Chapter 1
AN INTRODUCTORY OVERVIEW
G E O G R A P H I C AND G E O M O R P H O L O G I C
SETTING
The countries of the Middle East (Fig. 1.1), the region
reviewed in this book, cover parts of the lands of the east-
ern Mediterranean and the greater part of Arabia (Arabian
Shield, Arabian Platform and Arabian Gulf), and the west-
ern Zagros Thrust Zone, an area enclosed between 13~ and
38 ~ N and 35 ~ and 60 ~ E (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3). Topographi-
cally, the higher elevations generally lie to the west in the
Arabian Shield and pass eastward into the lower-lying
areas occupied by the Arabian (Persian) Gulf and the
Tigris-Euphrates Valley. To the east of these lie the Zagros
ranges, with the Zagros Crush Zone forming the boundary
of the region considered here, although as will appear in
the following pages, it makes geological sense to include
southwestern Iran in the early Phanerozoic. The Arabian
Gulf is a shallowly submerged area, with an average depth
of only 60 m (197 ft); even the deepest part, lying at the
southeastern end, has a depth of only 240 m (787 ft).
Bathymetric charts show a depth asymmetry, with the
deeper parts lying closer to the Iranian than to the Arabian
shore. At its northern end, the Arabian Gulf gradually is
being filled by sediments forming the prograding Tigris-
Euphrates Delta (Fig. 1.2). At the southeastern end of the
Arabian Gulf, there is a sharp change in trend, and the gulf
narrows, forming the Strait of Hormuz, where the Musan-
dam Peninsula projects toward the Iranian shore. The sub-
marine continuation of the Arabian Peninsula further
restricts open contact of the gulf with the Arabian Sea.
However, the greatest depths are found in the Straits.
Beyond the Straits (Hormuz and Bab A1 Mandab near the
Gulf of Aden), a profound geological change occurs; while
the Arabian Gulf lies on continental crust, the floor of the
Gulf of Oman and Gulf of Aden is oceanic.
The natural boundaries of the Middle East are most
easily defined to the north and northeast, where the Taurus
Mountains pass eastward to the Zagros Fold Belt (Figs. 1.1
and 1.3). North of the Taurus Mountains lies the Anatolian
Plateau, which is bounded to its north by the Pontic Moun-
tains. Topographically, these two ranges combine to the
east, although the geological continuation of the Pontian
Belt may be sought in the Caucasian province. In a similar
manner, their eastward extension also divides to form the
Zagros and Alborz Mountains, which together enclose the
Iranian Plateau. Topographically, the Zagros is continued
to the east by the Makran ranges. The Makran ranges are
geologically very young and still in the process of forma-
tion; the geological continuation of the Zagros is formed
by the mountains of Oman. The region is bounded by
Owen Fracture Zone and Gulf of Aden rifting to the south
and by the rift system of the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aqaba to the west.
The area enclosed within the boundaries of the region
is more than 1,000,000 km 2 and is sparsely populated,
with the exception of the fertile crescent of the Tigris-
Euphrates Valley. It contains within its borders a major
part of the world's known hydrocarbon reserves and a dis-
proportionate number of the supergiant and giant fields. It
is the economic importance of these resources that has
stimulated an interest in the area that has increased as the
extent of the resources has become better established. The
northern third of the region is covered by the alluvial
deposits from the Tigris-Euphrates River System, which
drains the area from the mountains to the north and east.
Presently, the Tigris-Euphrates Delta is prograding and
gradually filling the Arabian Gulf. The larger area to the
south contains two of the world's great deserts: the An
Nefud (Nafud) in the north, and the Rub al Khali in the
south. Within the Rub al Khali is a large sand sea, with
dunes up to 200 m (656 ft) in height; in the Great Nefud,
the sand dunes, which cover about 145,000 km 2, are up to
300 m higher than the surrounding terrain. Farther north in
the Syrian desert, ablation has removed most of the loose
sand, thereby exposing extensive gravel-or rock-covered
plains, and desert pavements, making crossing the desert
difficult.
Geomorpholo.gy and climate (principally the avail-
ability of water) have controlled human settlement and
communications in the Middle East. In western Saudi Ara-
bia lies an old pediplane with inselbergs. Although its
exact age is not known, it is overlain by early Tertiary
lavas. Several erosion surfaces have been defined; the prin-
cipal surfaces are those at 1,650 m (5,280 ft), 1,200 m
(3,840 ft) and 900 m (2,880 ft), the last and youngest of
which is known to predate rifting.
The whole region lies within the arid subtropical
zone, and only a few, very restricted parts of Lebanon and
Turkey are not classified as extremely arid. During the
summer, the main track of the jet stream that controls the
paths of atmospheric depressions passes north of the Pon-
tic Mountains. During the winter, the track of the jet
stream moves rapidly southward to cover the northern
Arabian Gulf. Few depressions pass south of 30 ~ N.
Therefore, the area receives little benefit from the depres-
sions during summer, except perhaps the Caspian shores
of Iran, or winter; thus, it is not surprising that large areas
have a rainfall regime of 100-300 mm/year. In general, the
 Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Geology of the Middle East

-
TURKEY ) "" .J
.#" . 9
9
%"%..~.

S. j
I rranean: Sea (
I t.s~.o.. ,,~,L ''j
SYRIA,,./.
~
(,/
~.
I
t.
I

~'n~i ...\ ~ ",. (

ISR~:..L fl .~,. UlAN \
k.,,.
I

.i ..3 "~ /
[..,.,." ., \
%.~.
\ ! x x xI K ~ I I .....
IX. x A/
tI'X ~ X" X I
:'~v'~E X X x . X X %
,, ^ .~ !
-. X IX x X X
A x X X X X X " ~%
, X
EGYPT xX xxX x x xx~\ GULF OF
xXXX x x x x x" Q~I OMAN
x X ~ X Xx~
,\ x , ,\ ' I
"''""'"~" ~ X~ X X Xl
X X XX X X X I
X
X X X
XX X X i
X X X /
i,,
X X X
x x X
~1
I
i
x I ~.
x x xx : / SAUDi ARABIA ,."""
'X X X ~'/"*'
x x x\ .f~.~ 9 . OMAN
"
xf~"fP~. ."
x x~' ~ ' " YEMEN ~
_'J c~'. J ,.~

0 500KM

l
Fig. 1.1. General location map of the Middle East, indicating the states and major cities. Note that the state boundaries in all of the maps
are not formal international boundaries.

lower the precipitation, the greater its variability; and, in changes to sierozems, or gray desert soil in the southwest
Bahrain, with an annual average rainfall of 76 mm, the and northeast. In the north, reddish prairie soils develop,
range may be from as little as 10-170 mm. Only the Ara- and within the neighboring mountains, chernozem or
bian Sea coast benefits to a limited extent from the passage chestnut soils develop. The natural vegetation is character-
of the monsoon. The location of settlements is, therefore, istic of desert sand semi-deserts, with scrub woodlands at
restricted to the areas of permanent springs and oases or the higher elevations and steppe in the extreme north. Cul-
areas where irrigation is possible. In the deserts, a few tivation is restricted mainly to the flood plains. Along the
nomads eke out a precarious existence grazing livestock. low, fiat and sandy shores, salt fiats or sabkhas have
Since prehistoric times, the principal population is to be formed in shallow depressions. Due to the high rates of
found along the Tigris-Euphrates River System, and in evaporation, salt crusts develop that, when the salt is rela-
Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) tively free from sand, have been exploited locally. Under
along the shores of the Arabian Gulf, where before the dis- storm conditions, these low-lying areas may be flooded by
covery of oil, pearl fishing and coastal transport provided the sea, which can extend miles inland. Under other condi-
subsistence for a small population. Despite the enormous tions, aeolian dunes may bury the sabkhas.
wealth generated by oil revenues, future development will Agriculture is still important in the economies of
require some means to make the land more hospitable. The many of the countries in the region, not only providing
irrigation schemes in eastern Arabia have only a qualified food and export revenue, but a source of employment. For
success; and, as they depend upon groundwater, which has environmental and technological reasons, crop yields gen-
only limited possibilities for recharge, or upon fossil erally are low, and crop variety is restricted. Oil revenues
water, there is a definite limit to extensive development. have meant that a progressively larger percentage of the
Desalination plants in the coastal regions are an expensive food requirements are met by imports as well as fueling
means of providing water for other than human consump- economic development.
tion. Politically, the area contains a number of large coun-
The basic soil cover consists of red desert soil, which
 An Introductory Overview

9..'.iv'''' \ \
-...
~i ::.;'.':::""~ X"
Kx ~ :: . , . - . -
, X \
x x x XxX~...
x x x ,~f ,, x\:
IX X Xv ~ ' x x
i
!

b rX X X X X X X X X~
X X X X X X X X X .!
i X X X X X X X 1
xARABIAN SHIELgl
x x x x x xx x
i x x x x x Riyaclh/
x x.x x x x

:? X
~,;.."....

IT~'lBasement outcrops~-~Mesozoic outcrops " 1 m Fault ~ River (Tigris)

~Paleozoic outcrops [ ICenozoic outcrops Thrust ~ Transform fault

fault
2000 m (depth
to the b a s e m e n t ) 9City

Fig. 1.2. Major subdivisions of the Middle East (from Dubertret and Andr6, 1969; Brown,
1972; Saint-Marc, 1978).

tries, such as Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Turkey, Iraq, Syria and political factors have led to the development of an exten-
Oman, most of them sparsely populated; and a number of sive network of pipelines (Fig. 1.4). Other primary miner-
small states bordering the Arabian Gulf, such as the als exist; but, on the whole, these are poorly known, and
U.A.E., Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait. In southern Arabia lies even less exploited. Only the chromium and antimony in
the Republic of Yemen; in the Levant are the smaller states Turkey is of significance in world trade. There are, how-
of Israel/Palestine and Lebanon. ever, important phosphate deposits in Jordan and Israel/
The economy of the greater part of the region is dom- Palestine, and Saudi Arabia. The Arabian Shield has good
inated by petroleum, not only in terms of current produc- potential deposits of copper, gold, iron, silver, manganese
tion, but also in terms of potential. The first commercial oil and lead. Yemen has a fair potential in copper, iron and
was discovered in the Middle East region in Iran in 1908. salt. In Oman, occurrences of copper, chromite, asbestos,
Subsequently, commercial oil was discovered in Iraq in nickel and lead were reported in antiquity. In the U.A.E.,
1927, in Bahrain in 1932, in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in asbestos, chromite and copper have been discovered
1938, in Qatar in 1939, in Turkey in 1951, in the Divided recently. In Iran, there are potential important mineral dis-
Zone in 1953, in Syria in 1956, in the U.A.E. in 1958, in coveries, such as lead, chrome, manganese, coal and cop-
Oman in 1962, in Yemen in 1984 and in Jordan in 1985. per. In northern Iraq, iron ore, chromite, lead and zinc
Many of the Middle East countries have non-associated occur; while in central and western Iraq, sulfur and phos-
natural gas accumulations, as well as considerable vol- phate are found. In Syria, chromite and asbestos deposits
umes of associated gas. The development of the hydrocar- are known in the Lattakiya area, and some deposits of
bon resources has led not only to the exportation of crude asphalt, iron and phosphate have been developed. Two
oil and gas, but also to the development of significant fundamental reasons have inhibited development: the low
refining and petrochemical capacities. Both economic and level of exploration and the inaccessibility of the potential
 Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Geology of the Middle East

MEDITERRANEAN
. . . . .. ?_~ % IRANIAN
"' --- ~'m PLATE

B,.~.~...

" ".~ ".

" 9 ".i ~~~,o4,~,
i.~-~.~
9 ,,.,- -'~
~_-- . . . . .
x- - ~ . . . " - ~ . . , . ~ . . . ~_

X X X xXxXxXxXx xX --' .--, --.

X X X X X X X X
"xXx x X X X X X X X X X X X X X . . . . .

,xxxxxxxxxx
'x x
_
X X X X X X X X
x x x x x x x x OMAH
MOUNTAIN.9
x x xXxX~
x x x x x x x x x :
x X xx X .s. eD: . : X xxX x xX :1 "
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
iX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 9

~I
X X X X X X X X
x x
A ~ ~Xx x Xxxxxxx
X X
x
X
x
X
x
X
X
x
X
i
X~F~.L
' ~ X X X X X . . . . .
X X X XX>
X X X X

AFRICAN
PLATE ARABIANSEA

0 500kin
' ' ' I I I

LEGEND

V//A Zone of thrusting and/or gravity nappes

t -'t ,,..t,~ 1 Stable shelf
~ Zone of Neogene marginal troughs and
autochthonous foldingon unstable shelf ~ Interior homocline

~ Zone of Upper Cretaceous marginal

flysch troughs ~'~..~ Precambrian rocks with Mesozoic-Cenozoic
cover of stable shelf

[' RO [ RndiolarianophioUte complex (mainly Thrust fault

Upper Cretaceous)
Rift fault
'/"-/" Oceanic crust within the Gulf of Aden
~and Red Sea Faults
~Xx
x
x~] Precambrianrocks
x/

Fig. 1.3. Structural elements of the Middle East (modified from Henson, 1951; and Beydoun, 1988).

source regions from trade routes. But, as the supplies from fertile crescent of Syria and Iraq, southeastern Turkey, and
the more traditional sources begin to diminish, the poten- southwestern Iran during the Paleozoic and earliest Meso-
tial of the region can be expected to attract more attention. zoic. The generalized geologic map (Fig. 1.5) and illustra-
tive cross sections (Fig. 1.6) are simplifications of the
combined results of field research by governments, aca-
G E O L O G I C SETTING demic institutes and detailed hydrocarbon exploration by
the petroleum industry. Excluded from consideration here
In plate-tectonic terms, the area lies within the Ara- are the continental part of the Levantine Plate and Sinai,
bian Plate. It covers the Republic of Yemen, Oman, Saudi that is the areas west of the Levantine Fracture System
Arabia, the U.A.E., Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Jordan, the (Dead Sea Rift).
 An Introductory Overview

' )j ' ' ~ "+ Oilfields ' -

\:- //,~, ~ G..,,.,o.

SEA ""N. V~. :.~""~ , Refinery

k._. .'" " " .'.[ . . . . . . Approximate

TURKEY .)'~.. /". I~ :.~ Intemationa, boundaries
\ . ~ / " ./ I~CASPIAN ::\
,e %r 9 9 i "lf~ sea !! .
~"~..,..,, ) "---+~~ .... ~.____~-.,
\'- ,~, " " , ; ~ . ~ I ~_ "'~
9 ",.~,. ~'l,,, v - ._ j .,.. _ -.. -... ~. ~ ."7

u ~,-I ( .-" ~~J! /

f~/\ [".,,~.--~~-*-" IRAN t
/ \

IRAQ
-- _ -- .....

I|
%
,11 %
%
~,,~" ~. /" I
%

o, oe> 9 |
-~--..+...Jk
/Lj I. " L..> /
r;. /
I
loo
I
I

KUWAIT "". ~ . a
..-.~
" - . ~

l
,,.

ruLFoF
OMAN

"l / ~-v~."-.'.
!., QATAR ----...z.~.--<. , ~ ,
l" I '
--. SAUDI A R A B I A /~ '
~ ..... ~ J o~ ~ . j
% . . . . . - - - aOMAN ,
"~ X. -" \ ." "
-~ r-~..~ ./ \ ~..~
REPuBt.,c oF /
lq :~ ; YEMEN /'ARABIAN

l ~".. ':'l i...I"'"" 0 250 500km

Fig. 1.4. Major oil and gas pipelines and refineries in the Middle East (compiled from various issues oflnternationalPetroleumEncy-
clopedia, 1981-1989).

As Beydoun (1988) pointed out, the Middle East, as form the southeastern and southwestern boundaries of the
defined here, formed part of the African Plate throughout Middle East area. Both are very young features, and as a
the greater part of the Phanerozoic. Breakup began during result, the development of a coastal plain in both regions is
the early Mesozoic with the opening of Neotethys, as a minimal. The agreement of the geological features on both
result of which the Iranian segment split off. This was fol- sides of the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, which show
lowed during the late Tertiary by the development of a concordant geological structures, indicates that separation
spreading ridge that propagated from the Indian Ocean, in a geologically very recent time was accompanied by a
forming the Gulf of Aden and the beginning of spreading small, but significant, transcurrent displacement. It is the
along the Red Sea Rift (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3). Together, these onshore continuation of shear fractures associated with the
 Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Geology of the Middle East

Fig. 1.5. Generalized geologic map of the Middle East, (modified from CGMW-UNESCO, 1985: USGS- ARAMCO, 1963, Beydoun,
1988) with lines of section of Fig. 1.6.
opening of the Red Sea, passing up the Gulf of Aqaba and
forming the Dead Sea Rift, to abut against the Taurus
Mountains in the north, that complete the periphery of the
Middle East. Along the eastern shores of the Red Sea,
uplifted Precambrian rocks and their sedimentary and vol-
canic cover provide greater relief than is seen on the west-
ern side; and, in the Asir Mountains of Yemen, elevations
of more then 3,700 m (11,840 ft) are reached. This eleva-
tion gradually declines to the north and east. The western
side of the Jordan rift is overlooked by the Levant uplands,
completing the elevated rim of the area.
An indication of the underlying geological basis for
the limits to the Middle East is shown by the distribution
of seismicity (Fig. 1.7). It particularly is marked along the
mountain fronts and, to a lesser extent, along the ridge-rift
system that forms the southwestern and northwestern lim-
its, lines that are essentially plate boundaries (Figs. 1.2 and
1.3). In the western part of the Arabian Plate, young volca-
nics are abundant; they occur as the Trap Series in Yemen,
where they form the "harrats," and extend into Saudi Ara-
bia. They also crop out extensively in Jordan, Syria and
Turkey. Thus, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden are young
ocean basins of the type with which the Neotethys, formed
by separation between central Iran and Arabia during the
Late Triassic, can be compared.
Geologically, the principal features defining the area
can be assigned to three causes (Beydoun, 1988): exten-
sional events in southern and eastern Arabia that result
from seafloor spreading in the Gulf of Aden and the Red
Sea with the generation of incipient ocean basins; com-
pressional folding in the north and northeast in the Taurus-
Zagros-Oman Orogenic Zone consequent upon continent-
continent collision; and strike-slip faulting along the Dead
Sea Rift or Levant Fracture Zone (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3). The
ability to recognize such features, which were the result of
similar events in the geological past, provides the key to
 An Introductory Overview

NNW SSE
SOUTH
TURKEY, l , IRAQ K ~ SAU[~ ARABIA
ObtAN

Black Sea Am/a~mS~

" , ,i

c.'." - , , . . , -' ";,:

IZ '..LLr,-" ..i "-c l ~tX_ S ~ , ' o, ,~i . 1 % 1x , , . ". 1x 1 ..- ~ % l~1"%*'1%1% l~"l" -'~'~'-I /"~1 .. ,~1-.~ .. ~,-i Jil~,l ..,.ISlI 9. . . .

ssw NNE
,,,

ARAB CENTRAL CASPIAN-

ARABIAN
MOUNTAINS TURMEN
ARABIAN KOPT
IAN IRANIAN
SHIELD PLATFORM GULF PLATEAU
,
BASIN
I

[' . ~ , ' . , - 1 ~ ' ~ . ~ ' . ; , - - ' : ~ . ~ ' - ' ~ " - ; . ' : ' : , _ ' , : ............ :"::"".':';':~i'-"':'."':"=...... "~,~- ,"" i:~..... : .......... : ' : : ' " "
"'" ......
I! ~-'12: ;;-~,',~. ,,.t-;:c,-~,..'g,': . .-,. . . .-.-,--
...
%--1~ I %

; % - , ; ,. ;-~ .~.., :j

LEGEND
~ BASENENT ~I MESOZOIC ~ JUR~SlC ~ ,=OCtm
C~X
,=ozo I TRIASSIC ! CRETAeEOt~ ~ MIOCENE

Fig. 1.6. Northeast-southwest and northwest- southeast schematic geological cross sections of the Middle East. The locations of the
cross sections and references are indicated on Fig. 1.5.

understanding the geological evolution of the region. This continuing through the Mesozoic, during the early Paleo-
recognition is made difficult by the tendency for such zoic, the geological history of the whole region so closely
events to coincide with, or to be close to, zones of present parallels that of the Arabian Peninsula that it is reasonable
activity, as, for example, the late Paleozoic to Cenozoic to assume it formed an integral part of the Arabian Plat-
history of the Zagros Crush Zone with the opening and form ( s e n s u s t r i c t o ) for most of the Paleozoic.
subsequent closure of the Neotethys. The Arabian Penin-
sula forms the nuclear region for the Middle East. It is
generally separated into the exposed Precambrian part or SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
shield, and the sediment-covered platform. The Precam-
brian basement generally dips gently to the north-northeast The lower Paleozoic depositional pattern in the Mid-
and east, as the sediment cover thickens progressively dle East is relatively simple and has a high degree of corre-
from less than 1,500 m (4,920 ft) to more than 10,940 m spondence with the sedimentational history of the northern
(35,883 ft) in the vicinity of the Arabian Gulf (Fig. 1.8), to margin of Gondwana from the Maghreb to Iran. This simi-
more than 12,500 m (41,000 ft) in southwestern Iran and larity might be expected to manifest itself in the distribu-
northeastern Iraq. This thickness varies over structures tion of marine fauna, but marine horizons are few, due to
such as the Qatar-South Fars Arch, a result of Hercynian the fact that the lithofacies of the exposed rock sequence
upwarping during the late Paleozoic. The erosion that fol- were unsuitable for the existence and/or preservation of
lowed the uplift led to the removal of considerable thick- fauna. In the lower Paleozoic, there are few faunally dat-
nesses of the Paleozoic sequence. Although there are many able horizons, and reliance has had to be placed on trace
geological complications associated with the Iranian area fossils to provide most of the stratigraphic control. Gaps in
east of the Zagros, beginning in the latest Paleozoic and the faunal record also may be due partly to the fact that the
 Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Geology of the Middle East

of oil field operators in the area, has resulted in a multi-

plicity of stratigraphic terms. The consequence is that even
before account is taken of facies variability, a single strati-
graphic unit may carry the same or different names, may
YRiA j /; .i
be defined differently even in nearby fields, may have dif-
.I~ .,,." IRAQ i, .,,~ IRAN I
ferent time limits assigned, or may be ranked differently as
b %" "~ "" C " a member or formation. The inevitable confusion has been
~9 "~-~ . ~ ,-~i 3dN'-.
~11oS ,,ll,
to some extent resolved by agreement between the operat-
ing companies, the publication of the Lexique Strati-
graphique International (for most countries in the Middle
East, except Kuwait, Bahrain, the U.A.E. and Oman), and
by a number of syntheses (Saint-Marc, 1978; Murris,
AA ARABIA 1981; Koop and Stoneley, 1982; Beydoun, 1988).
It follows from the above that much is known about
A OI
the economically important series. Other formations that
."i
underlie the oil-beating beds, such as the Paleozoic rocks
i in Saudi Arabia, are less well-known. The detail available
oo A i has sometimes resulted in the recognition that the recorded
/" A

I
sequences do not always fit into the conventional mode, as,
for example, in the Cretaceous, where it is more conve-
Fig. 1.7. General distribution of earthquakes in the Middle East nient to make a threefold division rather than the conven-
in the pre-instrumental period (to 1899) plotted as triangles, and tional division into the Upper and Lower Cretaceous.
events of magnitude 5 or greater, from 1899-1992, plotted as The Middle East, as any part of the world, has been
open circles (after Ambraseys et al., 1994, by kind permission of
Cambridge University Press). affected by major and minor unconformities throughout
geological time. Sea-level fluctuation, epeirogenic move-
regions involved have been explored less. The gaps may be
ment and volcanic activity have all played their part in
filled with more research and with the acquisition of more
controlling sedimentation. Therefore, in preparing the geo-
surface and subsurface data, such as the recognition of
logical history of the Middle East, the authors, while
Paleozoic faunas in deep wells in Syria (e.g., Sudbury,
retaining the traditional division of the stratigraphic col-
1957), Saudi Arabia (A1 Laboun, 1986) and Oman
umn into systems, series, etc., have found it profitable to
(Hughes-Clarke, 1988). The apparent lack of some hori-
use somewhat longer intervals of time during which geo-
zons, however, may be due to non-deposition, such as the
logical events follow a consistent pattern. That is, use has
absence of the Ashgillian in much of the region, attributed
been made of the ideas of sequence stratigraphy, where the
to glaciation that affected much of northern Gondwana
major intervals are bounded by interregional unconformi-
during the Ordovician/Silurian. The late Paleozoic time
ties marking transgressions and regressions that appear to
interval is poorly known, with few surface exposures.
be global in extent (Sloss, 1963). Within the major inter-
During the Mesozoic, deposition over the Arabian
vals, there occur many smaller-scale, transgressive and
Platform remained relatively simple, and the ramp and
regressive events marking intervals of shorter duration.
platform model of carbonate deposition developed by
The calibration of these fluctuations of sea level during
Murris (1981) has proven a very fruitful means of consid-
geological time has been developed by Vail et al. (1977)
ering intracratonic sedimentary sequences (Alsharhan and
and Haq et al. (1987). The basic feature of sequence
Nairn, 1986, 1988, 1990). The principal complication in
stratigraphy is that it makes explicit the time-transgressive
this simple history is marked by the plate collision accom-
nature of the unconformities in contrast to the traditional
panying the obduction of ophiolites, the emplacement of
use of unconformities bounding geological systems, where
the Oman nappes, and the emplacement of the Zagros
there commonly is an implicit assumption that, at least in
ophiolites, which mark the beginning of the formation of
limited areas, they represent time horizons. The recogni-
the Zagros Fold Belt. The closing of the Neotethys com-
tion of the time-transgressive nature of the unconformities
pleted the process during the Neogene.
makes it difficult to put a precise age on the oldest part of
Although outcrops are few, with so much of the area
the unconformable surface. The major sequences have
low-lying and covered with unconsolidated deposits, the
names drawn from North American geology. These pri-
dearth of outcrops is counterbalanced greatly by the exten-
mary sequences are broken by one or more second-order
sive system of wells drilled in the search for, and the
events, which may be less well-defined and not always
exploitation of, the petroleum wealth of the region. These
apparent on a global scale, but which may be extremely
subsurface data provide an unparalleled three-dimensional
important on a regional scale. The general acceptance of
picture and permit the recognition of relatively subtle
sequence stratigraphy came about through the develop-
facies changes, which can be traced for considerable dis-
ment of the curves correlating changes in sea level, as
tances in the absence of major structural discontinuities.
developed by Vail et al. (1977) (Fig. 1.9). Figs. 1.10-1.12
The richness of these data, together with the large numbers
 An Introductory Overview

-. ~ ... J
I J
J
TURKEY i /

.,,~.~.
9 ._~.. ~ ....
.)
/

i N
Mediterranean
Sea IRAN ~'/
\
'" l

~...
.,~
o, /

~,. (--".. .........

"~.

"7
..
.,.f
I
., + 4- 4. ~- . ., ~"
4, 4. +4.+. 4-," ," " *~k

4- 4- 4. + . . . .
+ + + + + . . . . ~I
+ + + 4. 4. .~ -,, .,, .*- +~'
O~Qn
+ + -, + -" - o + * "N~ n~

",'-:-i-.-.- -,? .z,

.I"' !

ge ~

0 300mi. , '~r-.~lll ~ I~ It

0 500k

Fig. 1.8. Isopach contour map of the total Phanerozoic sedimentary cover in the Middle East, with contour interval in thousands of feet
(based on data from Wilson and Peterson, 1986).

are attempts to summarize data from the Middle Eastern formations of central Arabia. The succeeding argillaceous
countries according to the Vail model. sediments with their rich graptolite fauna establish the
The Sauk sequence covers the beds deposited during middle Llandoverian as the oldest identifiable horizon over
the time interval from the Late Precambrian to Early most of North Africa and northern Arabia.
Ordovician (end Arenigian), that is from the oldest trans- The Early Devonian to mid-Carboniferous Kaskaskia
gressive sediments on the pre-Tassilian surface of Beuf et sequence is not well-known in Arabia. Although marine
al. (1971) to the youngest, regressive marine sediments. limestone of both Middle Devonian and Early Carbonifer-
The beds are overwhelmingly clastic, mostly sandstone, ous age is known in some deep wells, clastics form an
and commonly contain a fauna largely restricted to trace important part of the sequence and can be dated by their
fossils. palynomorphs.
The Tippecanoe sequence extends from the Middle The Absaroka sequence spans the time from the latest
Ordovician (early Llanvirnian) to Early Devonian. Over Early Carboniferous to Early Jurassic. In Arabia, the old-
most of the northern margin of Gondwana, a distinctive est beds rest upon a well-defined unconformity, the Her-
base to this sequence is absent, and the top of the sequence cynian unconformity, and mark the resumption of clastic
is often relatively ill-defined and poorly dated. In most sedimentation in those regions following uplift and deep
areas, there is an important break; much or all of the Ash- erosion. The presence of the great Karoo "Dwyka" glacia-
gillian, together with parts of the late Caradocian and pos- tion is indicated by sporadic deposits in Oman and the
sibly the earliest Llandoverian, is missing, with the time southwestern Rub al Khali. Over much of the Arabian
represented by an important glacial epoch. Glacial depos- Platform, the most significant beds are formed by the Per-
its of this epoch are best represented by the Sarah/Zarqa mian Khuff Limestone sequence, the first major marine
 Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Geology of the Middle East

FIRST ORDER CYCLE I SECOND ORDER CYCLE ]REGIONAL SLOSS{1963) ]

- RELATIVE CHANGES OF' i R-I~LAAtT/V~CHANGES OF UNCONFORM.
PERIOD EPOCH" SEA LEVEL SEQUENCE
MIDDLE E A S T STRATIGRAPH~
1.o o.s o 1.1o. ,_ , .~ .... o
, , | ,,
.iaL,i, j . l, WL i ~ 1 N l r 0 ' 1 I I

TERTIARY ~OL=~OeENE T~AS

EOCENE
: PAL I~ r t r I;NF

L
CRETACEOUS ~ 1oo-., 1
ZUNi
' --.<. iPRESENT "- ,
SEALEVEL
JURASSIC _> ~ , SEA LEVEL . ~ X --
,

9 .,,, zoo-[ "--"

TRIASSIC
ABSAROKA
PERMIAN -. --

,= ,oo_
CRBONIFEROUS"~ ,
e ~

' ~ i
KASKASKIA
CAMBRIAN

DEVONIAN
'
'00 2
TIPPECANOE Ii
SILURIAN M
' , I~ soo ~.
ORDOVICIAN x SAUK
_, \ -
PRECAMBRIAN -i

Fig. 1.9. Global relative sea-level changes, first- and second-order cycles, during the Phanerozoic of Vail et al. (1977), with the
sequence stratigraphy of Sloss (1963). The major unconformities of the Middle East are indicated.

transgression over the Arabian Platform or, perhaps more mid-Tertiary; beds above the upper Miocene are poorly
properly stated, the first widespread epoch of carbonate represented, and the stratigraphic record has many gaps. In
sedimentation over the platform, because the trace fossils the west, from Yemen north to Syria and Turkey, the exten-
and graptolites found in the clastic beds of the lower Pale- sive volcanic activity found is a reflection of the important
ozoic show evidence of marine influence. The upper part tensional events affecting this western margin of Arabia.
of the Absaroka cycle shows considerable sea-level fluctu- Within the range of these major, first-order cycles, as
ation (Fig. 1.9); consequently, lithofacies variations are stated earlier, onlap and offlap sequences bounded by
considerable, setting it apart from the Absaroka beds regional unconformities have been recognized by Vail et
below and the Zuni beds above. al. (1977) and Haq et al. (1987). They have attempted to
The Zuni sequence, which lasted from the Middle correlate them in a global sequence of sea-level fluctua-
Jurassic to middle Paleocene, is characterized by the wide- tions. The onlapping sequences result from rapid deposi-
spread development of shallow-water carbonates and tion during transgression, whereas slower depositional
evaporites. During this interval, many sedimentary cycles rates mark the offlapping sequences as the seas gradually
can be recognized (Murris, 1981). Two major tectonic receded. Vail and Wilbur (1966) believe that the onlap
events can be recognized within the limits of the Zuni unconformities do not necessarily represent erosional
sequence in parts of the Middle East. The first, between unconformities, and that the onlapping beds sometimes
the Middle and Late Jurassic, marking the split between provide the key to discerning the unconformable base of a
East and West Gondwana, is not clear in Arabia, as deposi- series. The movement may be the result of orogenic move-
tion of carbonates was continuous. The second, near the ment or the magnitude of sea-level change.
end of the Cretaceous, was marked by the development of In the Middle East, Caledonian and Hercynian events
ophiolites in Oman and the Zagros Mountains, accompa- are identified by their effects on sea-level change, not by
nied by overthrusting as the Neotethys began to close. their orogenic effects. They are marked mostly during the
The final, Tejas sequence, covering the period from Late Silurian and Early Carboniferous. However, account
the late Paleocene to present, rests upon a definable inter- must be taken of the effects upon sea level of Late Ordovi-
regional unconformity. The sequence is not well-devel- cian glaciation and the Karoo glaciations in the Early Per-
oped in its upper part because of the orogenic activity in mian. During the Mesozoic, the tectonic effects of the
the Zagros Mountains and the continuing restriction of the closing of Paleotethys and the opening of Neotethys can
Arabian Gulf. A major stratigraphic break occurs in the readily be identified in the sea-level fluctuations recorded

10
 ---~/ ..... SECOND-ORDER ] M~,JORTRANSGRE-' 1 ......... MAJOR UNCONFORMITIES

,
~-m~'~=molC ' GLOBAL CYCLES OF !
~E~LU~
TIME
'RELATIVE CHANGES OF
(va~EAI eLF.VlF~7),
_ .
SSIONS - REGRESS-

.
IONS IN ARABIA
. . . . . . . .
1
,
;
......
ARABIA
, ,

" ' ~
.

0MAN
. . . . . . ---
ZAGFIOS [CF_~ [R_A_L= ALBORZ [W
'
...... ' ~ 1 7 6
C & NE
....
S & SEt , W NW
"'"
"
A ~

N
-

I ,.1 i HIGH
6
Or) ~
~ ,u
09 : 1
1
i 1
1

Iii < __
11 ,
~- M
1-- --r--
-m

~Z U =

w_<
o_:~ L
N

u'~ U
0---
.-~ M
'~(LL ----"
',E >
, i I
c)~ L
O
5 oz t, i O
N >,a:
O
Lu "SiLU- u-
< RIAN L-~
............ "~iiiii!iiii ! O
<
13. i t
~
O U <
i.,,Io
> '.----
O .i
M
tT
. . . .
o -s i
l
Z g~
I
cc
0:1 !,
M! 4
i

!lt (.~ ] L !
, . .~., -:

PRE-
s
Volcanics, metasediments. Sediments and rock Salts of Precambrian
..... J

Fig. 1.10. Relative sea-level changes during the Paleozoic after Vail et al. (1977), showing the major and minor unconformities interpreted in this study.
 An Introductory Overview
in the lithofacies changes seen in the stratigraphic record.
The first major orogenic activity is not observed until the
Late Cretaceous collision, when the Iran Block, which had
only separated from the Arabian Plate during the Permo-
Triassic, collided with it along the Zagros line. Nappes
were emplaced from northeast to southwest, as the colli-
sion zone closed and the Zagros foredeep formed (Murris,
1981). Across the Dibba Line in the southern Arabian
Gulf, ophiolitic nappes were emplaced in northern Oman.
In the broadest sense, until these events in the Mesozoic
and Cenozoic, the Arabian Platform was a slowly subsid-
ing continental margin at the edge of the Tethys dominated
by facies characteristic of shelf conditions; whereas in Iraq
and Iran, miogeosynclinal facies predominated. A major
sea-level fall in the late Oligocene-early Miocene is
reflected in a major unconformity. This was the time of the
tectonic activity related to the opening of the Red Sea and
the Gulf of Aden. The final phases of Alpine activity, from
the Miocene to Pleistocene, are associated with the uplift
and folding of the Zagros.
13