Ultrasonic Testing (UT) [9]

¾Ultrasonic Testing (UT):

A nondestructive test method that uses
high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements.
¾Sound:
The mechanical vibration of particles in a
medium (solid, liquid or gaseous).

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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Frequency

Time

From the duration of one oscillation One full

T the frequency f (number of oscillation T
oscillations per second) is
calculated:

1
f =
T
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 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

The actual displacement

a is termed as:

a = A ⋅ sin ϕ
a
Time
0 90 180 270 360
Phase

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 Spectrum of Sound

Frequency range (Hz) Description Example

0 - 20 Infrasound Earthquake, whales

20 - 20.000 Audible sound Speech, music

> 20.000 Ultrasound Bat, quartz crystal

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 Wave Propagation

Ball = atom Spring = elastic bonding force

During one oscillation T the wave

T front propagates by the distance λ:

Distance travelled
λ
Wave equation: c= or c = λ ⋅ f
T 5>
 Sound Propagation

¾ Longitudinal wave

Direction of propagation
Direction of oscillation

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 Sound Propagation

¾ Transverse wave

Direction of propagation
Direction of oscillation

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 Wave Propagation

¾Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.

¾Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
¾Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse
waves travel at lower speeds.
¾Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and
Young‘s modulus of the material.

Air 330 m/s

Water 1480 m/s
Steel, long 5920 m/s
Steel, trans 3250 m/s

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 http://www.advanced-ndt.co.uk/index_htm_files/Reference%20Chart%20-%20Velocity%20Chart.pdf
Wave Propagation

v:
ρ:
Z=ρ*v

density

velocity

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 Wave Propagation

¾ Behaviour at an interface:

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Interface

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 Ultrasound Generation
¾ Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.

A piezoelectric element
in the transducer
converts electrical
energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and
vice versa.

The transducer is
capable of both
transmitting and
receiving sound
energy.

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 Ultrasound Generation

Piezoelectric Effect (I) PZT

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

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 Ultrasound Generation
Piezoelectric Effect (II)

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice

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 Ultrasound Generation
Piezoelectric Effect (III)

The effect inverses with polarity change

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 Ultrasound Generation
Piezoelectric Effect (IV)

Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

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 Sound Field
Crystal Focus Angle of divergence
Accoustical axis
γ6
D0

N
Near field Far field

¾ Transmitted sound waves are divided into regions

designated as the “near field” and “far field”
¾ Extensive “noise” in the near field where sound
originates – this makes it difficult to accurately evaluate
flaws in this region
¾ Desire to have the detection area in the far field so no
flaws are missed during an inspection
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 Test Techniques

• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method,

and inspections can be accomplished in a number of
different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided
into three primary classifications.
– Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is
used)
– Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the
test article)
– Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to
the test article)

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 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo
¾In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy
and the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy
(an echo).
¾Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
f
¾The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,
which provides the inspector information about the size and the
location of features that reflect the sound.

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
UT Instrument Screen

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 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo

Digital display
showing signal
generated from
sound reflecting
off back surface.

Digital display
showing the presence
of a reflector midway
through material, with
lower amplitude back
surface reflector.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access
to only one side of the material is possible, and it
allows the location of reflectors to be precisely
determined.
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 Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

¾Two transducers located on 11

opposing sides of the test
specimen are used. One T
T R
R
transducer acts as a transmitter,
the other as a receiver.
¾Discontinuities in the sound path T
T R
R
will result in a partial or total loss 2
of sound being transmitted and
be indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
11
¾Through transmission is useful in
detecting discontinuities that are
not good reflectors, and when 2
signal strength is weak. It does
not provide depth information. 0 2 4 6 8 10

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Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field.

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 Test Techniques – Angle Beam
¾ Weld inspection

a = s sinß
F ß = probe angle
a' = a - x s = sound path
s a = surface distance
d' = s cosß a‘ = reduced surface distance
d‘ = virtual depth
0 20 40 60 80 100
d = 2T - t' d = actual depth
T = material thickness

a
x a'
ß d
Lack of fusion
Work piece with welding s

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 Test Techniques – Immersion testing

1 2
surface = water delay
sound entry

backwall flaw

IP 1 IP 2
IE IE

BE BE
F

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Couplant: material used to facilitate the transmission of ultrasonic energy

from the transducer into the test specimen
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 Test Techniques – Example

¾ The longitudinal velocity in aluminum is 0.65

cm/µs. Using a 2.25 MHz transducer, what is
the wavelength of sound produced in the
material? What is the minimum size flaw
detected?
c 6420m / s
λ= = = 2.85mm
f 2.25 ⋅10 cycles / s
6

*Rule of Thumb: A discontinuity must be >1/2 the

wavelength to be detected (influences transducer
frequency selected). So, for the example flaws must be
greater than 1.42mm using 2.25MHz transducer.
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 Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing
¾Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface and
subsurface.
¾Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement
is superior to other methods.
¾Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.
¾High accuracy in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
¾Minimal part preparation required.
¾Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
¾Detailed images can be produced with automated
systems.
¾It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in
addition to flaw detection.
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 Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
¾Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
¾Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods.
¾Normally requires a coupling medium to promote
transfer of sound energy into test specimen.
¾Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to
inspect.
¾Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult
to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal
noise.
¾Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may
go undetected.
¾Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws.

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 Some Standards relating to Ultrasonic Testing
¾ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):

• ASTM E114 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-

Beam Examination by the Contact Method.
• ASTM E164 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact
Examination of Weldments.
• ASTM E213 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of
Metal Pipe and Tubing.
• ASTM E273 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of the
Weld Zone of Welded Pipe and Tubing.
• ASTM E588 - Standard Practice for Detection of Large Inclusions in
Bearing Quality Steel by the Ultrasonic Method.
• ASTM E797 - Standard Practice for Measuring Thickness by Manual
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method.

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 Ultrasonic Testing Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UM6XKvXWVFA
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 References
¾ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_testing
¾ NDT Resource Center. https://www.nde-ed.org/index_flash.htm
¾ The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. www.asnt.org
¾ ASTM E114-15, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam
Contact Testing, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2015.
(DOI: 10.1520/E0114-15)
¾ ASTM E164-13, Standard Practice for Contact Ultrasonic Testing of
Weldments, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2013. (DOI: 10.1520/E0164)
¾ ASTM E213-14e1, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Metal Pipe and
Tubing, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2014. (DOI: 10.1520/E0213-14E01)
¾ ASTM E273-15, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of the Weld Zone of
Welded Pipe and Tubing, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2015.
(DOI: 10.1520/E0273-15)
¾ ASTM E588-03(2014), Standard Practice for Detection of Large Inclusions in
Bearing Quality Steel by the Ultrasonic Method, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, 2014. (DOI: 10.1520/E0588-03R14)
¾ ASTM E797 / E797M-15, Standard Practice for Measuring Thickness by
Manual Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2015. (DOI: 10.1520/E0797_E0797M-15)
¾ASM International. ASM Handbook, Volume 17: Nondestructive Evaluation
and Quality Control. ASM, 9th edition, 795p., 1989. (ISBN: 978-0-87170-023-0)
Notas de aula preparadas pelo Prof. Juno Gallego para a disciplina Lab. Materiais de Construção Mecânica II.
® 2016. Permitida a impressão e divulgação.
http://www.feis.unesp.br/#!/departamentos/engenharia-mecanica/grupos/maprotec/educacional/
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