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TNE30003
Communication Principles
Pulse Code Modulation
Tony Cricenti

L11
Updated March 2018
 Aims

• Describe Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

• Describe Quantisation.
• Describe Companding.
• Determine the minimum Bandwidth of a
PCM Signal.
• Describe some of the line codes used in
digital modulation.

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 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

• If a signal is sampled we have a PAM

signal.

• If we assign a code (binary number) to

each sample then we have Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM).

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 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

• Why PCM?
– PCM uses digital electronic circuits, easy
and inexpensive to design and build.
– The pulses can be easily regenerated since
they are digital signals.
– We can employ powerful error correction
techniques.

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 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

• To convert a PAM signal to PCM we employ a

Quantiser and an Encoder. (Analogue to digital
converter).

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 Quantisation

• In order to have a finite number of codes

to represent the samples of the PAM
signal, we must limit the possible values
of the samples.

• A Quantiser is used to limit the number

of possible levels of the samples.

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 Quantisation
• Assume that the signal to be quantised has an
amplitude limited to: − A < x(t ) < + A
• That is, the range of
amplitude is divided into
Amin < x(t ) < Amax
M intervals or steps of
M = Number of discrete levels
equal size. (called
Arange A − Amin
Uniform Quantisation). Step size, d = = max
M M
• Each of M intervals is A − (− A) 2 A
= =
assigned with a M M
quantization level. Thus,
there are M discrete
levels.
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 Quantisation

Quantisation
interval
Samples Original Signal
+A
Step size is
d=2A/M
d

Quan
tisati
on
-A levels

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 Uniform Quantisation
• The transfer characteristic of the uniform quantiser is
shown: Output
7d/2
5d/2
3d/2
d/2
Input
-4d -3d -2d -d d 2d 3d 4d
-d/2
-3d/2
-5d/2
-7d/2

• In this case, the sample amplitude value is approximated by the

midpoint of the interval in which it lies.
• Therefore, it is called mid-point quantization.
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 Uniform Quantisation

• The following diagram shows how the uniform quantiser works:

Output
7d/2
5d/2 Samples after
3d/2
quantisation

d/2
Input
-4d -3d -2d -d d 2d 3d 4d
-d/2
-3d/2

-5d/2

-7d/2

Input Samples

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 Quantisation Error

• The uniform quantiser produces an error between

the original signal and output signal
error

error

Input Samples Samples after

quantisation
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 Quantisation Error

• The error depend on the step size. Smaller the step size
d, smaller the quantization error.
• Maximum quantisation error = half the voltage of LSB
= d/2.
• The quantiser S/N ratio = 6m – 7.25 dB, where m =
number of bits in each sample.
• The percent of error is large for small-value samples
compared to large-value samples.
• One way to reduce this is to use non-uniform quantiser.
Here, we make smaller step size for small amplitudes
and larger step size for larger amplitudes.

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 Non-uniform Quantisation
• It may be difficult to produce a non-uniform quantiser,
so a different technique which achieves the same effect
is used.
• The input signal is distorted before quantising, by
compressing the large amplitudes, but not the small.
Output
1
Before
Uniform Quantization

Input
1

Non-uniform

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 Companding
• When recovering the signal, the distortion must be
undone, therefore we must uncompress or expand
the recovered signal.
• The process of compressing and expanding the
signal is called companding.
• Two popular forms:
– A Law - European Standard and RoW
– µ Law - US standard

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 Companding
• A Law: European Standard and Rest of the World (except USA)

1  A xnorm 
if 0 ≤ xnorm < then xcomp = sgn( xnorm )  
A  (1 + ln( A)) 

1  (1 + ln A xnorm ) 
if ≤ xnorm ≤ 1 then xcomp = sgn( xnorm )  
A  (1 + ln( A)) 
where:
• xnorm is normalized input signal (-1.0 to +1.0)
• xcomp is compressed output value
• A= compression parameter (=87.6)
• sgn(x) is sign function.

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 Companding

• µ Law (USA standard)

 ln(1 + µ xnorm ) 
xcomp = sgn( x)  
 ln(1 + µ ) 
where:
• xnorm is normalized input signal
• xcomp is compressed output value
• µ= compression parameter (=255)
• sgn(x) is sign function.

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 Encoding

• The encoder translates the quantised samples into a

coded number, usually binary. (Binary PCM).
• Note that for M quantising levels, we require n bits
in the code word.
• Where n is given by: n = Log 2 M or
M = 2n
• Here n must be an integer, i.e. the number of bits.
• In practice, common values of n are 8, 10, 12 and
16 bits, giving 256, 1024, 4096 & 65536
quantising levels, respectively.
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 Example
• Assume that we have a signal whose amplitude is confined
to the range -8 to +8V, a uniform quantiser is available with
step size of 2 V.
• The signal to be converted to PCM is shown below.
• How many bits are required for the PCM code numbers and
what are the encoded samples?
+8
+6
+4
+2
0

Signal

-8
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 Example
• Number of Quantisation levels M=2A/d=2x8/2=8
• Therefore the number of bits in the PCM word is
n=Log2M=log28 =3 bits
Quantised Quantisation Quan
Samples interval tisati
on
+8
7 levels
Signal +6
6
+4
5
Samples +2
4
0
3
2
1
Sampled Value:
Sampled Value:
Sampled 5.4
-4.1
Value: 1.2
0.5
-3.2 0
Quantised
Quantised Value:
Value: 151-5
Quantised Value: -3 -8
Code Number:
CodeNumber:
Code Number: 46412
Binary:
Binary:
Binary: 110
100001
100
010
Code Number
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 Example
• Signal: Amin= -8 V, Amax= 8 V
• Range = Amax – Amin = 8 – (-8) = 16 V Sampled Value: -3.2
Quantised Value: -3
• M = Number of Quantisation levels=8 Code Number: 2
• d = Range/M =16/8 = 2 V Binary: 010
• Number of bits in the PCM word= 3
x q = Amin + (2k + 1)(d / 2)
x s = −3.2
k = decimal code number
x1 = x s / d = −3.2 / 2 = −1.6.
− 3 = −8 + (2k + 1) /( 2 / 2)
Therefore,
5 = 2k + 1; k = 2
x q = lie between − 1d to − 2d
Binary number = 010
= −2 and − 4V
x q = mid - value = −3V % Error =
− 3.2 − (−3.0)
× 100 = −20/3.2 = −6.25%
3.2
Find for xs = 5.4 V
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 Minimum Bit Rate of PCM System

• To determine the minimum bit rate rb required for a

PCM system let us assume the following:
• The signal has a bandwidth W.
• The signal is sampled at the Nyquist Rate.
• The quantizer has M quantising levels.
• Since we have M quantising levels, we need n=Log2M
bits to be transmitted for each sample.
• Since we sample at fs samples per second, nfs bits must
be transmitted per second.

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 Minimum Bit Rate of PCM System
• Sampling at the Nyquist Rate implies that fs=2W.
• So nfs= n2W = Log2M . 2W
• Therefore, rb = nfs (the bit rate, in bits per
second (bps)).
• The minimum bit rate is rb = 2nW.

• Usually the bit rate will be higher, since we

usually sample at more than the Nyquist rate.
• Therefore: rb ≥ 2nW

22
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 Minimum Bit Rate of PCM System

• Once the bit rate is known then the

transmission BW, BT can be estimated using:
k1
BT =
τ
where, k1 = ½.
τ = bit width.
When bit width = Tb (bit period), then
τ = 1/rb.
In such case, BT = rb/2.

23
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 Bit Rate: Example
• What is the bit rate required to transmit voice
(W=3.5 kHz) over a telephone channel if 1024
quantisation levels are used?
• The minimum sampling frequency fs is:
• fs=2W=7 kHz = 7000 samples/s
• The number of bits required to obtain 1024
levels is n=Log2M=Log21024=10 bits.
BT = rb/2
• Therefore, the minimum rb =nfs
=10x7000 =70 kbps = 70,000 bps.
• In practice, we usually use 8 bits and fs =8 kHz.
• In such case the rb =8x8=64 kbps = 64,000 bps
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 Baseband Signaling Format - Line Codes
• Digital data (binary) can be sent through a pair of
telephone lines, in a variety of ways, these are
generally termed as line codes.
• Traditionally the binary digits were called:
– Mark: Binary 1
– Space: Binary 0
• There are several line codes to represent a Mark and
a Space. We will only look a selected set.
• These line codes can be transmitted directly through
wires, e.g., telephone lines, LAN and WAN.
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 Baseband Signaling Format - Line Codes
Desirable features of Line codes:
• Transparency:
• System can convey any bit sequence without causing
problems.
• Should have strong bit timing.
• help to detect the pulses at the receiver, e.g., long strings
of marks or spaces should not cause any problem.
• No DC and low frequency components in spectrum.
• use of ac coupling and transformer in transmission line
will cause problem
• Bandwidth efficiency
• Error detection capability
Ref: Mesiya 9.2.
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 Baseband Signaling Format - Line Codes

• NRZ: Not Return to Zero

• Full-bit Width
• τ = Tb
where, Tb is bit width.

• RZ: Not Return to Zero

• Half-bit Width
• τ = Tb/2
where, Tb is bit width.

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 Unipolar Non Return to Zero NRZ
• Unipolar NRZ: Here a mark is represented by a
constant amplitude pulse for the entire bit
interval.
• The space is represented by not sending a pulse.
• Example Unipolar NRZ representation of binary
stream 101 100 11:

A 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Unipolar NRZ
0
t

Tb, Bit interval

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 Bipolar Non Return to Zero NRZ

• Bipolar NRZ: Here a mark is represented by a

constant +ve amplitude pulse for the entire bit
interval.
• The space is represented by a constant -ve
amplitude pulse for the entire bit interval.
• Example Bipolar NRZ representation of binary
stream 101 100 11:
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Bipolar NRZ
A
-A
t

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 Unipolar Return to Zero RZ
• Unipolar RZ: Here a mark is represented by a
positive pulse that returns to zero before the end
of the bit interval.
• The space is represented by not sending a pulse.
• Example Unipolar RZ representation of binary
stream 101 100 11:

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Unipolar RZ

t
Tb
RZ at mid-bit -interval
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 Bipolar Return to Zero RZ
• Bipolar RZ: Similar to Unipolar RZ, except the
space is represented by a negative pulse.
• Example Bipolar RZ representation of binary
stream 101 100 11:

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Bipolar RZ

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 Alternate Mark Inversion AMI
• AMI: Here alternating +ve and -ve pulses are
used to represent the mark.
• The space is represented by not sending a pulse.
• Example AMI representation of binary stream
10110011:

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 AMI

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 Split-Phase (Manchester)

• Manchester: The mark is represented by a +ve

going edge in the middle of bit interval (-A → +A).
• The space is represented by a -ve going edge in the
middle of bit interval (+A→-A).
• Note: Mesiya has opposite convention.
• Example Manchester representation of binary
stream 010 011 00:
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Manchester

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 Spectra of Line codes
• We see that NRZ has the least bandwidth, but has a large
dc component.
• Bipolar RZ, AMI, and Manchester has no dc component.

Bipolar RZ , AMI
Mesiya p.504

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 Comparison of Line Codes
• The Bipolar, AMI and Manchester signaling formats
have the advantage of minimizing the DC offset
(Average value) on the line.
• The advantage of the RZ forms is that the bit
interval can be estimated.
• Errors can be detected in AMI, for example two
successive +ve pulses.
• Manchester has at least one transition per bit
interval, therefore the “clock” frequency can be
derived from the data stream. But requires more
BW.
• NRZ formats require less bandwidth than RZ.

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 Spectral Efficiency- Line Codes
• Spectral efficiency,η shows Digital Null η
how efficiently the Modulation BW
transmission channel NRZ unipolar rb 1
allocated BW is utilized by
the digital system.
NRZ bipolar rb 1
• A digital modulation
system transmits data at a RZ Bipolar rb 1
rate of rb bps using (AMI)
bandwidth of a channel, B. Manchester 2rb 1/2
• Then, η = rb/B bps/Hz
Contains 90% of
signal power.
Ref: Mesiya p.506

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 Eye Diagrams
• Eye Diagram can be constructed by displaying the
received digital bit stream on an oscilloscope:
(consider bipolar NRZ).
Display 1’s

Bit Time

Display 0’s
Note pulse will not rectangular due to transmission limitations (think about it!!!)

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 Eye Diagrams

• The Eye Diagram is used to visualize the limitations of

the transmission channel.
ISI
Noise Timing
Margin Jitter

Decision Level

1st Pulse
2nd Pulse
Optimum
sampling time 38
Department of Telecommunications, Electrical and Robotics Engineering TNE30003
 References
• Mesiya 8.4 9.2
• Carlson: 12.1

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