Aero Dynamic Wind Ventilator With Reverse Charge

Protection For Rural Power Generation Applications

 INDEX

Technical Specifications

Project Block Diagram

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Embedded System
1.2 History and Future
1.3 Time Systems
1.4 Application Areas
1.5 Overview of Embedded System Architecture
1.6 Conclusions
CHAPTER 2: BLOCK DESCRIPTION
2.1 Power Supply

2.2 Aero dynamic wind blade

2.3 DC Motor

2.4 Ripple Nutrilizer

 2.5 Rechargeable Batteries

2.6 Inverter

2.7 Switches

2.8 LCD :( 16 * 2 ALPHANUMERIC)

2.9 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC):

CHAPTER 3: ATMEGA 328CONTROLLER

3.1 Features of ATMEGA 328Controller

3.2 Description
3.3 Pin Description
3.4 Machine Cycle
3.5 ALE/PROG
3.6 PSEN
3.7 EA
3.8 Ports
3.9 Data Memory

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE TOOLS

4.1 Keil Software

4.2 Steps To Write Programming
4.3 Proload
ADVANTAGES
APPLICATIONS
CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

1.1 Embedded System Architecture

1.1 General Diagram of Embedded System

2.1 Power supply

2.2 Transformer

2.3 Rectifier

2.4 Bridge rectifier

2.5 Capacitor Filter

2.6 voltage regulator

2.7 Aero Wind Blade

2.8 Angle of attack of wind

2.9 angle of wind blow

2.10 contact of wind on wind ventilator

2.11 Blade Twist on Wind Ventilator

2.12 Plane Shape of Blade

2.13 Rotational Speed

2.14 DC Motor

2.15 Simple 2-pole dc electric motor

2.16 rotation of rotor in dc motor

2.17 Placing of Commutator in DC Motor

2.18 courtesy of Micromole

2.19 Time domine ripple

2.20 Ripple wave form

2.21 Ripple on a fifth order prototype Chebyshev filter

2.22 Rechargeable Batteries

2.23 charging of a secondary cell battery.

2.24 Battery charger

2.25 A solar-powered charger for rechargeable batteries

2.26 Inverter

2.27 Inverter snap

2.28 H-bridge inverter circuit

2.29 3-phase inverter

2.30 3-phase inverter waveform

2.31 12-pulse line-commutated inverter circuit

2.32 Switches

2.33 LCD

2.34 Pin diagram of ADC0808

3.1 Pin diagram

3.2 Architecture

3.3 Oscillator Connections

3.4 External Clock Drive Configuration

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Title of the project : Aero Dyanamic Wind Ventilator With Reverse

Charge Protection For Rural Power Generation
Applications With Battery voltage Using ATMEGA
328MCU.

Domain : Renewable Energy Management, Energy systems,

Embedded Systems

Software : Embedded C, Keil, Proload

Power Supply : 5V, 750mA Regulated Power Supply

Lead Acid Battery : 12V,1.3Ah

Source : Aero dynamic Wind blades

Inverter : 12V (Input)/230V(Output)

DC Motor : 4 Motors (3Volts)

Controller : AT89S52

Display : LCD

ADC0808 : 1
Crystal : 11.0592MHz

Applications : Wind ventilators, Industries etc.,

ABSTRACT
ABSTRACT:

Energy is a major input for overall socio-economic development of any society. Wind
energy is the fastest growing renewable energy. From centuries man has been trying to
convert wind power to mechanical &, more recently, electric power. Wind technology
has improved significantly over the past two decades, and wind energy has become
increasingly competitive with other power generation options. Wind power has negligible
fuel costs.

A key challenge for wind energy is that electricity production depends on when winds
blow rather than when consumers need power. The amount of electricity generated from
wind has been growing rapidly in recent years. The power in the wind can be computed
by using the concepts of kinetics. The wind ventilator works on the principle of
converting kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical energy. The power available in the
wind increases rapidly with the speed hence wind energy conversion machines should be
located preferable in areas where the winds are strong & persistent.

This project is designed by using an aero dynamic wind blade arrangement which is
connected to the shaft of the dc geared motor such that its output is given to the Reverse
polarity preventer cum polarity corrector. Use of embedded technology makes this
system efficient and reliable. Micro controller (AT89S52) allows dynamic and faster
control. Liquid crystal display (LCD) makes the system user-friendly to get the voltage .
ATMEGA 328micro controller is the heart of the circuit as it controls all the functions.

Depending upon the movement of the wind blade (clock wise / anti clock wise) the
polarity can be corrected automatically which is given as an input supply to the 12V DC
rechargeable battery. The o/p of this lead acid battery is given as input to the inverter
which drives the AC loads. The battery is connected to the inverter. This inverter is used
to convert the 12 Volt D.C to the 230 Volt A.C. This 230 Volt A.C voltage is used to
activate the loads. Here we are also using Conventional Battery Charger Unit to recharge
the battery.

The output of wind turbine is given to 12V 1.3 Amp-Hour Lead-acid Battery. The battery
is connected to the inverter which is used to convert the D.C 12 Volt to the 230 Volt A.C.
By increasing the capacity of battery and inverter circuit, the power rating is increased.

This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify
the ac out put of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.
Introduction to embedded systems
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and

perhaps additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. A
good example is the microwave oven. Almost every household has one, and tens of
ventilatorions of them are used everyday, but very few people realize that a processor and
software are involved in the preparation of their lunch or dinner.

This is in direct contrast to the personal computer in the family room. It too is
comprised of computer hardware and software and mechanical components (disk drives,
for example). However, a personal computer is not designed to perform a specific
function rather; it is able to do many different things. Many people use the term general-
purpose computer to make this distinction clear. As shipped, a general-purpose computer
is a blank slate; the manufacturer does not know what the customer will do wish it. One
customer may use it for a network file server another may use it exclusively for playing
games, and a third may use it to write the next great American novel.
 Frequently, an embedded system is a component within some larger system. For
example, modern cars and trucks contain many embedded systems. One embedded
system controls the anti-lock brakes, other monitors and controls the vehicle's emissions,
and a third displays information on the dashboard. In some cases, these embedded
systems are connected by some sort of a communication network, but that is certainly not
a requirement.

At the possible risk of confusing you, it is important to point out that a general-
purpose computer is itself made up of numerous embedded systems. For example, my
computer consists of a keyboard, mouse, video card, modem, hard drive, floppy drive,
and sound card-each of

Which is an embedded system. Each of these devices contains a processor and software
and is designed to perform a specific function. For example, the modem is designed to
send and receive digital data over analog telephone line. That's it and all of the other
devices can be summarized in a single sentence as well.

If an embedded system is designed well, the existence of the processor and software
could be completely unnoticed by the user of the device. Such is the case for a
microwave oven, VCR, or alarm clock. In some cases, it would even be possible to build
an equivalent device that does not contain the processor and software. This could be done
by replacing the combination with a custom integrated circuit that performs the same
functions in hardware. However, a lot of flexibility is lost when a design is hard-cooled in
this way. It is mush easier, and cheaper, to change a few lines of software than to
redesign a piece of custom hardware.

1.2 History and Future:

Given the definition of embedded systems earlier is this chapter; the first such
systems could not possibly have appeared before 1971. That was the year Intel introduced
the world's first microprocessor. This chip, the 4004, was designed for use in a line of
business calculators produced by the Japanese Company Busicom. In 1969, Busicom
asked Intel to design a set of custom integrated circuits-one for each of their new
calculator models. The 4004 was Intel's response rather than design custom hardware for
each calculator, Intel proposed a general-purpose circuit that could be used throughout
the entire line of calculators. Intel's idea was that the software would give each calculator
its unique set of features.

The controller was an overnight success, and its use increased steadily over the
next decade. Early embedded applications included unmanned space probes,
computerized traffic lights, and aircraft flight control systems. In the 1980s, embedded
systems quietly rode the waves of the microcomputer age and brought microprocessors
into every part of our kitchens (bread machines, food processors, and microwave ovens),
living rooms (televisions, stereos, and remote controls), and workplaces (fax machines,
pagers, laser printers, cash registers, and credit card readers).

It seems inevitable hat the number of embedded systems will continue to increase
rapidly. Already there are promising new embedded devices that have enormous market
potential; light switches and thermostats that can be central computer, intelligent air-bag
systems that don't inflate when children or small adults are present, pal-sized electronic
organizers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), digital cameras, and dashboard
navigation systems. Clearly, individuals who possess the skills and desire to design the
next generation of embedded systems will be in demand for quite some time.

1.3 Real Time Systems:

One subclass of embedded is worthy of an introduction at this point. As

commonly defined, a real-time system is a computer system that has timing constraints.
In other words, a real-time system is partly specified in terms of its ability to make
certain calculations or decisions in a timely manner. These important calculations are said
to have deadlines for completion. And, for all practical purposes, a missed deadline is just
as bad as a wrong answer.

The issue of what if a deadline is missed is a crucial one. For example, if the real-
time system is part of an airplane's flight control system, it is possible for the lives of the
passengers and crew to be endangered by a single missed deadline. However, if instead
the system is involved in satellite communication, the damage could be limited to a single
corrupt data packet. The more severe the consequences, the more likely it will be said
that the deadline is "hard" and thus, the system is a hard real-time system. Real-time
systems at the other end of this discussion are said to have "soft" deadlines.

All of the topics and examples presented in this book are applicable to the
designers of real-time system who is more delight in his work. He must guarantee reliable
operation of the software and hardware under all the possible conditions and to the degree
that human lives depend upon three system's proper execution, engineering calculations
and descriptive paperwork.

1.4 Application Areas:

Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems.

The embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are
used in very market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial
automation, biomedical engineering, wireless communication, data communication,
telecommunications, transportation, military and so on.

Consumer appliances:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera,

digital diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and
air-conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-
tech car has about 20 embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control,
air-conditioning, navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming embedded
systems. The palmtops are powerful embedded systems using which we can carry out
many general-purpose tasks such as playing games and word processing.

Office automation:
 The office automation products using embedded systems are copying machine,
fax machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.

Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control. These include
pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity generation and
transmission. The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry out specific
tasks such as monitoring the temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc., and
then take appropriate action based on the monitored levels to control other devices or to
send information to a centralized monitoring station. In hazardous industrial environment,
where human presence has to be avoided, robots are used, which are programmed to do
specific jobs. The robots are now becoming very powerful and carry out many interesting
and complicated tasks such as hardware assembly.

Medical electronics:

Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system. These

equipments include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring
devices, X-ray scanners; equipment used in blood analysis, radiation, colonoscopy,
endoscopy etc. Developments in medical electronics have paved way for more accurate
diagnosis of diseases.

Computer networking:

Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated Services

Digital Networks (ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay
switches are embedded systems which implement the necessary data communication
protocols. For example, a router interconnects two networks. The two networks may be
running different protocol stacks. The router’s function is to obtain the data packets from
incoming pores, analyze the packets and send them towards the destination after doing
necessary protocol conversion. Most networking equipments, other than the end systems
(desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are embedded systems

Telecommunications:
 In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized as
subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key
telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The
network equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers
Dissemblers (PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are
the latest embedded systems that provide very low-cost voice communication over the
Internet.

Wireless technologies:

Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many interesting

applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the last
decade of the 20’h century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides voice
communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the
palmtops can now be used to access multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile
communication infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching centers
are also powerful embedded systems.

Insemination:

Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific and
engineering activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure
parameters such as weight, temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all
embedded systems. Test equipment such as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic
analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio communication test set etc. are embedded systems built
around powerful processors. Thank to miniaturization, the test and measuring equipment
are now becoming portable facilitating easy testing and measurement in the field by
field-personnel.

Security:
 Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to
protect our homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store.
Developing embedded systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative
businesses nowadays. Security devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication
and verification are embedded systems. Encryption devices are nearly 99 per cent of the
processors that are manufactured end up in~ embedded systems. Embedded systems find
applications in every industrial segment-consumer electronics, transportation, avionics,
biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and industrial automation, data
communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc., used to encrypt the data/voice
being transmitted on communication links such as telephone lines. Biometric systems
using fingerprint and face recognition are now being extensively used for user
authentication in banking applications as well as for access control in high security
buildings.

Finance:

Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for
transactions using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as
Any Time Money) machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-
controller and memory; and it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and
acts as an electronic wallet. Smart card technology has the capability of ushering in a
cashless society. Well, the list goes on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes wherever
you go, you can see, or at least feel, the work of an embedded system!

1.5 Overview of Embedded System Architecture:

 Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central
Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the
software is loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called the
‘firmware’. The embedded system architecture can be represented as a layered
architecture as shown in Fig.

FIG 1.1: Embedded System Architecture

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs
above the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer
including a desktop computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not
compulsory to have an operating system in every embedded system. For small appliances
such as remote control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating
system and you can write only the software specific to that application. For applications
involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating system. In such a case,
you need to integrate the application software with the operating system and then transfer
the entire software on to the memory chip. Once the software is transferred to the
memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long time you don’t need to reload
new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an
embedded system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are:
· Central Processing Unit (CPU)

· Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)

· Input Devices

· Output devices

· Communication interfaces

· Application-specific circuitry

Fig 1.2: General Diagram of Embedded System

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
controller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a
low-cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other
components such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter
etc. So, for small applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of
external components required will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are
more powerful, but you need to use many external components with them. D5P is used
mainly for applications in which signal processing is involved such as audio and video
processing.

Memory:
 The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the
chip, whereas ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the
firmware is stored in the ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the
ROM; the program is program is executed.

Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the
embedded system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you
press one key to give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits.
Many embedded systems used in process control do not have any input device for user
interaction; they take inputs from sensors or transducers 1’fnd produce electrical signals
that are in turn fed to other systems.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability.
Some embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the
health status of the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) may also be used to display some important parameters.

Communication interfaces:

The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at
they may have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are
provided with one or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485,
Universal Serial Bus (USB), IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc.

Application-specific circuitry:
 Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat
an embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the
processor to carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power
supply either through the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to
design in such a way that the power consumption is minimized.

1.6 Conclusions:

Embedded Systems plays a vital role in our day today life. They are used for
household appliances like microwave oven to the satellite applications. They provide
good man to machine interface.

Automation is the further step in the world of Embedded Systems, which includes
the elimination of the human being in the mundane applications. They are cost effective,
accurate and can work in any conditions and round the clock.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block Diagram: Power

Supply Unit

Contrast
Aero dynamic
wind blade
arrangement
16X2 LCD

Geared DC
AT 328
motor

AC ripple
neutralizer

Power Supply Unit:

Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Current Voltage ADC AC 230V
Controller Sampler
Load

Rechargeable ON/ OFF

Battery control
Inverter switch
 BLOCK DIAGRAM DISCRIPTION

CHAPTER 2

BLOCK DESCRIPTION

2.1 POWER SUPPLY:

230V AC
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,
50Hz D.C
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a
Output
rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to
get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any
a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage
regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.

Step down Bridge

FILTER Regulator
transformer Rectifier
 H
Transformer:
Fig 2.1: Power supply
F
Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and
these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus
the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the
required voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is
employed to decrease the voltage to a required level.
 Fig 2.2: Transformer
Rectifier:
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into
pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a
bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

Fig 2.3: Rectifier

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using

both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure.
The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to
the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the
other two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in
series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series
with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction
as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional
wave.

Fig 2.4: Bridge rectifier

Filter:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the
mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied,
D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output
stage.
 Fig 2.5: Capacitor Filter
Voltage regulator:
As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator
is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In
this project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage
levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents
positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels. The
L78xx series of three-terminal positive regulators is available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-
3, D2PAK and DPAK packages and several fixed output voltages, making it useful in a
wide range of applications. These regulators can provide local on-card regulation,
eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. Each type
employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1 A
output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can
be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.
 Fig 2.6: voltage regulator

2.2 Aero dynamic wind blade:

Wind turbine blades are shaped to generate the maximum power from the
wind at the minimum cost. Primarily the design is driven by the aerodynamic
requirements, but economics mean that the blade shape is a compromise to keep the cost
of construction reasonable. In particular, the blade tends to be thicker than the
aerodynamic optimum close to the root, where the stresses due to bending are greatest.
The blade design process starts with a “best guess” compromise between aerodynamic
and structural efficiency. The choice of materials and manufacturing process will also
have an influence on how thin (hence aerodynamically ideal) the blade can be built. For
instance, prepreg carbon fibre is stiffer and stronger than infused glass fibre. The chosen
aerodynamic shape gives rise to loads, which are fed into the structural design. Problems
identified at this stage can then be used to modify the shape if necessary and recalculate
the aerodynamic performance.

Fig 2.7: Aero Wind Blade

The Wind

It might seem obvious, but an understanding of the wind is fundamental to

wind turbine design. The power available from the wind varies as the cube of the wind
speed, so twice the wind speed means eight times the power. This is why sites have to be
selected carefully: below about 5m/s (0mph) wind speed there is not sufficient power in
the wind to be useful. Conversely, strong gusts provide extremely high levels of power,
but it is not economically viable to build machines to be able to make the most of the
power peaks as their capacity would be wasted most of the time. So the ideal is a site
with steady winds and a machine that is able to make the most of the lighter winds whilst
surviving the strongest gusts.

As well as varying day-to-day, the wind varies every second due to

turbulence caused by land features, thermals and weather. It also blows more strongly
higher above the ground than closer to it, due to surface friction. All these effects lead to
varying loads on the blades of a turbine as they rotate, and mean that the aerodynamic
and structural design needs to cope with conditions that are rarely optimal. By extracting
power, the turbine itself has an effect on the wind: downwind of the turbine the air moves
more slowly than upwind.

The wind starts to slow down even before it reaches the blades, reducing
the wind speed through the “disc” (the imaginary circle formed by the blade tips, also
called the swept area) and hence reducing the available power. Some of the wind that
was heading for the disc diverts around the slower-moving air and misses the blades
entirely. So there is an optimum amount of power to extract from a given disc diameter:
try to take too much and the wind will slow down too much, reducing the available
power. In fact the ideal is to reduce the wind speed by about two thirds downwind of the
turbine, though even then the wind just before the turbine will have lost about a third of
its speed. This allows a theoretical maximum of 59% of the wind’s power to be captured
(this is called Betz’s limit). In practice only 40-50% is achieved by current designs.

Number of blades
 The limitation on the available power in the wind means that the more blades
there are the less power each can extract. A consequence of this is that each blade must
also be narrower to maintain aerodynamic efficiency. The total blade area as a fraction of
the total swept disc area is called the solidity, and aerodynamically there is an optimum
solidity for a given tip speed; the higher the number of blades, the narrower each one
must be. In practice the optimum solidity is low (only a few percent) which means that
even with only three blades, each one must be very narrow. To slip through the air easily
the blades must be thin relative to their width, so the limited solidity also limits the
thickness of the blades. Furthermore, it becomes difficult to build the blades strong
enough if they are too thin or the cost per blade increases significantly as more expensive
materials are required. For this reason, most large machines do not have more than three
blades. The other factor influencing the number of blades is aesthetics: it is generally
accepted that three-bladed turbines are less visually disturbing than one- or two-bladed
designs.

How blades capture wind power

Just like an aeroplane wing, wind turbine blades work by generating lift due
to their shape. The more curved side generates low air pressures while high pressure air
pushes on the other side of the aerofoil. The net result is a lift force perpendicular to the
direction of flow of the air.

The lift force increases as the blade is turned to present itself at a greater
angle to the wind. This is called the angle of attack. At very large angles of attack the
blade “stalls” and the lift decreases again. So there is an optimum angle of attack to
generate the maximum l if .Lift & drag vectors. There is, unfortunately, also a retarding
force on the blade: the drag. This is the force parallel to the wind flow, and also increases
with angle of attack. If the aerofoil shape is good, the lift force is much bigger than the
drag, but at very high angles of attack, especially when the blade stalls, the drag increases
dramatically. So at an angle slightly less than the maximum lift angle, the blade reaches
its maximum lift/drag ratio. The best operating point will be between these two angles.
Since the drag is in the downwind direction, it may seem that it wouldn’t matter for a
wind turbine as the drag would be parallel to the turbine axis, so wouldn’t slow the rotor
down. It would just create “thrust”, the force that acts parallel to the turbine axis hence
has no tendency to speed up or slow down the rotor. When the rotor is stationary (e.g.
just before start-up), this is indeed the case. However the blade’s own movement through
the air means that, as far as the blade is concerned, the wind is blowing from a different
angle. This is called apparent wind. The apparent wind is stronger than the true wind but
its angle is less it rotates the angles of the lift and drag to reduce the effect of lift force
pulling the blade round and increase the effect of drag slowing it down. It also means that
the lift force contributes to the thrust on the rotor. The result of this is that, to maintain a
good angle of attack, the blade must be turned further from the true wind angle.

Fig 2.8: Angle of attack of wind

 Fig 2.9: angle of wind blow

Fig 2.10: contact of wind on wind ventilator

Apparent wind angles

 The closer to the tip of the blade you get, the faster the blade is moving
through the air and so the greater the apparent wind angle is. Thus the blade needs to be
turned further at the tips than at the root, in other words it must be built with a twist along
its length. Typically the twist is around 0-20° from root to tip. The requirement to twist
the blade has implications on the ease of manufacture.

Blade section shape

Apart from the twist, wind turbine blades have similar requirements to
aeroplane wings, so their cross-sections are usually based on a similar family of shapes.
In general the best lift/drag characteristics are obtained by an aerofoil that is fairly thin:
its thickness might be only 0-5% of its “chord” length (the length across the blade, in the
direction of the wind flow).

Blade twist

If there were no structural requirements, this is how a wind turbine blade

would be proportioned, but of course the blade needs to support the lift, drag and
gravitational forces acting on it. These structural requirements generally mean the
aerofoil needs to be thicker than the aerodynamic optimum, especially at locations
towards the root (where the blade attaches to the hub) where the bending forces are
greatest. Fortunately that is also where the apparent wind is moving more slowly and the
blade has the least leverage over the hub, so some aerodynamic inefficiency at that point
is less serious than it would be closer to the tip. Having said this, the section can’t get too
thick for its chord length or the air flow will “separate” from the back of the blade similar
to what happens when it stalls – and the drag will increase dramatically.
 Fig 2.11: Blade Twist on Wind Ventilator

To increase thickness near the root without creating a very short, fat,
aerofoil section, some designs use a “flat back” section. This is either a standard section
thickened up to a square trailing (back) edge, or a longer aerofoil shape that has been
truncated. This reduces the drag compared to a rounder section, but can generate more
noise so its suitability depends on the wind farm site. There is a trade-off to be made
between aerodynamic efficiency and structural efficiency even if a thin blade can be
made strong and stiff enough by using lots of reinforcement inside, it might still be better
to make the blade a bit thicker (hence less aerodynamically efficient) if it saves so much
cost of material that the overall cost of electricity is reduced. The wind is free after all;
it’s only the machine that we have to pay for. So there is inevitably some iteration in the
design process to find the optimum thickness for the blade.

Blade platform shape

The platform shape is chosen to give the blade an approximately constant

slowing effect on the wind over the whole rotor disc (i.e. the tip slows the wind to the
same degree as the centre or root of the blade). This ensures that none of the air leaves
the turbine too slowly (causing turbulence), yet none is allowed to pass through too fast
(which would represent wasted energy). Remembering Betz’s limit discussed above, this
results in the maximum power extraction. Because the tip of the blade is moving faster
than the root, it passes through more volume of air, hence must generate a greater lift
force to slow that air down enough. Fortunately, lift increases with the square of speed so
its greater speed more than allows for that. In reality the blade can be narrower close to
the tip than near the root and still generate enough lift. The optimum tapering of the
blade platforms as it goes outboard can be calculated; roughly speaking the chord should
be inverse to the radius. So if the chord was 2m at 10m radius, it should be 10m at 1m
radius. This relationship breaks down close to the root and tip, where the optimum shape
changes to account for tip losses. In reality a fairly linear taper is sufficiently close to the
optimum for most designs, structurally superior and easier to build than the optimum
shape.

Fig 2.12: Plane Shape of Blade

Rotational speed
 The speed at which the turbine rotates is a fundamental choice in the
design, and is defined in terms of the speed of the blade tips relative to the “free” wind
speed (i.e. Before the wind is slowed down by the turbine). This is called the tip speed
ratio. High tip speed ratio means the aerodynamic force on the blades (due to lift and
drag) is almost parallel to the rotor axis, so relies on a good lift/drag ratio. The lift/drag
ratio can be affected severely by dirt or roughness on the blades. Low tip speed ratio
would seem like a better choice but unfortunately results in lower aerodynamic
efficiency, due to two effects. Because the lift force on the blades generates torque, it has
an equal but opposite effect on the wind, tending to push it around tangentially in the
other direction. The result is that the air downwind of the turbine has “swirl”, i.e. it spins
in the opposite direction to the blades. That swirl represents lost power so reduces the
available power that can be extracted from the wind. Lower rotational speed requires
higher torque for the same power output, so lower tip speed results in higher wake swirl
losses.

Fig 2.13: Rotational Speed

The other reduction in efficiency at low tip speed ratio comes from tip losses, where
high-pressure air from the upwind side of the blade escapes around the blade tip to the
low pressure side, thereby wasting energy. Since power = force x speed, at slower
rotational speed the blades need to generate more lift force to achieve the same power.
To generate more lift for a given length the blade has to be wider, which means that,
geometrically speaking, a greater proportion of the blade’s length can be considered to be
close to the tip. Thus more of the air contributes to tip losses and the efficiency
decreases. Various techniques can be used to limit tip losses such as winglets (commonly
seen on airliners) but few are employed in practice owing to their additional cost. The
higher lift force on a wider blade also translates to higher loads on the other components
such as the hub and bearings, so low tip speed ratio will increase the cost of these items.
On the other hand the wide blade is better able to carry the lift force (as discussed
previously), so the blade itself may be cheaper. All this means that turbine designers
typically compromise on tip speed ratios in the region of -0, so at design wind speed
(usually 2-5 meters per second) the blade tip can be moving at around 20 m/s
(approximately 20 miles per hour). There are practical limits on the absolute tip speed
too: at these speeds, bird impacts and rain erosion start to become a problem for the
longevity of the blades and noise increases dramatically with tip speed.

Power and pitch control

For an economical design, the maximum performance of the generator and

gearbox need to be limited to an appropriate level for the turbines operating environment.
The ideal situation is for the turbine to be able to extract as much power as possible from
the wind up to the rated power of the generator, then limit the power extraction at that
level as the wind increases further. Turbine Power Curve WE Handbook- 2-
Aerodynamics and Loads 9 If the blades’ angle is kept constant, the turbine is unable to
respond to changes in wind speed. Not only does this make it impossible to maintain an
optimum angle of attack to generate the maximum power at varying wind speeds, the
only way to “depower” the machine in high wind speeds is by relying on the blades to
stall (known as passive stall control). This doesn’t give the perfectly flat power curve
above the rated wind speed shown in the graph above, so to limit the maximum power, a
passive stall-controlled turbine will usually be operating somewhat below its maximum
potential. If instead the blades are attached via a bearing that allows the angle of attack to
be varied (active pitch control), the blades can be angled to maintain optimum efficiency
right up to the design wind speed (at which the generator is producing itsratedoutput).
Above that wind speed they can be “feathered”, i.e. rotated in pitch to decrease their
angle of attack and hence their lift, so controlling the power. In survival conditions, the
turbine can be stopped altogether and the blades feathered to produce no turning force at
all.

An alternative to decreasing the angle of attack above the design wind speed is
deliberately to increase it to the point where the blade stalls (active stall control). This
decreases lift and increases drag, so has the desired slowing effect on blade rotation. It is
also less sensitive to gusts of wind than feathering: by decreasing the apparent wind
angle, gusts increase the angle of attack so tend to make the blade stall more. Therefore
controlling blade speed by stall rather than feathering can be beneficial in gusty
conditions. Both methods are used by different designs.

2.3 DC MOTOR:

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism.

A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an
external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the
conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of
from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while
like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of
a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying
conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
 Fig 2.14: DC Motor

Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a

magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or
winding with a "South" polarization).

Fig 2.15: Simple 2-pole dc electric motor

 Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all
that Beamers will see), the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength
permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the
motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together
with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor
consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to
the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor
inside the stator (field) magnets.

The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are
such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator
magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the
stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the next
commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor,
the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip"
of the rotor's magnetic field, driving it to continue rotating.
 Fig2.16: rotation of rotor in dc motor

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a
very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You
can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of
its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets); it will get "stuck" there.
Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out
the power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously).
This would be bad for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as
well. Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high
amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with the
position of the rotor).

So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker with the
workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript required):

You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a
time (but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one
commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's
field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll see more about
the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the
coil windings' series wiring:
 Fig2.17: Placing of Commutator in DC Motor

The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and has a
number of advantages. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the
windings -- a particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also
conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder than
might otherwise be the case. Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive
compared with other construction types.

But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature
has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also
results in high winding inductances which limit brush and commutator life.

In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless'

armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity.
As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the
rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-core
motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator life/

Fig2.18: courtesy of Micromole

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller motors;

meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless motors are somewhat prone to
overheating. As a result, this design is generally used just in small, low-power
motors. Beamers will most often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.

2.4 RIPPLE NUTRALIZER:

 The most common meaning of ripple in electrical science, is the small
unwanted residual periodic variation of the direct current (dc) output of a power supply
which has been derived from an alternating current (ac) source. This ripple is due to
incomplete suppression of the alternating waveform within the power supply.

As well as this time-varying phenomenon, there is a frequency

domain ripple that arises in some classes of filter and other signal processing networks. In
this case the periodic variation is a variation in the insertion loss of the network against
increasing frequency. The variation may not be strictly linearly periodic. In this meaning
also, ripple is usually to be considered an unwanted effect, its existence being a
compromise between the amount of ripple and other design parameters.

TIME DOMINE RIPPLE:

Full-wave rectifier circuit with a reservoir capacitor on the output for the purpose of
smoothing ripple

Ripple factor (γ) may be defined as the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of the
ripple voltage to the absolute value of the dc component of the output voltage, usually
expressed as a percentage. However, ripple voltage is also commonly expressed as
the peak-to-peak value. This is largely because peak-to-peak is both easier to measure on
an oscilloscope and is simpler to calculate theoretically. Filter circuits intended for the
reduction of ripple are usually called smoothing circuits.

Fig 2.19: Time domine ripple

The simplest scenario in ac to dc conversion is a rectifier without any

smoothing circuitry at all. The ripple voltage is very large in this situation; the peak-to-
peak ripple voltage is equal to the peak ac voltage. A more common arrangement is to
allow the rectifier to work into a large smoothing capacitor which acts as a reservoir.
After a peak in output voltage the capacitor (C) supplies the current to the load (R) and
continues to do so until the capacitor voltage has fallen to the value of the now rising next
half-cycle of rectified voltage. At that point the rectifiers turn on again and deliver
current to the reservoir until peak voltage is again reached. If the time constant, CR, is
large in comparison to the period of the ac waveform, then a reasonable accurate
approximation can be made by assuming that the capacitor voltage falls linearly. A
further useful assumption can be made if the ripple is small compared to the dc voltage.
In this case the phase angle through which the rectifiers conduct will be small and it can
be assumed that the capacitor is discharging all the way from one peak to the next with
little loss of accuracy

Fig2.20: Ripple wave form

Ripple voltage from a full-wave rectifier, before and after the application of a smoothing
capacitor

With the above assumptions the peak-to-peak ripple voltage can be calculated as:

For a full-wave rectifier:

For a half-wave rectification:

 Where

 App. is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage

 I is the current in the circuit

 f is the frequency of the ac power

 C is the capacitance

For the rms value of the ripple voltage, the calculation is more involved as the shape of
the ripple waveform has a bearing on the result. Assuming a saw tooth waveform is a
similar assumption to the ones above and yields the result:

Where

 γ is the ripple factor

 R is the resistance of the load

Another approach to reducing ripple is to use a series choke. A choke has a filtering

action and consequently produces a smoother waveform with less high-order harmonics.
Against this, the dc output is close to the average input voltage as opposed to the higher
voltage with the reservoir capacitor which is close to the peak input voltage. With
suitable approximations, the ripple factor is given by:

Where

 ω is the angular frequency 2πf

 L is the inductance of the choke
More complex arrangements are possible; the filter can be an LC ladder rather than a
simple choke or the filter and the reservoir capacitor can both be used to gain the benefits
of both. The most commonly seen of these is a low-pass Π-filter consisting of a reservoir
capacitor followed by a series choke followed by a further shunt capacitor. However, use
of chokes is deprecated in contemporary designs for economic reasons. A more common
solution where good ripple rejection is required is to use a reservoir capacitor to reduce
the ripple to something manageable and then pass through a voltage regulator circuit. The
regulator circuit, as well as regulating the output, will incidentally filter out nearly all of
the ripple as long as the minimum level of the ripple waveform does not go below the
voltage being regulated to.

The majority of power supplies are now  switched mode. The filtering
requirements for such power supplies are much easier to meet due to the frequency of the
ripple waveform being very high. In traditional power supply designs the ripple
frequency is either equal to (half-wave), or twice (full-wave) the ac line frequency. With
switched mode power supplies the ripple frequency is not related to the line frequency,
but is instead related to the frequency of the chopper circuit.

 The ripple frequency and its harmonics are within the audio band and will
therefore be audible on equipment such as radio receivers, equipment for playing
recordings and professional studio equipment.

 The ripple frequency is within television video bandwidth. Analogue TV

receivers will exhibit a pattern of moving wavy lines if too much ripple is present.

 The presence of ripple can reduce the resolution of electronic test and
measurement instruments. On an oscilloscope it will manifest itself as a visible
pattern on screen.

 Within digital circuits, it reduces the threshold, as does any form of supply rail
noise, at which logic circuits give incorrect outputs and data is corrupted.

 High amplitude ripple currents reduce the life of electrolytic capacitors.

 Fig 2.21: Ripple on a fifth order prototype Chebyshev filter

Ripple in the context of the frequency domain is referring to the

periodic variation in insertion loss with frequency of a filter or some other two-port
network. Not all filters exhibit ripple, some have monotonically increasing insertion loss
with frequency such as the Butterworth filter. Common classes of filter which exhibit
ripple are the Chebyshev filter, inverse Chebyshev filter and the Elliptical filter. The
ripple is not usually strictly linearly periodic as can be seen from the example plot. Other
examples of networks exhibiting ripple are impedance matching networks that have been
designed using Chebyshev polynomials. The ripple of these networks, unlike regular
filters, will never reach 0dB at minimum loss if designed for optimum transmission
across the pass band as a whole.

The amount of ripple can be traded for other parameters in the filter design. For instance,
the rate of roll-off from the pass band to the stop band can be increased at the expense of
increasing the ripple without increasing the order of the filter (that is, the number of
components has stayed the same). On the other hand, the ripple can be reduced by
increasing the order of the filter while at the same time maintaining the same rate of roll-
off.

2.5 RECHARGEBLE BATTERIES:

A rechargeable battery or storage battery is a group of one or
more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because
their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in
many different shapes and sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to megawatt systems
connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations
of chemicals are commonly used, including: lead-acid, nickel cadmium(NiCad), nickel
metal hydride (Nigh), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Fig 2.22: Rechargeable Batteries

Rechargeable batteries have lower total cost of use and environmental impact
than disposable batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the
same sizes as disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial cost, but can be
recharged very cheaply and used many times.

Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer

devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and
electric forklifts), tools, and uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications
in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost
and weight and increase lifetime. Normally, new rechargeable batteries have to be
charged before use; newer low self-discharge batteries hold their charge for many
months, and are supplied charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.

Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable batteries for load

leveling, where they store electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for
renewable uses, such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day
to be used at night. By charging batteries during periods of low demand and returning
energy to the grid during periods of high electrical demand, load-leveling helps eliminate
the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost of generators
over more hours of operation.

The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S.

demand for rechargeable batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for non
-rechargeable.

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING:

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the
negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute
the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer
for ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may
be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead-acid cells.

Fig2.23: charging of a secondary cell battery. Fig2.24: Battery charger

Fig2.25: A solar-powered charger for rechargeable batteries

 The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery
charger using AC mains electricity. Chargers take from a few minutes (rapid chargers) to
several hours to charge a battery. Most batteries are capable of being charged far faster
than simple battery chargers are capable of; there are chargers that can charge consumer
sizes of NiMH batteries in 15 minutes. Fast charges must have multiple ways of detecting
full charge (voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before onset of harmful
overcharging.

Rechargeable multi-cell batteries are susceptible to cell damage due

to reverse charging if they are fully discharged. Fully integrated battery chargers that
optimize the charging current are available.

Attempting to recharge non-rechargeable batteries with unsuitable

equipment may cause battery explosion Flow batteries, used for specialised applications,
are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid.

Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC; this

is volts per cell, and refers to the individual secondary cells that make up the battery. For
example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a
voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.

Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinc-carbon cells output 1.5V when new,

but this voltage gradually drops with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA batteries rate their
cells at 1.2 V, and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries up
to an end-point of 0.9 to 1.2V

Reverse charging
Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to
discharge it further, rather than charge it, is called reverse charging; this damages cells.
Reverse charging can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most common
being:

 When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way round.
 When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.
When one cell completely discharges ahead of the rest, the live cells will apply a reverse
current to the discharged cell ("cell reversal"). This can happen even to a "weak" cell that
is not fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the weak cell's internal
resistance can experience a reverse voltage that is greater than the cell's remaining
internal forward voltage. This results in the reversal of the weak cell's polarity while the
current is flowing through the cells. [3] [4]
 this can significantly shorten the life of the
affected cell and therefore of the battery. The higher the discharge rate of the battery
needs to be, the better matched the cells should be, both in kind of cell and state of
charge. In some extreme cases, the reversed cell can begin to emit smoke or catch fire.

In critical applications using Ni-Cad batteries, such as in aircraft, each cell is

individually discharged by connecting a load clip across the terminals of each cell,
thereby avoiding cell reversal, then charging the cells in series.

2.6 INVERTER

An  inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC)

to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and
frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-
state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
 Fig 2.26: Inverter

There are two main types of inverter. The output of a modified sine
wave inverter is similar to a square wave output except that the output goes to zero volts
for a time before switching positive or negative. It is simple and low cost
(~$0.10USD/Watt) and is compatible with most electronic devices, except for sensitive
or specialized equipment, for example certain laser printers. A pure sine wave inverter
produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (<3% total harmonic distortion) that is
essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is compatible with all AC
electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tie inverters. Its design is more complex,
and costs 5 or 10 times more per unit power (~$0.50 to $1.00USD/Watt). [1] The electrical
inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC
to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC
to AC. The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

DC power source utilization:

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an
automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or enough
to power two sixty watt light bulbs.

Fig2.27: Inverter snap

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such
as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any
required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation,
or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage. Grid tie inverters can feed energy back
into the distribution network because they produce alternating current with the same
wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system. They can also switch
off automatically in the event of a blackout. Micro-inverters convert direct current from
individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric grid. They are grid tie
designs by default.

Uninterruptible power supplies

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply
AC power when main power is not available. When main power is restored,
a rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.

Induction heating

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use
in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The
inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.

HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC

power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static
inverter plant converts the power back to AC.

Variable-frequency drive

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by

controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter
provides the controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes
a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since
an inverter is the key component, variable-frequency drives are sometimes called inverter
drives or just inverters.

Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power

the traction motors in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as
some battery electric vehicles and electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota
Pries and Frisker Karma. Various improvements in inverter technology are being
developed specifically for electric vehicle applications. [2] In vehicles withregenerative
braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and
stores it in the batteries.

Air conditioning

An air conditioner bearing the inverter tag uses a variable-frequency drive to

control the speed of the motor and thus the compressor.

The general case

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at

the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any
voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The
output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small
proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.

Basic designs

In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through

the centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to
allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one
end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current
in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the
secondary circuit.

The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary

contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact
against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to
the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the
action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This
type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used
in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells,
buzzers and tattoo guns.
 As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and
various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter
circuit designs.

Output waveforms

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an
output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on
nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power
supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an
infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original
waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics
that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the
fundamental frequency.

The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the Fourier
analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic
distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by
the fundamental voltage:

The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the
characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage
supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave
voltage.

Advanced designs:

There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies used in inverter

designs. Different design approaches address various issues that may be more or less
important depending on the way that the inverter is intended to be used.
 Fig2.28: H-bridge inverter circuit

The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many

ways. Capacitors and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes
a transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side of the
transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow the fundamental
component of the waveform to pass to the output while limiting the passage of the
harmonic components. If the inverter is designed to provide power at a fixed frequency,
a resonant filter can be used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned
to a frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency. Since most loads
contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel diodes are often connected across
each semiconductor switch to provide a path for the peak inductive load current when the
switch is turned off. The antiparallel diodes are somewhat similar to the freewheeling
diodes used in AC/DC converter circuits.

signal
harmonics harmonics System
waveform transitions THD
eliminated amplified Description
per period

2-level
2 - - square ~45%[1]
wave
 3-level
"modified >
4 3, 9, 27, -
square 23.8%[1]
wave"

5-level
"modified
8 > 6.5%[1]
square
wave"

2-level
10 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11, very slow
PWM

3-level
12 3, 5, 9, 27 7, 11, very slow
PWM

Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is anti-symmetrical
about the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics, the 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.
Waveforms that have steps of certain widths and heights can attenuate certain lower
harmonics at the expense of amplifying higher harmonics. For example, by inserting a
zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave, all of
the harmonics that are divisible by three (3rd and 9th, etc.) can be eliminated. That leaves
only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required width of the steps is one third of the period
for each of the positive and negative steps and one sixth of the period for each of the
zero-voltage steps.
 Changing the square wave as described above is an example of  pulse-width
modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-wave pulse is often
used as a method of regulating or adjusting an inverter's output voltage. When voltage
control is not required, a fixed pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected
harmonics. Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest
harmonics because filtering is much more practical at high frequencies, where the filter
components can be much smaller and less expensive. Multiple pulse-width or carrier
based PWM control schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow
pulses. The frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is called
the switching frequency or carrier frequency. These control schemes are often used in
variable-frequency motor control inverters because they allow a wide range of output
voltage and frequency adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform.

Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation. Multilevel

inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple steps at several voltage
levels. For example, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal wave by having split-
rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a
central ground. By connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the
positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the
negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is generated at the inverter
output. This is an example of a three level inverter: the two voltages and ground.

Three phase inverters:

Fig2.29: 3-phase inverter

 Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications
and for high power applications such asHVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase
inverter consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the
three load terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three
switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the
fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six
steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative
sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are
eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-
step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that
the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled.

Fig2.30: 3-phase inverter waveform

3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence and waveform of
voltage between terminals A and C

To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-phase

inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or in series for a higher
voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step
waveform. If additional inverters are combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three
inverters etc. Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving
increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is improved as well.
Controlled rectifier inverters

Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for
most inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor or silicon-
controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits.

Fig2.31:12-pulse line-commutated inverter circuit

The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR

circuit designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control
signal is shut off. They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the
minimum holding current, which varies with each kind of SCR, through some external
process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally
every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power
source usually require a means of forced commutation that forces the current to zero
when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR circuits employ natural
commutation rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced commutation
circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits described above.

In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to

an AC power source, it is possible to use AC-to-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating
in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a
line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power
transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of motor control systems.
 Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI)
inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With a current
source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than
a voltage source. The inverter SCRs are switched in a six-step sequence to direct the
current to a three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter
commutation methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation.
With both methods, the input current regulation assists the commutation. With load
commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a leading power factor.

As they have become available in higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors
such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control signals have
become the preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits.

Rectifier and inverter pulse numbers

Rectifier circuits are often classified by the number of current pulses that
flow to the DC side of the rectifier per cycle of AC input voltage. A single-phase half-
wave rectifier is a one-pulse circuit and asingle-phase full-wave rectifier is a two-pulse
circuit. A three-phase half-wave rectifier is a three-pulse circuit and a three-phase full-
wave rectifier is a six-pulse circuit. With three-phase rectifiers, two or more rectifiers are
sometimes connected in series or parallel to obtain higher voltage or current ratings. The
rectifier inputs are supplied from special transformers that provide phase shifted outputs.
This has the effect of phase multiplication. Six phases are obtained from two
transformers, twelve phases from three transformers and so on. The associated rectifier
circuits are 12-pulse rectifiers, 18-pulse rectifiers and so on.

When controlled rectifier circuits are operated in the inversion mode, they would
be classified by pulse number also. Rectifier circuits that have a higher pulse number
have reduced harmonic content in the AC input current and reduced ripple in the DC
output voltage. In the inversion mode, circuits that have a higher pulse number have
lower harmonic content in the AC output voltage waveform.

2.7 SWITCHES:
 In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break
an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to
another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually
operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts. Each set
of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching
and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and
nonconducting.

Fig2.32: Switches

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a

system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as
a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of
machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or
that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be
operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and
force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For
example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process.
A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches
may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to
isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be
pad-locked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance,
or to prevent electric shock.

2.8 LCD :( 16 * 2 ALPHANUMERIC)

Liquid crystal display is very important device in embedded system. It offers high
flexibility to user as he can display the required data on it. A liquid crystal display (LCD)
is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid
crystals (LCs).LCs does not emit light directly. LCDs therefore need a light source and
are classified as "passive" displays. This is the interfacing example for the Parallel Port
LCD).

Schematic

Fig2.33: LCD

2.9 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC):

Analog-to-digital converters are among the most widely used devices for data
acquisition. Digital systems use binary values, but in the physical world everything is
continuous i.e., analog values. Temperature, pressure (wind or liquid), humidity and
velocity are the physical analog quantities.

These physical quantities are to be converted into digital values for further
processing. One such device to convert these physical quantities into electrical signals is
sensor. Sensors for temperature, pressure, humidity, light and many other natural
quantities produce an output that is voltage or current.

Thus, an analog-to-digital converter is needed to convert these electrical signals

into digital values so that the controller can read and process them.

An ADC has an n-bit resolution where n can be 8,10,12,16 or even 24 bits. The
higher resolution ADC provides a smaller step size, where step size is the smallest
change that can be detected by an ADC. In addition to resolution, conversion time is
another major factor in judging an ADC.

Conversion time is defined as the time it takes the ADC to convert the analog
input to a digital number.

ADC0808:
The ADC0808, ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with
an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor
compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the
conversion technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized
comparator, a 256R voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive
approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-
ended analog signals.

The device eliminates the need for external zero and full-scale adjustments. Easy
interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded multiplexer
address inputs and latched TTL TRI-STATE outputs.

The design of the ADC0808, ADC0809 has been optimized by incorporating the most
desirable aspects of several A/D conversion techniques. The ADC0808, ADC0809 offers
high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependence, excellent long-term
accuracy and repeatability, and consumes minimal power. These features make this
device ideally suited to applications from process and machine control to consumer and
automotive applications. For 16-channel multiplexer with common output (sample/hold
port).

Features

 Easy interface to all microprocessors

 Operates ratiometrically or with 5 VDC or analog span adjusted voltage reference

 No zero or full-scale adjust required

 8-channel multiplexer with address logic 0V to VCC input range

 Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications

 ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949

 ADC0809 equivalent to MM74C949-1

Key Specifications

 Resolution 8 Bits

 Total Unadjusted Error ±½ LSB and ±1 LSB

 Single Supply 5 VDC

 Low Power 15 mW

 Conversion Time 100 µs

CONVERTER CHARACTERISTICS

The Converter

The heart of this single chip data acquisition system is its 8-bit analog-to-digital
converter. The converter is designed to give fast, accurate, and repeatable conversions
over a wide range of temperatures. The converter is partitioned into 3 major sections:
the 256R ladder network, the successive approximation register, and the comparator.
The converter's digital outputs are positive true. The 256R ladder network approach
was chosen over the conventional R/2R ladder because of its inherent monotonicity,
which guarantees no missing digital codes. Monotonicity is particularly important in
closed loop feedback control systems. A non-monotonic relationship can cause
oscillations that will be catastrophic for the system. Additionally, the 256R network
does not cause load variations on the reference voltage. The bottom resistor and the
top resistor of the ladder network are not the same value as the remainder of the
network. The difference in these resistors causes the output characteristic to be
symmetrical with the zero and full-scale points of the transfer curve. The first output
transition occurs when the analog signal has reached +½ LSB and succeeding output
transitions occur every 1 LSB later up to full-scale.

The successive approximation register (SAR) performs 8 iterations to approximate

the input voltage. For any SAR type

converter, n-iterations are required for an n-bit converter. Figure 2 shows a typical
example of a 3-bit converter. In the ADC0808, ADC0809, the approximation
technique is extended to 8 bits using the 256R network. The A/D converter's
successive approximation register (SAR) is reset on the positive edge of the start
conversion start pulse. The conversion is begun on the falling edge of the start
conversion pulse. A conversion in process will be interrupted by receipt of a new start
conversion pulse. Continuous conversion may be accomplished by tying the end-of-
conversion (EOC) output to the SC input. If used in this mode, an external start
conversion pulse should be applied after power up. Endof-conversion will go low
between 0 and 8 clock pulses after the rising edge of start conversion. The most
important section of the A/D converter is the comparator. It is this section which is
responsible for the ultimate accuracy of the entire converter. It is also the comparator
drift which has the greatest influence on the repeatability of the device. A chopper-
stabilized comparator provides the most effective method of satisfying all the
converter requirements.The chopper-stabilized comparator converts the DC input
signal into an AC signal. This signal is then fed through a high gain AC amplifier and
has the DC level restored. This technique limits the drift component of the amplifier
since the drift is a DC component which is not passed by the AC amplifier. This
 makes the entire A/D converter extremely insensitive to temperature, long term drift
and input offset errors

In lot of embedded systems controllers needs to take analog input. Most of the
sensors & transducers such as temperature, humidity, pressure, are analog. For
interfacing these sensors to controllers we require to convert the analog output of these
sensors to digital so that the controller can read it. Some controllers have built in
Analog to Digital Convertor (ADC) so there is no need of external ADC. For controllers
that don’t have internal ADC external ADC is used.

One of the most commonly used ADC is ADC0808. ADC 0808 is a

Successive approximation type with 8 channels i.e. it can directly access 8 single ended
analog signals.

I/O Pins

·         ADDRESS LINE A, B, C

The device contains 8-channels. A particular channel
is selected by using the address decoder line. The
TABLE 1 shows the input states for address lines to
select any channel.

·       Address Latch Enable ALE

The address is latched on the Low – High transition of
ALE.

·         START
The ADC’s Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is reset on the positive edge i.e.
Low- High of the Start Conversion pulse. Whereas the conversion is begun on the
falling edge i.e. High – Low of the pulse.

·         Output Enable

Whenever data has to be read from the ADC, Output Enable pin has to be pulled high
thus enabling the TRI-STATE outputs, allowing data to be read from the data pins D0-
D7.

·         End of Conversion (EOC)

This Pin becomes High when the conversion has ended, so the controller comes to
know that the data can now be read from the data pins.

·         Clock
External clock pulses are to be given to the ADC; this can be given either from LM 555
in Astable mode or the controller can also be used to give the pulses.

ALGORITHAM

1.       Start.
2.       Select the channel.
3.       A Low – High transition on ALE to latch in the address.
4.       A Low – High transition on Start to reset the ADC’s SAR.
5.       A High – Low transition on ALE.
6.       A High – Low transition on start to start the conversion.
7.       Wait for End of cycle (EOC) pin to become high.
8.       Make Output Enable pin High.
9.       Take Data from the ADC’s output
10.   Make Output Enable pin Low.
11.   Stop

 The total numbers of lines

required are:

·         data lines: 8

·         ALE: 1
·         START: 1
·         EOC:1
·         Output Enable:1

I.e. total 12 lines. You can directly connect the OE pin to Vcc. Moreover instead of
polling for EOC just put some delay so instead of 12 lines you will require 10 lines.

You can also provide the clock through the controller thus eliminating the need of
external circuit for clock.

Calculating Step Size

ADC 0808 is an 8 bit ADC i.e. it divides the voltage applied at Vref+ & Vref- into 28 i.e.
256 steps.

Step Size = (Vref+ - Vref-)/256

Suppose Vref+ is connected to Vcc i.e. 5V & Vref- is connected to the Gnd then the step
size will be
Step size= (5 - 0)/256= 19.53 mv.

Calculating Dout.
 

The data we get at the D0 - D7 depends upon the step size & the Input voltage i.e. Vin.

Dout = Vin /step Size.

If you want to interface sensors like LM35 which has output 10mv/°C then I would
suggest that you set the Vref+ to 2.56v so that the step size will be

Step size= (2.56 - 0)/256= 10 mv.

 So now whatever reading that you get from the ADC will be equal to the actual
temperature.   
         
ATMEGA 328CONTROLLER
 CHAPTER 3

CONTROLLERS

MICROCONTROLLER:

IDE was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast
prototyping, aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming.
As soon as it reached a wider community, the IDE board started changing to adapt to
new needs and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products
for IoT applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments.

IDE is a single-board microcontroller to make using electronics in multidisciplinary

projects more accessible.

The hardware consists of a simple open source hardware board designed around an 8-
bit Atmel AVR microcontroller, or a 32-bit Atmel ARM. The software consists of a
standard

programming language compiler and a bootloader that executes on the microcontroller.

Microcontroller:

ATmega328

• Operating Voltage: 5V

• Input Voltage(recommended):7-12V

• Input Voltage (limits): 6-20V

• Digital I/O Pins: 14 (ofwhich 6 provide PWM output)

• Analog Input Pins: 6

• DC Current per I/O Pin: 40mA

• DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50mA

• Flash Memory: 32 KB(ATmega328)

• SRAM: 2 KB (ATmega328)

• EEPROM: 1 KB (ATmega328)

• Clock Speed: 16 MHz

The IDE Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16
MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset
button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it
to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get
started. The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-
to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega8U2 programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter. "Uno" means "One" in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of
IDE 1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of IDE, moving forward.
The Uno is the latest in a series of USB IDE boards, and the reference model for the IDE
platform.

IDE microcontroller is a small computer board which is easy to use besides is something
come with open-source, which means hardware is reasonably priced and development
software is free. With IDE, ones can write programs and freely creating an interface
circuits to read switches and other sensor, and also controlling motors and lights with a
very simple steps.

In its simplest form, an IDE is a tiny computer that you can program to process inputs
and outputs going into and from the chip.The IDE is what is known as a Physical or
Embedded Computing platform, which means that it is an interactive system, that
through the use of hardware and software can interact with itʼs environment.For
example, a simple use of the IDE would be to turn a light on for a set period of time, letʼs
say 30 seconds, after a button has been pressed (we will build this very same project
later in the book). In this example, the IDE would have a lamp connected to it as well as
a button. The IDE would sit patiently waiting for the button to be pressed. When you
press the button it would then turn the lamp on and start counting. Once it had counted
30 seconds it would then turn the lamp off and then carry on sitting there waiting for
another button press. You could use this set-up to control a lamp in an under-stairs
cupboard for example. You could extend this example to sense when the cupboard door
was opened and automatically turn the light on, turning it off after a set period of time.

The IDE can be used to develop stand-alone interactive objects or it can be connected to
a computer to retrieve or send data to the IDE and then act on that data (e.g. Send
sensor data out to the internet).The IDE can be connected to LEDʼs. Dot Matrix displays,
LED displays, buttons, switches, motors, temperature sensors, pressure sensors,
distance sensors, webcams, printers, GPS receivers, Ethernet modules,The IDE board is
made of an an Atmel AVR Microprocessor, a crystal or oscillator (basically a crude clock
that sends time pulses to the microcontroller to enable it to operate at the correct
speed) and a 5-volt linear regulator. Depending on what type of IDE you have, you may
also have a USB connector to enable it to be connected to a PC or Mac to upload or
retrieve data. The board exposes the microcontrollerʼs I/O (Input/Output) pins to enable
you to connect those pins to other circuits or to sensors, etc.To program the IDE (make
it do what you want it to) you also use the IDE IDE (Integrated Development
Environment), which is a piece of free software, that enables you to program in the
language that the IDE understands. In the case of the IDE the language is C. The IDE
enables you to write a computer program, which is a set of step-bystep instructions that
you then upload to the IDE. Then your IDE will carry out those instructions and interact
with the world outside. In the IDE world,programs are known as ʻSketchesʼ.

PIN CONFIGURATIONS:
Pin Descriptions

VCC
Digital supply voltage

GND

Ground

Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tristated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used
as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting
Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7...6 is
used as TOSC2...1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.

The various special features of Port B are elaborated in ”Alternate Functions of Port B” on page
82 and ”System Clock and Clock Options” on page 27.

Port C (PC5:0)

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
PC5...0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tristated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.

‘
PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is un
programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum
pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. The minimum pulse length is

given in Table 29-11 on page 305. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a Reset. The
various special features of Port C are elaborated in ”Alternate Functions of Port C” on page 85.

Port D (PD7:0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tristated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running. The various special features of Port D are elaborated in
”Alternate Functions of Port D” on page 88.

AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It should be externally
connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC
through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6...4 use digital supply voltage, VCC.

AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter. 1.1.9 ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF
Package Only) In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D
converter. These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. LCD is finding wide spread use replacing LEDs
(seven segment LEDs or other multi segment LEDs) because of the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCDs.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in contrast to LEDs,
which are limited to numbers and a few characters.

3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the
task of refreshing the LCD. In contrast, the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep
displaying the data.

4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

These components are “specialized” for being used with the microcontrollers, which
means that they cannot be activated by standard IC circuits. They are used for writing
different messages on a miniature LCD.

A model described here is for its low price and great possibilities most frequently used
in practice. It is based on the HD44780 microcontroller (Hitachi) and can display
messages in two lines with 16 characters each. It displays all the alphabets, Greek
letters, punctuation marks, mathematical symbols etc. In addition, it is possible to
display symbols that user makes up on its own. Automatic shifting message on display
(shift left and right), appearance of the pointer, backlight etc. are considered as useful
characteristics.

Pins Functions

There are pins along one side of the small printed board used for connection to the
microcontroller. There are total of 14 pins marked with numbers (16 in case the background
light is built in). Their function is described in the table below:

Pin Logic
Function Name Description
Number State

Ground 1 Vss - 0V

Power supply 2 Vdd - +5V

Contrast 3 Vee - 0 - Vdd

D0 – D7 are interpreted as
0
4 RS commands
1
D0 – D7 are interpreted as data

Write data (from controller to

0 LCD)
Control of 5 R/W
1 Read data (from LCD to
operating
controller)

0 Access to LCD disabled

1 Normal operating
6 E
From 1 to Data/commands are
0 transferred to LCD

Data / 7 D0 0/1 Bit 0 LSB

 8 D1 0/1 Bit 1

9 D2 0/1 Bit 2

10 D3 0/1 Bit 3
commands
11 D4 0/1 Bit 4

12 D5 0/1 Bit 5

13 D6 0/1 Bit 6

14 D7 0/1 Bit 7 MSB

LCD screen:

LCD screen consists of two lines with 16 characters each. Each character consists of 5x7
dot matrix. Contrast on display depends on the power supply voltage and whether
messages are displayed in one or two lines. For that reason, variable voltage 0-Vdd is
applied on pin marked as Vee. Trimmer potentiometer is usually used for that purpose.
Some versions of displays have built in backlight (blue or green diodes). When used
during operating, a resistor for current limitation should be used (like with any LE
diode).
LCD Basic Commands

All data transferred to LCD through outputs D0-D7 will be interpreted as commands or
as data, which depends on logic state on pin RS:

RS = 1 - Bits D0 - D7 are addresses of characters that should be displayed. Built in

processor addresses built in “map of characters” and displays corresponding symbols.
Displaying position is determined by DDRAM address. This address is either previously
defined or the address of previously transferred character is automatically incremented.

RS = 0 - Bits D0 - D7 are commands which determine display mode. List of commands

which LCD recognizes are given in the table below:

Command RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Execution
 Time

Clear display 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.64mS

Cursor home 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 x 1.64mS

Entry mode set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S 40uS

Display on/off control 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D U B 40uS

Cursor/Display Shift 0 0 0 0 0 1 D/C R/L x x 40uS

Function set 0 0 0 0 1 DL N F x x 40uS

Set CGRAM address 0 0 0 1 CGRAM address 40uS

Set DDRAM address 0 0 1 DDRAM address 40uS

Read “BUSY” flag (BF) 0 1 BF DDRAM address -

Write to CGRAM or DDRAM 1 0 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS

Read from CGRAM or DDRAM 1 1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 40uS

I/D 1 = Increment (by 1) R/L 1 = Shift right

0 = Decrement (by 1) 0 = Shift left

S 1 = Display shift on DL 1 = 8-bit interface

0 = Display shift off 0 = 4-bit interface

D 1 = Display on N 1 = Display in two lines

0 = Display off 0 = Display in one line

U 1 = Cursor on F 1 = Character format 5x10 dots

0 = Cursor off 0 = Character format 5x7 dots

B 1 = Cursor blink on D/C 1 = Display shift

0 = Cursor blink off 0 = Cursor shift

LCD Initialization:

Once the power supply is turned on, LCD is automatically cleared. This process lasts for
approximately 15mS. After that, display is ready to operate. The mode of operating is
set by default. This means that:

1. Display is cleared

2. Mode

DL = 1 Communication through 8-bit interface

N = 0 Messages are displayed in one line

F = 0 Character font 5 x 8 dots

3. Display/Cursor on/off

D = 0 Display off

U = 0 Cursor off

B = 0 Cursor blink off

4. Character entry

ID = 1 Addresses on display are automatically incremented by 1

S = 0 Display shift off

Automatic reset is mainly performed without any problems. Mainly but not always! If
for any reason power supply voltage does not reach full value in the course of 10mS,
display will start perform completely unpredictably. If voltage supply unit can not meet
this condition or if it is needed to provide completely safe operating, the process of
initialization by which a new reset enabling display to operate normally must be applied.
Algorithm according to the initialization is being performed depends on whether
connection to the microcontroller is through 4- or 8-bit interface. All left over to be done
after that is to give basic commands and of course- to display messages.

Fig: Procedure on 8-bit initialization.

CONTRAST CONTROL:

To have a clear view of the characters on the LCD, contrast should be adjusted. To adjust
the contrast, the voltage should be varied. For this, a preset is used which can behave like
a variable voltage device. As the voltage of this preset is varied, the contrast of the LCD
can be adjusted.

Fig: Variable resistor

Potentiometer

Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected.

This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching
point of a circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If
the terminals at the ends of the track are connected across the power supply, then the
wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum
of the supply.

Potentiometer Symbol
 

Presets

These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be
mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For
example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive
circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets.

Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are
sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The
screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to
the other, giving very fine control.

Preset Symbol
 
SWITCH INTERFACING:

CPU accesses the switches through ports. Therefore these switches are connected to a
microcontroller. This switch is connected between the supply and ground terminals. A single
microcontroller (consisting of a microprocessor, RAM and EEPROM and several ports all on a
single chip) takes care of hardware and software interfacing of the switch.

These switches are connected to an input port. When no switch is pressed, reading the
input port will yield 1s since they are all connected to high (Vcc). But if any switch is pressed,
one of the input port pins will have 0 since the switch pressed provides the path to ground. It is
the function of the microcontroller to scan the switches continuously to detect and identify the
switch pressed.

The switches that we are using in our project are 4 leg micro switches of momentary
type.

Vcc

P2.0
 Gnd

Fig: Interfacing switch with the microcontroller

Thus now the two conditions are to be remembered:

1. When the switch is open, the total supply i.e., Vcc appears at the port pin P2.0
P2.0 = 1

2. When the switch is closed i.e., when it is pressed, the total supply path is provided
to ground. Thus the voltage value at the port pin P2.0 will be zero.
P2.0 = 0

By reading the pin status, the microcontroller identifies whether the switch is pressed or
not. When the switch is pressed, the corresponding related to this switch press written in the
program will be executed.
RESISTOR:

Resistors "Resist" the flow of electrical current. The higher the value of resistance
(measured in ohms) the lower the current will be.  Resistance is the property of a
component which restricts the flow of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage
across the component drives the current through it and this energy appears as heat in
the component.
Color Code:

CAPACITOR:

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors

in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used
to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in
filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals.

Circuit symbol:   

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -.
Examples:  

DIODES:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a
valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Circuit symbol:   

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labeled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The
cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labeled with their code in
small print; you may need a magnifying glass to read this on
small signal diodes.

Example:       

BUZZER:
An electric coil is wound on a plastic bobbin, the latter having a central sleeve within
which a magnetic core is slideably positioned. One end of the sleeve is closed and
projects beyond the coil. An inverted cup-shaped housing surrounds the coil and bobbin
and has a central opening through which the closed end of the sleeve projects. The core
projects into the closed end of the sleeve beyond the margin of the opening in the
housing to augment the magnetic coupling between the housing and the core. The open
end of the housing is attached to a support bracket of magnetic material, there being a
spring between the bracket and bobbin normally urging the core toward the closed end
of the sleeve.

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED):

The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (&minus). In the
schematic symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on the left and the cathode is on the
right. Light emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics.
 They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price,
low consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light
sources- bulbs at first place.

It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is
limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to
correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diode’s voltage drop
in forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what colors
it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below: As
seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current of
20mA. Low Current diodes get full brightness at ten time’s lower current while Super
Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.

Since the 8052 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their
pins are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct
 confectioning to LEDs is carried out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is
connected to output pin).

CHAPTER 4

SOFT WARE TOOLS

1. IDE software is used

HOW TO START WITH IDE SOFTWARE

1. | Get an IDE or Genuino board and USB cable. ...

2. | Download and install the IDE Software (IDE) ...

3. | Connect the board. ...

4. | Install the board drivers. ...

5. | Launch the IDE Software (IDE) ...

6. | Open the blink example. ...

7. | Select your board. ...

8. | Select your serial port.

1. Get an IDE or Genuino board and USB cable

In this tutorial, we assume you're using an IDE or Genuino Uno or an IDE or Genuino
Mega 2560. If you are using a retired board as IDE Duemilanove, Nano or Diecimila please refer
to the driver installation instructions end of this document. If you have another board, read the
corresponding page linked in the main getting started page.
 2. Download and install the IDE Software (IDE)
Get the latest version from the download page. You can choose between the Installer
(.exe) and the Zip packages. We suggest you use the first one that installs directly
everything you need to use the IDE Software (IDE), including the drivers. With the Zip
package you need to install the drivers manually.

When the download finishes, proceed with the installation and please allow the driver
installation process.

Choose the components to install

Choose the installation directory (we suggest to keep the default one)

The process will extract and install all the required files to execute properly the IDE
Software (IDE)
 3. Connect the board
The USB connection with the PC is necessary to program the board and not just to power
it up. The Uno and Mega automatically draw power from either the USB or an external
power supply. Connect the board to your computer using the USB cable. The green
power LED (labelled PWR) should go on.

4. Install the board drivers

If you used the Installer, Windows - from XP up to 10 - will install drivers automatically
as soon as you connect your board.

If you downloaded and expanded the Zip package or, for some reason, the board wasn't
properly recognized, please follow the procedure below.

 Click on the Start Menu, and open up the Control Panel.

 While in the Control Panel, navigate to System and Security. Next, click on System. Once
the System window is up, open the Device Manager.

 Look under Ports (COM & LPT). You should see an open port named "IDE UNO
(COMxx)". If there is no COM & LPT section, look under "Other Devices" for "Unknown Device".

 Right click on the "IDE UNO (COmxx)" port and choose the "Update Driver Software"
option.

 Next, choose the "Browse my computer for Driver software" option.

 Finally, navigate to and select the driver file named "IDE.inf", located in the "Drivers"
folder of the IDE Software download (not the "FTDI USB Drivers" sub-directory). If you are using
an old version of the IDE (1.0.3 or older), choose the Uno driver file named "IDE UNO.inf"

 Windows will finish up the driver installation from there.

 5. Launch the IDE Software (IDE)
Double-click the IDE icon (IDE.exe) created by the installation process. (Note: if the IDE
Software loads in the wrong language, you can change it in the preferences dialog.

6. Open the blink example

Open the LED blink example sketch: File > Examples >01.Basics > Blink.
 7. Select your board
You'll need to select the entry in the Tools > Board menu that corresponds to your IDE or
Genuino board.
 8. Select your serial port
Select the serial device of the board from the Tools | Serial Port menu. This is likely to
be COM3 or higher (COM1 andCOM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial ports). To
find out, you can disconnect your board and re-open the menu; the entry that disappears
should be the IDE or Genuino board. Reconnect the board and select that serial port.
 9. Upload the program
Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds - you
should see the RX and TX leds on the board flashing. If the upload is successful, the
message "Done uploading." will appear in the status bar.

A few seconds after the upload finishes, you should see the pin 13 (L) LED on the board
start to blink (in orange). If it does, congratulations! You've gotten IDE or Genuino up-
and-running
ADVANTAGES:

1. The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently.
2. Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause green house gases
or other pollutants.

3. Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of land. This
means that the land below can still be used. This is especially the case in agricultural
areas as farming can still continue.

4. Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscape.

5. Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines
to produce their own supply.

6. Wind turbines have a role to play in both the developed and third world.
7. Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and
businesses can use them. Single households to small towns and villages can make good
use of range of wind turbines available today.

APPLICATIONS:

  Farm Windventilator
 Golf Course Aeration

 Cattle Farm Windventilator

 Pond Aeration

 Residential Water Aeration

 Fish Ponds and Hatcheries

 West Nile Virus Prevention

 
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION:

Windventilators have been used for centuries for various purposes. Today, they are
primarily used to generate power and they do so quite efficiently when compared with
other renewable resources such as solar. The energy is completely clean and has little
effects of the environment. Depending on the overall size the rotor will directly affect the
power output capabilities of the system. The larger the rotor is the higher the output
power.

The downside to a windventilator is that they cannot always generate 100% power.
The wind hitting the rotor is constantly changing and with it so does the power output of
the windventilator. Windventilators can also be noisy because of the rotation from the
rotors, because of this they are not good to be placed near homes. Another downside, is
since wind is not always constant these systems need to be backed up with other
renewable sources in case of the absence of wind. However, windventilators are still a
very vital and important part of the move towards complete renewable energy and we
may start to see a substantial increase in their use around the world.

REFERENCES
REFERENCES:

1. http://www.windventilatorpower.com/product-info.html
2. The Boy Who Harnessed the Windby William Kamkwamba and Bryan Mealer

3. http://www.royalwindandsolar.com/

4. wikipedia

5. EMBEDDED SYSTEM BY RAJ KAMAL

6. Magazines

7. Electronics for you

8. Electrikindia

9. WWW.google.com

10. WWW.Electronic projects.com