur l’accès aux ressources
génétiques et le partage des avantages ‫ابحلصو عىل املنلا وتالمسهل‬
global access control system système intégré d'accès sécurisé ‫النظلم العلملي ملِّاقبة ادلرو‬
accession to a treaty; accession 1. accession à un traité; 2. adhésion à un ‫انضنام ا ى معل دة‬
traité
access monitoring and reporting système de surveillance et d'information ‫اطلح حصد ايصل املتلعدا ال تلنية وتادمي‬
framework concernant l'accès humanitaire
‫العالحيِّ بشأنه‬
high-access financial support appui financier de montant élevé; appui ‫دمع مليل معزز‬
financier de niveau élevé
miscellaneous income 1. produits accessoires; 2. recettes ‫ايِّادا متنوعة‬
accessoires
Random Access Memory mémoire vive ‫ذاكِّة الوصو العشوايئ‬
food availability approvisionnement en produits ‫توااِّ الغذاء‬
alimentaires; approvisionnement
alimentaire; disponibilités alimentaires
Meeting between Users and réunion des utilisateurs et producteurs ‫الامجامتع غني املت عفيدين من العالم ومطع يه‬
Producers of Information for the d'informations pour la surveillance des
Surveillance of Food Availability and disponibilités alimentaires et de l'accès à ‫ملِّاقبة مد تواِّ الغذية والوصو الالل‬
Access l'alimentation
Working Group on the Availability and Groupe de travail sur les ressources en eau ‫الفِّيق العلمل املعين غعواري واداحة امليله يف خاِّيايل‬
Management of Water in Africa et leur gestion en Afrique
Socioeconomic Timeseries Access Socioeconomic Timeseries Access and ‫نظلم الوصو ا ى التالسل الزمطية الامجامت ية‬
and Retrieval System Retrieval System
‫والاقتصلدية واستجل هل‬
electronic storage, tracking, archival système électronique de stockage, de suivi, ‫النظلم اللكتوين خلزُ احملفوظل وتتبعهل‬
and retrieval system d'archivage et de consultation des données
‫وتصنيفهل واس ععلدهتل‬
Retrieval of data for small areas by système de recherche par micro-ordinateur ‫اس عخالص غيلان املنلطق الصغرية غواسطة‬
microcomputer des données de recensement pour des

zones de faible étendue ‫احلواسب اخلفيفة‬
Practice Leader responsable d'un domaine d'activité ‫قلئد املناحسة‬
best practices 1. pratiques exemplaires; meilleures ‫خاضل املناحسل‬
pratiques, pratiques optimales [général]; 2.
pratique la plus favorable [CFPI]
Policy and Practice Politiques et pratiques ‫الت يلسل واملناحسة‬
oversight practices pratiques en matière de contrôle ‫تالليد الِّقلغة؛ مملحسل الِّقلغة‬
Glossary 6:
pre-departure préparation au départ ‫مل قبل املغلدحة‬
estimated time of departure 1. heure probable de départ [Fce]; 2. heure ‫الوقت العاِّييب للمغلدحة؛ وقت املغلدحة املعوق‬
de départ prévue [Can.]
point of departure point initial; point de départ ‫ناطة املغلدحة‬
departure from mean value écart par rapport à la valeur moyenne ‫احنِّا ؛ اغععلد ن الامية الوس يطة؛ اغععلد ن‬
‫متوسف الامية‬
pre-departure seminar - ‫قبل املغلدحة‬/‫الاة دحاس ية سلغاة للمغلدحة‬
actual time of departure heure réelle de départ ‫الوقت الفعيل للمغلدحة؛ الوقت الفعيل للِّحيل‬
Orderly Departure Programme programme de départs légaux; programme ‫تِّانمج الِّحيل املنظم‬
d'organisation méthodique des départs
lane departure warning system système de détection de dérive de la ‫نظلم النذاح ابحليلد ن احللحة املِّوحية‬
trajectoire
point of departure diversion - ‫حتويل املتلح خقنلء الِّاةل‬
barrière due à une embâcle de sarrasins ‫المجز شظوي جليدي‬
jammed brash barrier
uncertainty analysis - ‫حتليل عدم الياني‬
measurement uncertainty; incertitude de mesure; incertitude ‫حيبة؛ عدم حتاق؛ عدم العيان‬
uncertainty
Combined Uncertainty and Estimation combinée de la bathymétrie et ‫العاديِّ املشتك لايلس ال ناق وعدم العاني‬
Bathymetry Estimation de l'incertitude [prop.]
Subcommittee on Prevention of Sous-Comité pour la prévention de la ‫الل نة الفِّ ية ملن الععذيب وغريه من رضو‬
Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or torture et autres peines ou traitements
Degrading Treatment or Punishment; cruels, inhumains ou dégradants; Sous- ‫املعلمةل خو العاوغة الالس ية خو الالا تلنية خو‬
Subcommittee on Prevention of Comité de la prévention de la torture ‫املهينة؛ الل نة الفِّ ية ملن الععذيب‬
Torture
International Rehabilitation Council Conseil international de réhabilitation pour ‫اجمللس ادلويل لعلدة تأ يل حضلاي الععذيب‬
for Torture Victims les victimes de torture
response services services d'intervention ‫خدمل الاس عجلغة‬
common services services communs ‫خدمل مشتكة‬
civic service service civique ‫اخلدمة املدنية‬
Force Generation Service Service de la constitution des forces ‫دائِّة تكوين الاوا‬
Department of Conference Services Département des services de conférence ‫اداحة خدمل املؤمتِّا‬
troop/police contributing country; pays qui fournit des contingents ou du ‫البدل املتلمه غاوا ورشطة؛ املتلمه غاوا‬
troop/police-contributor personnel de police; fournisseur de
contingents ou de personnel de police ‫ورشطة‬
United Nations Police Division; Division de la police ‫شعبة الرشطة شعبة رشطة الا املعحدة‬
Police Division
Force de recherche et d’action de la Force de recherche et d’action de la police -
police
formed police unit unité de police constituée ‫وادة الرشطة املشلكة‬
Civilian Police Advisory Unit Groupe consultatif pour la police civile ‫الوادة الاستشلحية للرشطة املدنية‬
United Nations police Police des Nations Unies ‫رشطة الا املعحدة‬
civilian police selection assistance équipe d'aide à la sélection du personnel de ‫اِّيق املتلعدة لرتيلح الرشطة املدنية؛ اِّيق‬
team; UNCIVPOL selection police civile
assistance team ‫املتلعدة لرتيلح الرشطة املدنية العلغعة للا‬
‫املعحدة‬
United Nations International Network Réseau international du personnel féminin ‫ش بكة الا املعحدة ادلولية للنتلء املشلحاك يف‬
of Female Police Peacekeepers de la police de maintien de la paix des
Nations Unies ‫رشطة حفظ التالم‬
civilian police peacekeeping maintien de la paix reposant sur la police ‫حفظ التالم غواسطة الرشطة املدنية‬
civile
police commissioner 1. chef de la police civile [UNCIVPOL]; 2. ‫مفوض الرشطة‬
directeur général de la police [police
nationale]
police officer 1. membre de la police; membre des ‫ضلغف رشطة؛ رشطي‬
services de police; policier; [parfois] officier
de police 2. agent de police
Police Development Officer Spécialiste de la formation complémentaire ‫موظف تطويِّ الرشطة‬
des agents de la police civile
International Association of Women International Association of Women Police ‫الِّاغطة ادلولية للرشطة النتلئية‬
Police
Police Adviser conseiller pour les questions de police ‫متتشلح لشؤوُ الرشطة‬
Glossary 7:

insider trading délit d'initié ‫جتلحة العلمل ابلرساح‬
Convention on the Operations of Convention sur les opérations financières ‫التفلقية املععلاة غعمليل جتلحة العلمل ابلرساح‬
Insider Trading des initiés
insider witness témoin informateur; indicateur ‫شل د مطل‬
International Conference on Conférence internationale sur la réponse ‫املؤمتِّ ادلويل لعلبية الاحتيلجل ال تلنية‬
Addressing the Humanitarian Needs aux besoins humanitaires des réfugiés et
of Refugees and Internally Displaced personnes déplacées internes en Iraq et ُ‫لالمجئني واملرشدين يف العِّاق ويف البدلا‬
Persons inside Iraq and in dans les pays voisins ‫اجمللوحة‬
Neighbouring Countries
soft border frontière souple ‫ادود مِّنة‬
free border policy politique de "passage libre" ‫س يلسة حِّية بوح احلدود‬
former autonomous region of South ex-région autonome d’Ossétie du Sud ً‫مططاة خوس يتيل اجلنوغية املتمععة ابحلمك اذلايت سلغال‬
Ossetia
Transition Office for the United Bureau de transition de l'opération des ‫املكتب الانعاليل لعمليل الا املعحدة يف‬
Nations Operations in the former Nations Unies dans l'ex-Yougoslavie
Yugoslavia ‫يوغوسالايل التلغاة‬
International Road Federation Fédération routière internationale ‫الاحتلد ادلويل للطِّق‬
Decade of Action for Road Safety Décennie d’action pour la sécurité routière ‫اد العمل من خجل التالمة عىل الطِّق‬
British Broadcasting Corporation British Broadcasting Corporation ‫يئة الذاعة الربيطلنية‬
Joint AU-UN Road Map for Darfur feuille de route commune UA-ONU pour le ‫رِّيطة الطِّيق املشتكة غني الاحتلد الاِّياي‬
Political Process; Joint AU-UN Road processus politique au Darfour; feuille de
Map route commune UA-ONU ‫والا املعحدة للعملية الت يلس ية يف داحاوح؛‬
‫رِّيطة الطِّيق املشتكة غني الاحتلد الاِّياي‬
‫والا املعحدة‬
vehicle off the road days; VOR days nombre de jours d'indisponibilité; jours ‫عدد خايم تعطل املِّكبل‬
d'indisponibilité
Make Roads Safe Pour des routes sûres ‫امجعل الطِّقل خمطة‬
broadband large bande ‫ِّيض النطلق؛ واس النطلق‬
Low Carbon Green Growth plan de route de la croissance verte à faible ‫رِّيطة الطِّيق لمنو خررض رفيض الكِّغوُ يف‬
Roadmap for Asia and the Pacific; émission de carbone en Asie et dans le
Low Carbon Green Growth Pacifique; plan de route de la croissance ‫خس يل واحمليف الهلدئ؛ رِّيطة الطِّيق لمنو خررض‬
Roadmap verte à faible émission de carbone ُ‫رفيض الكِّغو‬
distance learning enseignement à distance ‫تعمل ن غعد‬‫ح‬
SAARC Consortium of Open and Groupement d'institutions de télé- ‫احتلد حاغطة مجطو خس يل للععلوُ القلميي للععمل‬
Distance Learning enseignement et d'universités ouvertes de
l'ASACR ‫املفتوح و ن غعد‬
distance constraint; 350 M distance contrainte de distance; contrainte des 350 ‫قيد املتلاة‬
constraint M
equidistance method méthode de l'équidistance ‫طِّياة طتلوي الغعلد‬
equidistance line; equidistant line; ligne d'équidistance ‫رف طتلوي الغعلد‬
line of equidistance
speed breaker; speed bump ralentisseur; butte de ralentissement ‫مصد ختفيف الرسعة‬
clearance speed; rate of progress; vitesse de progression du déminage; ‫الزاةل؛ معد العادم‬/‫رسعة العطهري‬
speed of clearance vitesse de déminage
International Code of Safety for Recueil international de règles de sécurité ‫املدونة ادلولية لتالمة املِّاكب العللية الرسعة‬
High-Speed Craft; HSC Code applicables aux engins à grande vitesse
high-speed anti-radiation missile 1. missile antiradar à grande vitesse; 2. ‫قذيفة عللية الرسعة مضلدة للِّاداح‬
missile antiradiation à grande vitesse
[OTAN]
Glossary 8:
destruction in situ; in-situ destruction; destruction sur place; destruction in situ ‫تدمري اللغلم يف املوق ؛ تدمري موقعي لللغلم‬
in-place demolition
disposal site; destruction site chantier de destruction; site de destruction; ‫موق تدمري‬
site d'élimination
demolition ground aire de destruction; polygone de ‫ماكُ تفجري‬
destruction; terrain de destruction
demolition pit fourneau de destruction; fosse de ‫حفِّة تدمري‬
destruction; puits de destruction
weapon of mass destruction in slow arme de destruction massive au ralenti ‫خسلحة ادلملح الشلمل البطيء‬
motion
Middle East zone free of weapons of zone exempte d'armes de destruction ‫مططاة خللية من خسلحة ادلملح الشلمل يف‬
mass destruction massive au Moyen-Orient
‫الرشق الوسف‬
destructive analysis analyse destructive ‫قيلس (حتليل) متلف‬
mass destruction destruction massive ‫دملح شلمل‬
weapon of mass destruction arme de destruction massive ‫سالح ادلملح الشلمل‬
centralised disposal site; central chantier de destruction central ‫موق تدمري مِّكزي‬
demolition site; central destruction
site
bulk disposal; bulk demolition; bulk destruction différée; destruction en fourneau ‫تدمري ابمجلةل؛ تدمري يف موق مِّكزي‬
destruction
explosive detonation; detonation destruction à l'explosif; explosion ‫تفدمري تفجريي؛ تفجري‬
Destruction Advisory Panel Groupe consultatif sur la destruction ‫الفِّيق الاستشلحي للعدمري‬
clathrate gun hypothesis hypothèse du canon à hydrates de gaz ‫اِّضية مدا يدحاات الغلز‬
crowding-out hypothesis hypothèse de l'effet inhibant (de la ‫اِّضية الزااة؛ اِّضية الثِّ املزامح‬
recherche-développement militaire)
Colony Collapse Disorder syndrome d'effondrement des colonies ‫متالزمة اهنيلح مت ععمِّا النحل‬
d'abeilles
collapsible bed lit pliable ‫رسيِّ قلغل للطي‬
target lock-on sequence séquence de verrouillage de l'objetif ‫مِّاال احاكم اصلغة الهد‬
genome sequence - ‫متوالية اجلينوم‬
chronosequence - ‫متتلتةل زمطية‬
drug resistance pharmacorésistance; résistance ‫العالقري‬/‫مالومة الدوية‬
médicamenteuse
heat-resistant thermo-résistant; résistant à l'action de la ‫مالوم للحِّاحة‬
chaleur
Guinea-Bissau Resistance Parti de la résistance de Guinée-Bissau ‫ غستلو للمالومة‬- ‫حز غينيل‬
drug-resistant tuberculosis; drug- tubercuolose pharmacorésistante ‫سل مالوم للدوية‬
resistant TB
drug-resistant HIV variant souche du VIH résistant à un médicament; ‫ذحية لفريوس ناص املنلعة البرشية مالومة‬
souche du VIH résistant aux médicaments;
mutant résistant ‫للدوية‬
Forces de résistance patriotiques en Forces de résistance patriotiques en Ituri ‫قوا املالومة الوطنية يف ايعوحي‬
Ituri
multi-drug resistant tuberculosis tuberculose à bacilles multirésistants; ‫التل املالوم للدوية املععددة‬
tuberculose multirésistante; tuberculose
MDR

Mine Resistant Ambush Protected véhicule protégé contre les mines et les ‫حمصنة ضد اللغلم والكنائن‬
‫مِّكبة ح‬
vehicle embuscades [prop.]
Antimicrobial Resistance Info Bank Banque de données sur la ‫مرص املعلومل املععلاة مبالومة مضلد‬
pharmacorésistance
‫امليكِّواب‬
WHO Global Strategy for Stratégie mondiale OMS pour la maîtrise de ‫الاستاتي ية العلملية ملنظمة الصحة العلملية من‬
Containment of Antimicrobial la résistance aux antimicrobiens
Resistance ‫خجل كبح مالومة مبيدا اجلِّاقمي‬
weather resistance résistance aux agents atmosphériques ‫مالومة وامل الطاس؛ مالومة وامل الحوا‬
‫اجلوية‬
acid-resistant organism organisme résistant aux acides ‫اكئن ( ضوي) مالوم للحناض‬
conventional resistance résistance non induite ‫مالومة تاليدية‬
blast-resistant; blast-proof pare-souffle ‫مالوم لالنفجلح؛ مضلد لالنفجلح‬
genetically modified insect résistance aux insectes induite par ‫مالومة للحرشا حمفزة ابلعحويِّ اجليين‬
resistance modification génétique
Bougainville Resistance Force Résistance bougainvillienne ‫قوة مالومة غوغلنفيل‬
corrosion resistant anticorrosion ‫مالوم للعألك‬
Global Plan for Insecticide Plan mondial de gestion de la résistance ‫اخلطة العلملية لعدغري مالومة نواقل املالحاي‬
Resistance Management in Malaria des vecteurs du paludisme aux insecticides
Vectors ‫ملبيدا احلرشا‬
Cultural Resistance Desk secrétariat de la résistance culturelle ‫مكتب املالومة الثالاية‬
Violations of Human Rights: Possible Violations des droits de l'homme: Quels ‫ اماكنيل حاوق الطعن‬:ُ‫انهلاك حاوق ال تل‬
rights of recourse and forms of recours? Quelle résistance?
resistance ‫ومجي خشاك املالومة‬
Glossary 9:
Military Analyst; Military Intelligence 1. analyste militaire; 2. expert (ou ‫حملل تكِّي‬
Analyst spécialiste) des questions militaires; 3.
analyste du renseignement militaire [TPIY
seulement]
professional domicile domicile professionnel ‫ماكُ مملحسة املهنة‬
Professional category catégorie des administrateurs ‫الفئة الفطية‬
National Visiting Professionals Programme d'invitation de juristes libanais ‫تِّانمج احملتاني الزائِّين الوطنيني‬
programme
National Professional Officer administrateur recruté sur le plan national ‫موظف اين وطين‬
professional grade catégorie professionnelle ‫الِّتبة الفطية‬
International Symposium on Torture: Colloque international sur la torture: la ‫ الععذيب كعحد‬:‫الندوة ادلولية املععلاة ابلععذيب‬
Torture as a Challenge to the Health, torture, un défi à relever par les juristes et
Legal and Other Professions les membres des professions de santé et ‫للمهن الصحية والالنونية وغري ل من املهن‬
autres professions
professional firm - ‫رشكة ربرية‬
National Professional Officer, level B administrateur recruté sur le plan national, ‫موظف اين وطين من الِّتبة ابء‬
classe B
professional trainee administrateur stagiaire ‫متدح اين‬
Professional Training Series série sur la formation professionelle ‫سلتةل العدحيب املهين‬
Junior Professional Officer administrateur auxiliaire ‫موظف اين مبعدئ‬
Indian Society of Agribusiness Indian Society of Agribusiness ‫امجلعية الهندية للمخعصني يف ال نا العجلحية‬
Professionals Professionals
‫الزحا ية‬
National Professional Officer, level C administrateur recruté sur le plan national, ‫موظف اين وطين من الِّتبة مجمي‬
classe C
general and specific standards for normes générales et particulières régissant ‫املعليري العلمة واخللصة للداء املهين للمِّامجعة‬
the professional practice of internal la pratique professionnelle de l'audit interne
auditing in United Nations dans les organismes des Nations Unies ‫ادلاخلية للحتلاب يف مطظنا الا املعحدة‬
organizations
International Federation of Business Fédération internationale des femmes de ‫الاحتلد ادلويل لت يدا ال نا واملهنيل‬
and Professional Women; BPW carrières libérales et commerciales

International
Fédération Internationale Des Fédération internationale des footballeurs ‫الاحتلد ادلويل لال يب كِّة الادم احملتاني‬
Footballeurs Professionnels professionnels
Young Professionals Orientation Stage d’orientation à l’intention de jeunes ‫تِّانمج تومجاليي للش بل من الفئة الفطية‬
Programme administrateurs
conflict transformation transformation des conflits ‫حتويل الرصاع‬
Conflict-Free Smelter Assessment programme d'évaluation des fonderies ‫تِّانمج تايمي املصهِّ الناي من شلئبة الزناع‬
Programme
post-conflict rehabilitation relèvement en période postconflictuelle; ‫اعلدة الععمري غعد انهلء الزناع‬
réinsertion au lendemain des conflits; phase
de réinsertion après le conflit
Working Group of the Security Groupe de travail du Conseil de sécurité sur ‫اِّيق جملس المن العلمل املعين ابلطفل والزناع‬
Council on Children and Armed le sort des enfants en temps de conflit
Conflict; Working Group on Children armé; Groupe de travail sur le sort des ‫املتلح؛ الفِّيق العلمل املعين ابلطفل والزناع‬
and Armed Conflict enfants en temps de conflit armé ‫املتلح‬
private international law droit international privé ‫الالنوُ ادلويل اخللص‬
European Centre for Conflict Centre européen pour la prévention des ‫املِّكز الوحويب ملن شو الزناعل‬
Prevention conflits
Africa Conflict Prevention Pool Équipe interministérielle de coordination ‫الفِّيق الوزاحي املشتك للعنت يق من خجل مط‬
pour la prévention des conflits en Afrique
[prop.] ‫الرصاعل يف خاِّيايل‬
Post-Conflict and Disaster Service des situations post-conflictuelles ‫ادلائِّة املعنية حبلل مل غعد الزناع‬
Management Branch [prop.]
Global Conflict Prevention Pool Équipe interministérielle de coordination ‫اجملم العلملي ملن الرصاعل‬
pour la prévention des conflits dans le
monde [prop.]
deconfliction 1. déconfliction; ordonnancement des flux )‫ازاةل خو تفلدي العضلح (خو الععلحض‬
de transport; régulation des flux de
transport; désescalade du conflit
adolescents in conflict with the law - ُ‫مِّا ق خلحج عىل الالنو‬
armed conflict conflit armé ‫نزاع متلح‬
Post-Conflict Reconstruction Unit; Unité Situations post conflictuelles [Banque ‫وادة اعلدة ال ناح يف اتة مل غعد الزناع؛ وادة‬
Post-Conflict Unit mondiale]
‫مل غعد الزناع‬
Special Representative of the Représentant spécial du Secrétaire général ‫املمثل اخللص للمني العلم املعين ابلطفل‬
Secretary-General for Children and pour le sort des enfants en temps de conflit
Armed Conflict armé ‫والزناع املتلح‬
Second Administrative-level projet sur les limites administratives du ‫املرشوع الداحي الثلين للحدود‬
Boundaries project deuxième niveau
Protocol of Peace, Friendship and Protocole relatif à la paix, à l'amitié et aux ‫تِّوتوكو التالم والصداقة واحلدود؛ تِّوتوكو‬
Boundaries; the Rio Protocol frontières; Protocole de Rio
‫حيو‬
Global Maritime Boundaries base de données mondiale sur les ‫قلعدة البيلان العلملية للحدود البحِّية‬
Database frontières maritimes [prop.]
disputed internal boundaries - ‫احلدود ادلاخلية املعنلزع علالل‬
Administrative Boundaries Task Équipe de travail sur les limites ‫اِّيق العمل املعين ابحلدود الداحية‬
Group administratives
consolidated appeal process procédure d'appel global ‫معلية نداء مواد‬
Humanitarian Appeal Appel humanitaire ‫النداء ال تلين لعلم‬
Joint Appeals Board Panel Chambre de la Commission paritaire de ‫اِّيق جملس الطعوُ املشتك‬
recours
Glossary 10:
notorious facts - ‫حالئق معِّواة لل مي ؛ متلحنا‬
digital photography - ‫تصويِّ حمقي‬
digital photography - ‫تصويِّ حمقي‬
World Aerial Photographic Index Index mondial des photographies aériennes ‫الفهِّس العلملي للصوح الفوتوغِّااية اجلوية‬
International Federation of Fédération internationale de l'art ‫الاحتلد ادلويل لفن العصويِّ الفوتوغِّايف‬
Photographic Art photographique

Design and Photography Section Section des études de conception et de la ِّ‫قتم العصممي والعصوي‬
photographie
International Photographic Council International Photographic Council ‫اجمللس الفوتوغِّايف ادلويل‬
photo credit référence photographique; mention de ‫مِّمج الصوحة‬
source
Celebrities and Events Officer Fonctionnaire chargé des manifestations ‫املوظف املتؤو ن املشل ري واملنلس بل‬
spéciales et des célébrités
Inter-Agency Coordination Group Groupe interinstitutions de coopération ‫اِّيق العنت يق املشتك غني الواكل ملاكحفة‬
against Trafficking in Persons contre la traite des êtres humains
‫الاجتلح ابلشخلص‬
Convention on Road Traffic [1968] Convention sur la circulation routière [1968] ]0912[ ‫اتفلقية التري عىل الطِّق‬
End Human Trafficking Now! Halte à la traite des êtres humains, ُ‫خوقفوا الاجتلح ابلبرش ال‬
maintenant!
human trafficking; trafficking in traite des êtres humains; traite d'êtres ‫الاجتلح ابلبرش؛ الاجتلح ابلشخلص‬
persons humains
traffic control post; traffic post poste de contrôle de la circulation ‫ناطة مِّاقبة حِّكة املِّوح؛ مِّكز مِّاقبة حِّكة‬
‫املِّوح‬
Council of Europe Convention on Convention du Conseil de l'Europe sur la ‫اتفلقية جملس خوحواب املععلاة مباكحفة الاجتلح‬
Action against Trafficking in Human lutte contre la traite des êtres humains
Beings ‫ابلبرش‬
adjustment for staff turnover and ajustement pour mouvement de personnel ‫طتوية دوحاُ املوظفني وتأخري الععيني‬
delays
delayed blowback action fonctionnement par culasse non calée à ِّ‫طشغيل ابلحتداد الغلزي املعأر‬
retard d'ouverture
pyrotechnic delay retard pyrotechnique ‫تأخري حِّاحي‬
initial delay position position de freinage initiale; position ‫موض تأخري خويل‬
retardatrice initiale
delayed primary closure suture primaire différée; suture primaire ‫غلق خويل متأرِّ لل ِّوح‬
retardée
Old City vieille ville ‫املدينة الادمية‬
Mexico City Declaration on Cultural Déclaration de Mexico sur les politiques ‫اعالُ مكت يكو بشأُ الت يلسل الثالاية‬
Policies culturelles
non-capital-city daily subsistence taux d’indemnité journalière de subsistance ‫معدل غدل القلمة اليومية للمدُ من غري‬
allowance rate en dehors des capitales
‫العوامص‬
overriding priority priorité absolue ‫خولوية غ حالغة ; خولوية مطلاة; اولوية طلغية‬
Africa's Priority Programme for Programme prioritaire de redressement ‫تِّانمج خاِّيايل ذو الولوية لالنععلش الاقتصلدي‬
Economic Recovery 1986-1990 économique de l'Afrique 1986-1990
0991-0921
high-priority route axe routier prioritaire ‫طِّيق ذو خولوية عليل؛ حموح طِّ ذو خولوية عليل‬
priority information requirements besoins d'information prioritaires ‫املعطلبل الولوية من املعلومل ؛ الاحتيلجل‬
‫ذا الولوية من املعلومل‬
Decalogue décalogue ‫الولواي العرش؛ الوصلاي العرش‬
first-to-invent system système du premier inventeur ‫نظلم خس باية الاختاع‬
Regional Conference on Conférence régionale sur la gestion du ‫ س نة من‬31 :‫املؤمتِّ القلميي املعين ابداحة العمنية‬
Development Management: Thirty développement en Afrique: trente ans
Years of Experience, Emerging d'expérience, défis nouveaux et priorités ‫اخلربة والعحداي النلش ئة والولواي املت عابلية‬
Challenges and Future Priorities futures
International Dialogue on Research Dialogue international sur les priorités de ‫احلواح ادلويل املععلق غأولواي البحوث‬
Priorities recherche
priority projects - ‫مشلحي ذا خولوية‬
corporate priority priorité de l'organisation ‫خولوية املنظمة‬
Priority Rehabilitation Programme Programme prioritaire de relèvement ‫تِّانمج الععمري ذو الولوية‬
Priority Actions Handbook guide des actions prioritaires ‫دليل ن المجِّاءا ذا الولوية‬
Priority Survey enquête sur les priorités ‫ادلحاسة الاس عاصلئية للولواي‬
reprioritazion modification de l’ordre de priorité ‫اعلدة تِّتسب الولواي‬
Priority Substances List Liste des substances d'intérêt prioritaire ‫قلمئة املواد ذا الولوية‬

Priority Africa Department Département "Priorité Afrique" ‫اداحة الولوية لاِّيايل‬
Priorities for Action Actions prioritaires ‫خولواي العمل‬
Council on Economic Priorities Council on Economic Priorities ‫اجمللس املعين ابلولواي الاقتصلدية‬
national priority objectives - ‫ال دا الوطنية ذا الولوية‬
initial alert compte rendu immédiat ‫انذاح ذو خولوية؛ انذاح خويل‬
"Priority Africa" Programme Programme "Priorité Afrique" "‫تِّانمج "الولوية لاِّيايل‬
Working Group on Development Groupe de travail sur les priorités et les ‫الفِّيق العلمل املعين ابلولواي المنلئية‬
Priorities and Policy Needs of Africa besoins du développement en Afrique
‫واحتيلجل الت يلسل يف خاِّيايل‬
Glossary 11:
publications programme programme de publication ‫تِّانمج املنشوحا‬
Publications Board Comité des publications ‫جملس املنشوحا‬
Working Group of the Publications Groupe de travail du Comité des ‫الفِّيق العلمل العلغ جمللس املنشوحا‬
Board publications
Rassemblement des Républicains Rassemblement des républicains ‫جتم امجلهوحيني‬
Republican Guard Garde républicaine ‫احلِّس امجلهوحي‬
Inter-Agency Meeting on Réunion interorganisations concernant les ‫الامجامتع املشتك غني الواكل املعين غتتسبل‬
Language Arrangements, services linguistiques, la documentation et
Documentation and Publications les publications ‫اللغل والواثئق واملنشوحا‬
recurrent publication - ‫منشوح متكِّح‬
Publish What You Pay Publiez ce que vous payez ‫خ رش مل تداعه‬
sustainable publishing publication durable ‫النرش املت عدام‬
International Publishers Association Union internationale des éditeurs ‫امجلعية ادلولية للنلرشين‬
Meetings and Publishing Division Division des réunions et des services de ‫شعبة الامجامتعل والنرش‬
publication
United Nations University Policy on Normes de l'Université des Nations Unies ‫س يلسة جلمعة الا املعحدة املعصةل غنرش مؤلفل‬
Scholarly Publishing; policy on relatives aux publications universitaires;
scholarly publishing politique de publication de travaux ‫البلحلني‬
universitaires
Eastern Daylight Time heure d'été de New York ‫العوقيت الصيفي لرشق الولاي املعحدة؛‬
‫العوقيت الصيفي لنيويوحك‬
time-depth curve; time-depth plot courbe temps-profondeur ‫ العمق‬- ‫مطحىن العمق والزمن؛ حمس غيلين للزمن‬
real time temps réel ‫الوقت احلاياي؛ الزمن احلاياي‬
Universal Coordinated Time; temps universel; temps moyen de ‫توقيت غِّينتش‬
Greenwich Mean Time; Coordinated Greenwich; temps universel coordonné
Universal Time
implementation lead time délai d'exécution; délai de mise en oeuvre ‫الفتة الالزمة للعنفيذ؛ همةل العنفيذ‬
time-depth conversion table; time- diagramme temps-profondeur; tableau de ‫جدو العحويل غني الزمن والعمق؛ حمس غيلين‬
depth chart; TD chart conversion des temps de parcours en
profondeur ‫ العمق‬- ‫للزمن‬
ozone profile courbe de répartition d'ozone; profil de ُ‫ماط حخيس لتكزي الاوزو‬
répartition d'ozone
Interregional Advisers in Maritime conseillers interrégionaux en matière de ‫املتتشلحوُ القللمييوُ يف جمل العدحيب البحِّي‬
Training, Technical Port Operations, formation maritime, d'opérations portuaires
Maritime Safety Administration, techniques, d'administration de la sécurité ‫والعمليل العاطية املِّائية واداحة التالمة البحِّية‬
Maritime Legislation, and Maritime maritime, de législation maritime et de ‫والترشيعل البحِّية والعلوث البحِّي‬
Pollution pollution maritime
Timesharing partage de temps; temps partagé ‫اقتتلم الوقت‬
isochron; isotime line; time isopach isochrone; isopaque-temps ‫رف طتلوي الزمن‬
two-way traveltime; two-way transit temps double; temps de double parcours; ‫زمن اذل ل والعودة؛ زمن املتلح الثنليئ‬
time; two-way time temps de trajet aller et retour; temps aller-
retour
maritime interdiction operation opération de surveillance maritime ‫معلية حظِّ حبِّي‬
procurement lead time délai d'approvisionnement; délai de ‫همةل الرشاء‬
réapprovisionnement [logistique mil.]; délai
d'exécution des achats [UNICEF]
time-poor people - ‫املفتاِّوُ ا ى الوقت؛ ااِّاء الوقت‬
time section; traveltime section; time section temps; coupe temps ‫ماط لزمن الاختاق؛ خمطف جلنيب للزمن‬
profile
mix of one-time and multi-year panachage entre un paiement versé en une ‫اخللف غني دا النصبة املاِّحة داعة واادة‬
assessment fois et un paiement échelonné sur plusieurs
années ‫وداعهل عىل س نوا متعددة‬
lethal time; survival time; time-to- temps létal; temps de survie ‫وقت ال الك؛ مدة البالء؛ الزمن البل للمو‬
death
part-time employment emploi à temps partiel ‫معل غدوام مجزيئ؛ معل لوقت مجزيئ‬
World Heart Day Journée mondiale du coeur ‫يوم الالب العلملي‬
World Heart Federation Fédération mondiale du Coeur ‫الاحتلد العلملي لمِّاض الالب‬
Istanbul Summit on Friendship and Sommet d'Istanbul sur l'amitié et la ‫مقة اسطنبو للصداقة والععلوُ يف قلب خس يل‬
Cooperation in the Heart of Asia coopération au coeur de l'Asie
Blue Heart Campaign against - ‫محةل الالب الزحق ملاكحفة الاجتلح ابلبرش؛ محةل‬
Human Trafficking; Blue Heart
Campaign ‫الالب الزحق‬
Happy Hearts Fund - ‫صندوق الالو التعيدة‬
hearts and minds campaign campagne visant à rallier l'opinion publique; ‫محةل كتب الائدة والعاو‬
campagne visant à gagner la faveur de la
population; campagne visant à obtenir
l'assentiment de la population; campagne
visant à s'assurer la bienveillance de de la
population; campagne pour gagner les
coeurs et les esprits; appel à l'adhésion de
la population
International Spiritual Elders Conférence internationale des chefs ‫املؤمتِّ ادلويل للش يوخ الِّوالنيني‬
Conference spirituels
spirit of Rio esprit de Rio ‫حوح حيو‬
Ecospirituality Foundation Ecospirituality Foundation ‫مؤستة الِّوالنيل البيئية‬
Team Spirit Exercice Esprit d'équipe ‫حوح الفِّيق‬
special boiling point spirit essence spéciale ‫كحو صنل ي خلص‬
NGO Committee on Spirituality, Comité d'ONG sur la spiritualité, les valeurs ‫جلنة املنظنا غري احلكومية املعنية ابلِّوالنيل‬
Values and Global Concerns et les préoccupations mondiales
‫والامي والشواغل العلملية‬
Spiritual Adviser - ‫املتتشلح الِّويح‬
wood spirit - ‫كحو الرشل‬
Convention on Consent to Marriage, Convention sur le consentement au ,‫ واحلد الدىن لتن الزواج‬,‫اتفلقية الِّضل ابلزواج‬
Minimum Age for Marriage and mariage, l'âge minimum du mariage et
Registration of Marriages; l'enregistrement des mariages ‫وطت يل اود الزواج‬
Convention on Consent to Marriage
sighe marriage; mutah marriage mariage dit sighe; mariage dit mutah ‫ناكح (زواج) املععة‬
common-law marriage union de fait ‫زواج حتب الالنوُ العلم؛ زواج ِّيف؛ زواج‬
‫تعليش‬
companionate marriage mariage entre égaux ‫الزواج املعاكئف‬
customary marriage mariage coutumier ‫زواج ِّيف‬
Recommendation on Consent to Recommandation sur le consentement au ‫توصية بشأُ الِّضل ابلزواج واحلد الدىن لتن‬
Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage mariage, l'âge minimum du mariage et
and Registration of Marriages l'enregistrement des mariages ‫الزواج وطت يل اود الزواج‬
marriage rate; nuptiality rate taux de nuptialité ‫معد الزواج‬
domestic partnership partenariat domestique enregistré ‫معلرشة‬
Alliance for Marriage Alliance for Marriage ‫حتللف طش ي الزواج‬
same-sex marriage mariage homosexuel ‫زواج ملليي اجلنس‬
minimum age for marriage âge minimum au mariage; âge de nubilité; ‫التن ادلنيل للزواج‬
âge minimum du mariage

early marriage mariage précoce ِّ‫زواج مبك‬
civil marriage mariage civil ‫زواج مدين‬
ever married non-célibataire; marié ou ayant déjà été ‫مزتوج؛ غري العلز‬
marié
taux de nuptialité par sexe ‫معدل الزواج حتب نوع اجلنس‬
sex-specific marriage rates
marriage of completed fertility famille complète ‫خرسة مكتمةل اذلحية‬
mariage forcé ‫زواج ابلكِّاه‬
forced marriage
marriage of convenience mariage de complaisance; mariage blanc ‫زواج مصلحة‬
moral hazard risque moral ‫مؤثِّ اخلطِّ املعنوي‬
moral damage - ‫رضح معنوي‬
moral suasion appel au sens moral ‫ضغف خديب‬


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MINISTÈRE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR

Université de Tunis El Manar

INSTITUT SUPERIEUR DES SCIENCES HUMAINES DE TUNIS

MINISTÈRE DE L’ENSMENT SUPÉRIEU

“When breaking language barriers, the translator is

‫"ويف ختطيه للعوائق اللغوية يشدُّ التمجناُ حالِّال ا ى حال‬

English Course Description

Hammouda Salhi, PhD.

Days/Time and Venue:

Required Readings: (included in the lectures below)

English and Arabic skills

Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic Age. In Defence of a Minimalist Approach

Four notions of translation competence

Competence as a summation of linguistic competencies

Competence as no such thing

Competence as just one thing

This ran well enough as

The discontinuity with language learning

The role of theory

Solving the problem

CAMPBELL, S. (1991): “Towards a Model of Translation Competence,” Meta 36-2/3, 329-343.

KOLLER, W. (1979): Einführung in die Übersetzungswissenschaft, Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer.

LEE-JAHNKE, H. (1997): “Voraussetzungen für eine optimale Übersetzerausbildung heute,” Eberhard

LÖRSCHER, W. (1991): Translation Performance, Translation Process, and Translation Strategies. A

LÖRSCHER, W. (1996): “A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Translation Processes,”Meta 41-1: 26-32.

MAYORAL, R. (2001): Aspectos epistemológicos de la traducción, Castelló: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume

NEWMARK, P. (1985): “Literal Translation,” Parallèles: Cahiers de l’Ecole de Traduction de Genève 7.

PRESAS, M. (1997): “Problembestimmung und Problemlösung als Komponenten der Übersetzungskompetenz,”

W ADDINGTON, C. (2000): Estudio comparativo de diferentes métodos de evaluación de traducción general

W ILSS, W. (1988): Kognition und Übersetzen, Tübingen: Niemeyer.

W ILSS, W. (1992): Übersetzungsfertigkeit,Annäherungen an einen komplexen übersetzungspraktischen Begriff,

W ILSS, W. (1996): Übersetzungsunterricht. Eine Einführung, Tübingen: Gunter Narr.

English and Arabic History of translation

In class: A lecture on the beginning of the translation industry

From Babel to Babel Fish

English and Arabic Equivalence theory

In class: A lecture on examples of equivalence establishment:

Required reading (2):

English and Arabic Ten commandants

TIPS FROM EXPERIENCED TRANSLATORS

A practical Guide for translators

English and Arabic Translation and religion

Translation of the Quran

Mohammed Marmaduke Pickthall

English and Arabic Translation and Culture

Translating Culture: Problems, Strategies and Practical Realities

Keywords: translation, culture, strategies, students.

e. Gestures and habits: ¿Quedamos a tomar un ‘chisme' después de ‘misa'?

e. Beliefs: Hoy es ‘domingo de Ramos'.

f. Identity: Acaban de derribar otro ‘edificio franquista'.

Borrowing: Prueba este Christmas pudding.

Adaptation: Prueba este turrón.

Explanation: Prueba este dulce navideño hecho de frutas confitadas y coñac.

Generalisation: Prueba este dulce.

Literal translation: Prueba este pudín de Navidad.

Reduction: Prueba esto.

2. Translation procedures and strategies

2.5. Compression / reduction / condensation / omission

2.8. Explicitation / expansion / amplification / diffusion

2.10. Literal translation

2.13. Substitution (linguistic-paralinguistic)

3. Practical realities: strategies used to translate cultural terms