Dynamic Properties and Influence of Clay Mineralogy

Types on the Cyclic Strength of Mine Tailings

Africa M. Geremew, M.ASCE1; and Ernest K. Yanful, M.ASCE2
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Abstract: A series of stress-controlled and undrained cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on mine tailings to investigate their dynamic prop-
erties and the influence of clay mineral types on their cyclic strength. The tests were performed on specimens with a cyclic shear stress ratio
ranging from 0.10 to 0.40 under the same confining pressure. It was observed that the axial strain, excess pore water pressure, and damping ratio
increase with the number of loading cycles, whereas the effective stress and dynamic shear modulus decrease with increasing number of loading
cycles. The effect of void ratio on shear modulus was significant in the small strain range, and thereafter, the effect was not significant among
the tailings studied. It was also observed that the cyclic strength of the tailings varies with the type of dominant clay mineral present in them.
Tailings containing montmorillonite showed higher resistance to cyclic loading than those containing kaolinite. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)
GM.1943-5622.0000227. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Mining; Tailing; Cyclic tests; Triaxial tests; Pore water; Water pressure; Plasticity; Clays.
Author keywords: Mine tailings; Cyclic triaxial tests; Cyclic strength; Excess pore water pressure; Plasticity index.

Introduction
The mining industry produces large quantities of mine tailings every
day. Depending on the minerals present in the parent rock, tailings
could adversely affect the environment if they are not disposed of
properly. One of the most common methods of tailings disposal is
transporting them in slurry pipes to suitable disposal ponds retained
by tailings dams. The main problem with such tailings deposits is the
possibility of liquefaction (or cyclic failure) and the consequent
failure of the retaining dams during cyclic loading. In the case of an
earthquake, shock waves will be generated in the impounded tail-
ings. Repeated shocks can cause tailings to liquefy and waves to form
in the impoundment and increase the risk of overtopping of the dam.
A number of studies have been conducted to evaluate the cyclic
resistance of soils, sediments, and tailings (Ishihara et al. 1980;
Alarcon-Guzman et al. 1988; Koester 1994; Yamamuro and Lade
1998; Braja et al. 1999; Thevanayagam et al. 2000; Polito and Martin
2001; Youd et al. 2001; Bouckovalas et al. 2003; Wijewickreme
et al. 2005; Hyde et al. 2006; Leon et al. 2006; Bouferra et al. 2007;
James et al. 2007; Idriss and Boulanger 2008). Ishihara et al. (1980)
have shown that fine-grained tailings with a plasticity index of
15–20% have a smaller cyclic strength than those that exhibit
nonplastic behavior. Koester (1994) showed that the degree of
liquefaction increases with an increase in fines content for a given
void ratio up to 25–30% fines; with further increase in fines, the
degree of liquefaction decreases. In the study conducted by
1
Geotechnical Engineer and Researcher, Dept. of Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering, Univ. of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A
5B9 (corresponding author). E-mail: ageremew@uwo.ca; amgeremew@gmail
.com
2
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of West-
ern Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A 5B9. E-mail: eyanful@uwo.ca
Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 7, 2011; approved
on May 16, 2012; published online on May 19, 2012. Discussion period
open until January 1, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the International Journal of
Geomechanics, Vol. 13, No. 4, August 1, 2013. ©ASCE, ISSN 1532-
3641/2013/4-441–453/$25.00.
Yamamuro and Lade (1998), silty sand deposits with significant silt
content liquefied much more easily than clean sand. In their liq-
uefaction study of silty soils, Braja et al. (1999) verified that the
cyclic strength of silty soils increased with an increase in plasticity.
However, the most comprehensive and standard approach for
the estimation of the liquefaction resistance of soils is the method
proposed by Youd et al. (2001). Liu and Carter (2003) studied the
behavior of natural clay and proposed a constitutive model that
assumed that both hardening and destructuring are dependent on
plastic volumetric deformation. The model prediction is based on the
initial stress state, stress history, voids ratio, and a measure of the
current soil structure and could be used for reconstituted soils. Mro’z
et al. (2003) provide a three-dimensional (3D) elastoplastic consti-
tutive model capable of simulating static liquefaction. Wijewickreme
et al. (2005) studied the response of three types of fine-grained mine
tailings using constant volume cyclic direct simple shear tests to
simulate cyclic loading caused by an earthquake. James et al. (2007)
investigated the liquefaction resistance of mine tailings and the sta-
bility of impoundments.
Unlike the case with natural soils and sediments, the cyclic
strength and dynamic properties of mine tailings have not been
studied extensively. Moreover, apart from the physical destruction
and human catastrophe, mine tailings liquefaction can impart serious
environmental damage, such as the release of stored tailings and
associated contaminants, and in some cases, the impact is irrevers-
ible. Therefore, one of the objectives of the current study is to in-
vestigate the dynamic properties of mine tailings deposits under
cyclic loading using cyclic triaxial testing.
There is a general consensus that cohesive soil deposits can fail
because of cyclic loading. Accordingly, a number of researchers
have established liquefaction susceptibility criteria that account for
the percentage of clay-sized particles, percentage of clay minerals in
the soil, and Atterberg limits (Wang 1979; Koester 1992; Seed et al.
2003; Boulanger and Idriss 2004, 2006, 2007; Bray and Sancio
2006). Boulanger and Idriss (2004, 2006, 2007) reported that fine-
grained soils that show cohesive behavior lose significant shear
strength because of cyclic loading even though the effective stress
may not be zero. Azam (2011) investigated large strain behavior of

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453

 polymer-amended laterite tailings slurries to understand the settl-
ing properties and found out that sedimentation was dominated by
physicochemical interaction. On the other hand, fine-grained soils
that do not show cohesive behavior liquefy, and the effective stress
reaches zero.
Depending on the type of ore, milling process, and depositional
method, mine tailings could contain significant amount of clay
minerals. Yanful and Catalan (2002) and Mian and Yanful (2003)
reported 10% clay-sized particles in Heath Steele Upper Cell
tailings. Some of the dominant clay minerals in the tailings were
kaolinite and smectite. Mine tailings from the Falconbridge New
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Tailings Area contained approximately 23% clay (, 2 mm), and
illite was one of the major clay minerals present in the tailings.
Premier Gold tailings were reported to contain illite as one of the
main clay minerals, and clay-sized particles were 7% (Samad and
Yanful 2005; Mian and Yanful 2007). Qiu and Sego (2001) studied
the geotechnical behavior of coal wash tailings and found that
they contained 22.5% clay-sized particles. These reported studies
show that tailings could contain clay minerals, notably kaolinite,
illite, and smectite up to 25% clay-sized particles. Therefore, a
second objective of the current study was to understand the effect
of clay mineral types on the cyclic resistance of mine tailings.
Specifically, one of the aims of the study was to determine whether
silty sand or sandy silt (nonplastic) tailings behave like natural
sands during cyclic loading and whether this behavior would
change as the clay mineral content and mineralogy change. The
present work is one of the very few studies that have addressed this
question. The ultimate goal is to determine whether the suscep-
tibility of mine tailings to liquefaction induced failure is influenced
by clay mineralogy.
Materials and Methods
Specimen Description
The tailings specimens used in the current study were obtained
from three mining sites all located in Ontario, Canada: Mattabi near
Ignace; Shebandowan located approximately 90 km west of Thun-
der Bay; and Musselwhite, located on the southern shore of Lake
Opapimiskan, 480 km north of Thunder Bay. Kaolinite, a 1:1 layer
clay mineral, obtained from United Clay Inc., and bentonite
(montmorillonite) from Wyoming were also used in the study.
Mattabi is a closed base metal mine developed through open pit
and underground development. “The Mattabi deposit, a typical
zoned, copper-zinc massive sulfide ore body, is situated conform-
ably in a steeply dipping, moderately metamorphosed, and slightly
deformed Archean felsic volcanic pile. The footwall beneath the
massive zone includes rhyolite agglomerate and poorly sorted lapilli
tuff. Dolomite is a minor constituent of all rock types and forms
approximately 10 percent of the lapilli tuff” (Franklin et al. 1975).
Musselwhite is a gold mine developed dominantly through un-
derground mining procedure. “The stratigraphy in the immediate
mine vicinity is dominated by mafic volcanics, chemical sediments
and felsic volcanics. External to the supracrustal sequences is a series
of undifferentiated gneisses and granitoids. The milling facility uses
two-stage crushing to reduce ore to minus 19 mm and conventional
two-stage rod-ball grinding to further reduce ore to 80% passing 106
microns” (Goldcorp 2011). Shebandowan is a nickel ore mine. “The
orebody is spatially associated with a peridotite lens, a major fault
zone, and the contact between the Shebandowan Lake Stock and
neighbouring metavolcanic rocks. Part of the orebody is a breccia
with fragments of peridotite, metavolcanics, and quartz diorite in
a sulphide matrix” (Morin 1973).
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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453
Physical and Mineralogical Properties of Tailings
A series of laboratory tests was carried out using standard tests to
obtain the basic physical properties of the tailings. The particle size
distributions of the tailings were measured using the standard sieve
and hydrometer analysis. The specific gravity and Atterberg limits
tests were also performed based on ASTM D4318 (Braja 2002). The
most commonly used GeoNor fall cone apparatus, Model G-200,
was used to estimate the liquid and plastic limits (Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute 2005). The mineralogy of the tailings was
characterized using X-ray diffraction analysis.
Description of Cyclic Triaxial Testing Apparatus
The cyclic triaxial testing equipment used in this study was a general-
purpose automated triaxial testing system (Model No. 12492 and
Serial No. 118885-2; Wykeham Farrance, Hertfordshire, U.K.) with
various transducers. There were 10 transducers: WF 17070 dis-
placement transducers (vertical actuator, on specimen radial and two
on specimen axial displacement transducers), pressure transducers
(cell pressure, back pressure, pore and midheight pore water pressure
transducers), a volume change transducer, and a load cell transducer.
The loading system consisted of a load frame and hydraulic actuator
capable of performing stress and strain–controlled triaxial tests with
a frequency between 0.01 and 10 Hz. The frame was large enough for
testing specimens of size between 70 and 100 mm in diameter and 140
and 200 mm in height, with confining stresses up to 2,000 kPa
(Wykeham Farrance 2008).
Cyclic Triaxial Experiments
Specimen Preparation
Air-dried specimens of tailings were prepared using the tamping
procedure of ASTM D5311-92 (ASTM 1996b). The specimens were
70 mm in diameter and 140 mm in height. A thin rubber membrane
(less than 1 mm in thickness) and a porous stone covered with a filter
paper were mounted on the base of the cyclic triaxial apparatus and
supported by a split mold. Predetermined quantities of air-dried
tailings were spread carefully and sequentially in five layers into
the mold. Each layer was densified by tamping with a wooden rod that
had a thick hard rubber membrane at its base. To obtain uniform
density in the entire height of the specimen, the number of regular
hand tamping for the bottom layer was kept to half that of the top layer.
For the intermediate layers, the number of hand tamping varied
linearly between the bottom and top layers. To densify the top layer of
the specimens, a light surcharge was introduced on the top of the
specimens to facilitate the tamping. The top of the specimen was then
covered with filter paper, and a porous stone was placed on top of the
filter paper. Using this technique, the tailings specimens with different
target initial void ratios were prepared.
After the specimens were prepared, a small vacuum pressure
was applied to the specimens to reduce disturbance during the re-
moval of split mold and triaxial cell installation. The specimens were
saturated, consolidated, and cyclically loaded using the built-in
hydraulic actuator system of the cyclic triaxial testing equipment.
Saturation and Consolidation
It is necessary to saturate a specimen before shearing to obtain an
accurate measurement of pore water pressure in the tailings speci-
mens. Saturation is achieved by applying a back pressure sufficient
to dissolve any residual air in the specimen. As a means of main-
taining a small effective confining pressure on the specimen, the
back pressure was simultaneously increased while the cell pressure
was increased. The Advanced Cyclic Triaxial Testing System software
 calculates the degree of saturation by means of Skempton’s B-value,
resulting from an undrained isotropic pressure increment. In the
current study, following ASTM D5311-92, air-dried specimens with
different void ratios were saturated with deaired water by increasing
the back pressure gradually while maintaining the effective con-
fining pressure at 10–15 kPa, which is typically used. This process
was continued until the Skempton’s pore pressure parameter, B-value,
exceeded 0.95.
Following saturation, the specimens must be consolidated to
bring them to a state of effective stress required to carry out a cyclic
shear test [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 1980]. The most
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widely recognized consolidation approach in triaxial testing is to
consolidate the specimens isotropically for horizontal soil deposits
and anisotropically for sloping ground surfaces. The strength ratio
of isotropically and Ko consolidated specimens to similar vertical
effective stress varied between 0.75 and 1.0 (Lambe and Whitman
1969). Campanella and Vaid (1974) analyzed the failure envelopes
for Ko and isotropically consolidated specimens in triaxial cell and
found that the Ko triaxial envelope located slightly lower. The
differences could be in the initial consolidation histories or stress
changes during shear. In the current study, the specimens were
consolidated isotropically because tailings are horizontally depo-
sited in actual field disposal in tailings ponds. The cell pressure for
the specimens was adjusted to be between 100 and 150 kPa, and
a target mean normal effective stress between 50 and 70 kPa was
obtained. Data obtained from this stage were used to determine the
specimen dimensions during the consolidation and at the start of the
cyclic shear test.
Cyclic Triaxial Testing
Stress-controlled cyclic triaxial tests were carried out on isotropi-
cally consolidated tailings specimens under undrained conditions to
investigate the response of mine tailings to cyclic loading as per the
ASTM D5311-92 procedure (ASTM 1996b). Following consoli-
dation, constant cyclic axial stresses of varying magnitudes were
applied to the specimens using the built-in hydraulic actuator. The
frequency of the applied constant cyclic load was 1 Hz with sinu-
soidal wave. The effective confining pressure in all of the tests was
between 50 and 70 kPa. Pore water pressure ratio, double amplitude
Fig. 1. Particle size distributions of the tailings
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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453
axial strain, cell pressure, pore water pressure, and other parame-
ters were monitored using a built-in data acquisition system.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies were carried out to
investigate the role of clay mineral types on the cyclic strength of
mine tailings. Using the same specimen preparation techniques as
those used in the cyclic triaxial experiments, specimens of mine
tailings with different target initial void ratios were prepared, satu-
rated, and consolidated. After consolidation, the specimens were cut
into pieces lengthwise. From these pieces, subspecimens were col-
lected, and SEM studies were conducted. The SEM machine used
in the study was a Hitachi S-4500 field emission SEM with a Quartz
XOne EDX system at Surface Science Western, University of
Western Ontario. High-resolution images of the surface that showed
the microstructure of the mine tailings specimens were produced.
Results and Discussion
Physical and Mineralogical Properties of the Tailings
The particle size distributions of the tailings specimens are shown in
Fig. 1. The figure shows that the percentage of clay-sized particles
(, 2 mm) in the tailings were less than 5% except for Musselwhite–
5% kaolinite and Musselwhite–5% bentonite mixes. Table 1 shows
the basic physical characteristics of the tailings. Mattabi, She-
bandowan, and Musselwhite tailings were dark, brown, and light
brown in color, respectively, and none of them had an odor. As per
the product specification, 95% of the kaolinite and more than 85%
of the Wyoming bentonite were finer than 2 mm.
The results of the X-ray diffraction analysis indicated that the
main components of the Mattabi tailings were feldspar, quartz, py-
rite, pyrrhotite, and the clay minerals illite and chlorite. The major
minerals present in the Shebandowan tailings were quartz, feldspar,
pyrite, pyrrhotite, illite, and chlorite. It was also found that quartz,
feldspar, pyrite, illite, and chlorite were the main minerals present
in Musselwhite tailings. According to the product data provided
by United Clay Inc., the kaolinite added to the tailings contained
 Table 1. Basic Physical Characteristics and Cyclic Strength of Mine Tailings
Percentage of fines Consistency index CSR
Specimen description ,2 mm (%) ,5 mm (%) Gs LL (%) PL (%) PI (%) ec CRR20 CRR10
Mattabi mine tailings (MAT) 0.60 0.441 0.517
0.65 0.345 0.387
0.70 0.312 0.349
2.56 3.20 3.29 20.1 7.5 12.6 0.80 0.250 0.289
0.85 0.195 0.223
0.92 0.141 0.157
Shebandowan East Cell mine 0.70 0.305 0.319
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tailings (SEBEC) 0.75 0.267 0.295

1.29 1.29 3.22 12.0 11.0 1.0 0.80 0.207 0.221
1.00 0.144 0.160
Musselwhite mine tailings (MW) 0.85 0.262 0.303
0.90 0.208 0.226
2.02 5.96 3.32 24.48 20.13 4.3 0.70 0.344 0.389
0.95 0.173 0.196
Musselwhite–5% kaolinite 6.52 0.82 0.170 0.181
mix (MW-5K) 10.40 3.2 20.7 15.2 5.5 0.77 0.186 0.200
Musselwhite–5% bentonite 6.88 0.99 0.158 0.183
mix (MW-5B) 8.00 3.23 29.5 21.3 8.2 0.78 0.274 0.306
Note: Gs 5 specific gravity; PL 5 plastic limit; ec 5 void ratio after consolidation; CRR20 5 CRR that corresponds to 20 cycles required to produce 5% double
amplitude axial strain; CRR10 5 CRR that corresponds to 10 cycles required to produce 5% double amplitude axial strain.

SiO2 ð45:7%Þ, Al2 O3 ð37:4%Þ, Fe2 O3 ð0:80%Þ, Na2 O ð0:05%Þ, sd

and K2 O ð0:33%Þ and had a specific surface of 24:25 m2 =g.
The product data provided by WYO-BEN Inc. also showed
that the bentonite additive was composed of SiO2 ð60:34%Þ,
Al2 O3 ð19:28%Þ, Fe2 O3 ð3:48%Þ, Na2 O ð2:34%Þ, TiO2 ð0:22%Þ,
CaO ð0:38%Þ, MgO ð1:67%Þ, K2 O ð0:10%Þ, H2 O ð7:75%Þ, Loss
On Ignition (4.37%), and others (0.07%) and had a specific surface
of 800 m2 =g.
Stress-Controlled Cyclic Triaxial Test
It is common in cyclic strength studies of soils to express the de-
veloped cyclic shear stress caused by the applied cyclic loading
by plotting the nondimensional cyclic stress ratio (CSR) against
the number of loading cycles (N) to failure. The most commonly
adopted failure criterion for isotropically consolidated specimens is
the CSR that corresponds to the number of loading cycles required to
achieve a 100% pore pressure ratio or 5% double amplitude axial
strain, which is a stage where the gradually developed pore water
pressure reaches the initially applied effective confining stress
(Perlea 2000).
In the current study, for the sake of consistency and within the
limits of the precision of pore pressure transducers under high-
frequency cyclic loading, failure was assumed to occur when
the double amplitude axial strain reached 5%. The tests were
terminated when the pore pressure ratio reached unity, as lique-
faction failure would prevail when the effective stress reached
zero. Typical plots showing the variations of double amplitude
axial strain, pore pressure ratio, total pore water pressure, and
effective stress with the number of loading cycles for She-
bandowan East Cell tailings are presented in Figs. 2(a and b). The
results show that as the number of cycles increases, the excess pore
water pressure increases and, at the initiation of liquefaction,
reaches a value approximately equal to the confining pressure,
a stage at which the effective stress becomes negligible. The
loading cycles corresponding to 5% double amplitude axial strain
were determined from these plots to obtain the corresponding
applied CSR
CSR ¼ (1)
2s9c
where sd 5 cyclic deviator stress (kPa), and s9c 5 effective con-
solidation pressure (kPa).
From laboratory cyclic triaxial tests, Thammathiwat and Chim-oye
(2004) verified that, for a given cyclic shear stress ratio, the variation in
the excess pore water pressure during cyclic loadings shows nearly
similar trends for different effective confining pressure. In the current
study, it was observed that the loading cycle that gave 5% double
amplitude axial strain was comparable to the loading cycle that gave
a pore pressure ratio of unity. Indeed, there were slight variations
between the two; the variations were different for different types of
tailings. As explained by Boulanger and Idriss (2006, 2007), this could
be dependent on the frequency of loading, the plasticity index, and the
type and amount of clay minerals present in the tailings.
Presently, the Youd et al. (2001) procedure is the recommended
approach for the estimation of the cyclic resistance of soils. Ishihara
(1993) specified the cyclic resistance of a given soil from the plot of
CSR versus number of cycles required to produce 5% double
amplitude axial strain (N5% ) as the CSR corresponding to 20 cycles.
In the current study, for comparison purposes, the cyclic resistance
ratios that correspond to 10 cycles (CRR10) and 20 cycles (CRR20)
were determined from the established relationship between CSR and
N5% (Table 2; Fig. 3). Table 2 and Fig. 3 show the cyclic triaxial test
results for Shebandowan East Cell mine tailings and Mattabi tail-
ings, respectively.
There is a general understanding that the simple shear test better
simulates the in situ stress conditions before and during the appli-
cation of cyclic loading. In the current study, cyclic triaxial testing
was used because a simple shear device was not available. Indeed,
a correction to the results of cyclic triaxial tests was applied to
account for the stress path effects based on the relationship [Eq. (2)]
recommended by Idriss and Boulanger (2008)
 
1 þ 2ðKo ÞDSS
CRRDSS ¼ CRRTRX (2)
3

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453

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Fig. 2. (a) Typical variations of double amplitude axial strain and pore pressure ratio with the number of loading cycle for Shebandowan East Cell
tailings specimen (SEBEC-10); (b) typical variations of cell pressure, total pore water pressure, effective stress, and pore pressure ratio with the number
of loading cycle for Shebandowan East Cell tailings specimen (SEBEC-10)

where CRRDSS 5 cyclic resistance ratio obtained using cyclic direct
simple shear device, CRRTRX 5 cyclic resistance ratio obtained
using cyclic triaxial device, and ðKo ÞDSS 5 coefficient of earth
pressure at rest in a cyclic direct simple shear device. For the current
study, as explained in the Specimen Preparation section, the tailings
specimens were normally consolidated. For such normally con-
solidated tailings and natural sediments, the value of ðKo ÞDSS can be
taken between 0.45 and 0.50. Hence, Eq. (2) reduces to
CRRDSS ¼ ð0:63 2 0:67ÞCRRTRX (3)
Evaluation of Liquefaction Susceptibility Using
Available Methods
A number of methods have been developed to determine the liq-
uefaction potential of soil deposits (Seed et al. 1975; Department of
Defense 1997). The most commonly adopted simplified approach is
the method proposed by Seed et al. (1975), which is expressed in
terms of a factor of safety. The factor of safety against liquefaction
for each layer is defined as the ratio of the available cyclic soil
resistance to liquefaction (CRR) and the developed cyclic stresses
required to cause soil liquefaction [CSR; Eq. (4)]. The CRR can
be estimated from the results of in situ standard penetration test
(SPT) or cone penetration test (CPT) tests based on the simplified
procedure of Youd et al. (2001). The CSR generated by the design
cyclic loading (such as earthquake) can be determined from
ground response analysis. For instance, the CSR developed be-
cause of an earthquake in the field (for horizontal soil deposits)
is given by Eq. (5) (Seed and Idriss 1971). For an accurate esti-
mation of the developed CSR, ground response analysis should
be carried out. Ground response analysis helps to determine
the earthquake-induced shear stresses for a given design ground
acceleration (amax )
Fs ¼ CRR (4)
CSR

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453

 Table 2. Cyclic Triaxial Test Results for Shebandowan East Cell Mine Tailings
Cyclic triaxial test results CSR
Specimens description ec CSR NInti (%) N5% (%) ec CRR20 CRR10
SEBEC-06 0.718 0.333 31 16
SEBEC-07 0.707 0.277 25 25 0.7 0.305 0.319
SEBEC-11 0.686 0.214 4,169 4,145
SEBEC-01 0.75 0.305 19 15
SEBEC-03 0.746 0.140 2,081 2,081 0.75 0.267 0.295
SEBEC-04 0.745 0.217 46 40
SEBEC-10 0.733 0.166 485 484
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SEBEC-02 0.8 0.208 59 31

SEBEC-05 0.782 0.231 18 13 0.8 0.207 0.221
SEBEC-08 0.775 0.178 24 24
SEBEC-09 0.799 0.163 323 295
SEBEC-12 1.06 0.113 49 46
SEBEC-13 0.98 0.073 3,257 3,189 1.0 0.144 0.160
SEBEC-14 1.075 0.098 108 108
SEBEC-15 1.007 0.179 11 17
Note: ec 5 void ratio after consolidation; NInti 5 number of loading cycle requited to reach initial liquefaction; N5% 5 number of cycles required to produce 5%
double amplitude axial strain; CRR20 5 CRR that corresponds to 20 cycles required to produce 5% double amplitude axial strain; CRR10 5 CRR that
corresponds to 10 cycles required to produce 5% double amplitude axial strain.

Fig. 3. Variation of CSR versus number of cycles required to produce 5% double amplitude axial strain for Mattabi tailings specimens

amax s0 for the evaluation of the liquefaction potential of fine-grained soils.

CSR ¼ 0:65 rd (5)
g s90
where g 5 acceleration from gravity, amax 5 peak horizontal ac-
celeration expressed (g), s0 5 initial total overburden stress on the
soil layer (kPa), s90 5 initial static effective overburden stress on the
soil layer under consideration (kPa), rd 5 stress reduction factor
varying from a value of 1 at ground surface to a value of 0.9 at a depth
of about 9.15 m (rd 5 1 2 0:015z), and z 5 depth below the ground
surface (Seed and Idriss 1971).
The response of soils to shear and deformation is dependent on
the intensity, duration, and frequency of cyclic loading. It is also
influenced by a number of factors including mineralogy, grain size/
shape, plasticity, particle arrangement (fabric), microstructure,
packing density, initial stress conditions, and age (Prakash and Puri
1982; Sandoval 1989; Guo and Prakash 1999). The current practice
sometimes uses empirical criteria based on only simple soil indexes
Some of the common criteria are the Chinese criterion (Wang 1979),
the modified Chinese criterion (Finn 1991, 1993; Perlea et al. 1999),
and the cyclic mobility criterion (Bray et al. 2004).
Bray et al. (2004) proposed an empirical cyclic mobility criterion
based on their laboratory work and on observations from the Kocaeli
earthquake in Turkey. The criterion states that a soil deposit with
a water content (Wc ) greater than or equal to 85% of the liquid limit
(LL) and plasticity index (PI) less than or equal to 12% is susceptible
to cyclic mobility under the application of cyclic loading. It also
states that a soil deposit is moderately susceptible to cyclic mobility
if the water content to liquid limit ratio ranges between 0.80 and 0.85
(0:80 , Wc =LL , 0:85) and plasticity index is between 12 and 20
(12 , PI , 20).
In the current study, the most widely used cyclic mobility crite-
rion formulated by Bray et al. (2004) was used to evaluate the liq-
uefaction susceptibility of mine tailings. As shown in Fig. 4, the

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453

 results showed that all of the tailings fall in the potentially liquefiable connecting the extreme points of the hysteresis loop is the dynamic
zone, which agreed with the experimental results. However, ex- Young’s modulus E. The axial shear strain, the shear modulus, and
perimental studies for specimens falling on the boundary zone the damping ratio are given by Eqs. (6)–(8)
(i.e., to be tested) should be carried out to provide a conclusive case
for the adaptability of the empirical cyclic mobility criterion pro- g ¼ ð1 þ yÞɛ (6)
posed by Bray et al. (2004).
E
G¼ (7)
Dynamic Shear Modulus of Tailings 2ð1 þ yÞ
When a stress-controlled cyclic triaxial test is performed on a soil
specimen, a typical hysteresis loop as shown in Fig. 5 will develop AL
D¼ (8)
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(ASTM 1996a; Sitharam et al. 2004). The slope of the secant line ð4pAT Þ

Fig. 4. Bray et al. (2004) empirical criteria for liquefaction susceptibility

Fig. 5. Typical hysteresis loop for cyclic triaxial test (after Sitharam et al. 2004)

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453

 where g 5 shear strain, G 5 secant shear modulus, n 5 Poisson’s
ratio, AL 5 area enclosed by the hysteresis loop, and AT 5 area of the
shaded triangle (Fig. 5). For saturated undrained specimens, the
Poisson’s ratio is taken as 0.5 and for dry specimens it is taken as 0.4
(Silver and Park 1975; Rollins et al. 1998). Fig. 6 shows the typical
cyclic initial, intermediate, and final hysteresis loop for Mattabi
tailings specimen 05.
The effect of void ratio on the dynamic properties of saturated
mine tailings was investigated for an effective confining pressure of
50– 70 kPa and at a loading frequency of 1 Hz. The stiffness of the
tailings was degraded because of the increase in pore water pressure
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strain reaches 2% and above for the tested Mattabi mine tailings
specimens), approximately the same values of shear modulus were
obtained irrespective of the initial void ratio of the specimens. From
Fig. 7, it is also observed that Mattabi tailings specimens with lower
void ratio exhibit higher shear modulus for a shear strain range of
1.5% and lower. Fig. 8 shows that the effect of void ratio on damping
ratio is not significant for a shear strain range .2%. Indeed, in the
shear strain range of 0.1–1.5%, the damping ratio increases with an
increase in shear strain; low void ratio specimens exhibit slightly
lower damping ratio.
The shear modulus and damping ratio from the current study have

as the number of loading cycles increased (Fig. 7). It is evident from
Fig. 7 (typical figure for Mattabi tailings specimens) that the dy-
namic shear modulus of the tailings decreases with an increase in
shear strains for the range of shear strain tested (e.g., 0.1–2% for
Mattabi tailings). Eventually, at large shear strain (when the shear
been compared with data from Sithharam et al. (2004) (Figs. 9 and
10). Fig. 9 shows that the shear modulus decreases with increasing
shear strain, showing higher resistance for specimens with higher
relative density. For example, specimens with relative density of 70%
show higher cyclic strength compared with Mattabi specimens having

Fig. 6. Typical hysteresis loop for cyclic triaxial test for Mattabi tailings specimen (MAT-05)

Fig. 7. Dynamic secant shear modulus versus shear strain for two typical specimens of Mattabi tailings

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453

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Fig. 8. Damping ratio versus shear strain for three typical specimens of Mattabi tailings

Fig. 9. Dynamic secant shear modulus versus shear strain for two typical specimens of Mattabi tailings and published data

void ratios of 0.647 and 0.857. Fig. 10 exhibits that the damping ratio
decreases with decreasing shear strain for both Sithharam et al. (2004)
and Mattabi specimens data. It is also observed that at low shear strain
level (,0:3%), the damping ratio is significantly lower for Mattabi
tailings specimens compared with the data of Sithharam et al. (2004).
In general, the observed variation in the shear modulus and damping
ratio between the current study and the published data by Sithharam
et al. (2004) could be because of the variation in the frequency of
cyclic loading, grain size and shape, particle arrangement, micro-
structure, and packing density.
Role of Clay Mineral Types on the Cyclic Strength of
Mine Tailings
In the current study, as shown in Fig. 11, introducing 15% (by
weight) of bentonite clay to Musselwhite tailings typically led to an
increase in the cyclic shear strength of the tailings. For a similar void
ratio and effective confining stress, the tailings-bentonite mix
showed higher resistance to cyclic loading than the tailings-kaolinite
mix for the same proportion of tailings and clay minerals (Fig. 12;
Table 1).
Cyclic triaxial tests on 85% Musselwhite tailings and 15% ben-
tonite mix showed that excess pore water pressure was not developed,
although the double amplitude axial strain was much more than 5%
for different void ratios. A typical result for this investigation is shown
in Fig. 11. This is because of the fact that, at this clay mineral content
(that is, 15% bentonite or montmorillonite), Musselwhite tailings have
developed cohesive structure. The nature of the developed cohesive
structure of the tailings could be seen in the SEM photomicrographs
for Musselwhite tailings (Fig. 13) with Musselwhite and 15% ben-
tonite mix (Fig. 14). The bentonite amended tailings show cohesive
structure in which particles are cemented together.

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Fig. 10. Damping ratio versus shear strain for three typical specimens of Mattabi tailings and published data

Fig. 11. Typical variations of cell pressure, total pore water pressure, pore pressure ratio, and effective stress with the number of loading cycle for
Musselwhite tailings and 15% Bentonite mix (MW-15B-03)

The introduction of 5% kaolinite clay to Musselwhite tailings
slightly increased the total clay size content of the mix to approxi-
mately 6.52% but significantly reduced the cyclic resistance of the
tailings (Table 1). This is because of the fact that the introduced 5%
kaolinite clay did not result in the development of a cohesive
structure in the tailings but instead produced weak partial cemen-
tation of the tailings particles at their joints (through aggregation of
the introduced clay). This resulted in a significant increase in pore
water pressure at a lower number of loading cycles when a cyclic
load was applied. The developed partial cementation by the ag-
gregated clay at the joints of the tailings particles were observed as
shown in the SEM results of Musselwhite and 5% kaolinite mix
(Fig. 15). The aggregated clays at the joints of the tailings particles
can easily be identified by comparing Fig. 13 SEM results of
Musselwhite tailings with Fig. 15 SEM results of Musselwhite
tailings with 5% kaolinite mix.
When 5% Wyoming bentonite (i.e., montmorillonite clay) clay
was added to Musselwhite tailings, the total clay size content of the
mix increased to 6.88%, and the cyclic resistance of the tailings
decreased slightly as shown in Table 1. As explained in the case of
Musselwhite–5% kaolinite mix, this mix (Musselwhite and 5%
bentonite mix) also did not develop a cohesive structure, but instead,
the tailings particles were partially cemented at their joints as shown
in the SEM photomicrographs in Fig. 16. In this microfabric, the clay
particles show a tendency of aggregation at the surface and contact
points (joints) of the sand-sized tailings particles, resulting in sig-
nificant pore spaces (Fig. 16). Such low strength contact joints can
easily be destroyed during cyclic loading and trigger liquefaction.

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 0.50
0.45
0.40
Cyclic Strength Ratio (CRR)
0.35
0.30
0.25
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0.20
0.15
0.10
0.6
Fig. 12. Variation of void ratio (e) versus cyclic resistance ratio (CRR10, CRR20) for Musselwhite tailings specimens
Fig. 13. Microfabric of Musselwhite tailings: SEM, magnification
3500
The rate of reduction in the cyclic resistance of the Musselwhite–5%
bentonite mix was much lower than that of the Musselwhite–5%
kaolinite mix. This difference is because of the fact that montmo-
rillonite (i.e., Wyoming bentonite) has a large surface area to weight
ratio (approximately 800 m2 =g in a dispersed state) compared with
kaolinite (which is about 15 m2 =g) (Mitchell and Soga 2005).
Bentonite has a high liquid limit of 500% or higher, which imparts
high plasticity and provides a better resistance to liquefaction
(Mitchell and Soga 2005). These results are consistent with those of
Beroya et al. (2009), who showed that silt-montmorillonite mixtures
had a higher cyclic strength than silt-illite mixtures and much higher
strength than that of silt-kaolinite mixtures containing the same
amount of clay mineral. Beroya et al. (2009) attributed the differ-
ences in cyclic strength to the differing adhesive bond strength each
clay mineral developed with the silt particles. In general, the results
from the current study and those published by other researchers show
that the resistance of mine tailings for cyclic loading varies with the
type of dominant clay mineral present in the tailings. The particle
MW-5K-CRR20 MW-5K-CRR10
MW-CRR20 MW-CRR10
MW-5B-CRR20 MW-5B-CRR10
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Void ratio (e)
Fig. 14. Microfabric of Musselwhite tailings and 15% bentonite mix:
SEM, magnification 315,000
size distribution of the Musselwhite tailings consisted of 52%
silt, 45% sand, and 3% clay. Thus, the sandy silt tailings behaved
similarly to natural silt in terms of cyclic resistance and bonding with
clay minerals. These findings have important implications in the
management of Mattabi and Musselwhite tailings. The results
suggest that the two tailings (silty sand and sandy silt, respectively)
are potential liquefiable, but the liquefaction resistance can be can be
improved by the addition of plastic clay (up to 15% bentonite by
weight).
Summary and Conclusions
In the current study, a series of stress-controlled isotropic and un-
drained cyclic triaxial tests were carried out on mine tailings to
examine their dynamic properties and the influence of clay mineral
types on their cyclic strength. In addition, SEM studies and standard
laboratory experimental testing were carried out. On the basis of the
results of the study, the following conclusions are drawn:
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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453

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Fig. 15. Microfabric of Musselwhite tailings and 5% kaolinite mix:
SEM, magnification 315,000
Pore space
Sand-sized
tailings particle
covered with clay
Aggregated clay at
the contact points
Fig. 16. Microfabric of Musselwhite tailings and 5% bentonite mix:
SEM, magnification 315,000
• The dynamic shear modulus decreased, whereas the damping
ratio increased, with increasing number of loading cycles and
cyclic stress ratio, which could be attributed to the apparent
characteristics of the stress-strain relationship.
• The effect of void ratio on shear modulus was significant in the
small strain range (0.1–1.5%), and thereafter, the effect was not
significant. Specimens with higher initial void ratio showed
lower shear modulus. Eventually the shear modulus became
more or less the same at higher strain values (approximately
.2% shear strain level), irrespective of their initial density.
• Musselwhite tailings and 15% bentonite (montmorillonite clay)
mixture behaved differently from other tailings (i.e., sand and/or
silt-like tailings used in the study) with respect to the develop-
ment and buildup of pore water pressure and deformations under
the applied cyclic loading. Similar behavior has been reported by
other investigators during laboratory cyclic triaxial tests on soil
specimens with similar plasticity (Guo and Prakash 1999;
Vucetic and Dobry 1991).
452 / INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMECHANICS © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2013
Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(4): 441-453
• Mine tailings susceptible to liquefaction tended to have an open
microfabric where clay aggregates at the sand-sized tailings
particle contact points served as low strength joints. The micro-
fabric of tailings that were resistant to liquefaction appeared to be
compact, with the clay producing a matrix that prevented sand-
sized tailings from liquefying.
• The resistance of mine tailings to cyclic loading varied with the
type of dominant clay mineral present in the tailings; mine
tailings containing 15% bentonite (montmorillonite clay) pro-
duced higher resistance to cyclic loading than tailings-kaolinite
clay mixes.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this paper was supported with funding from
the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC) under an Individual Discovery Grant awarded to Dr. E. K.
Yanful.
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