Strength and Materials

3.
(More important measurement of Forces and Deformation)

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 Yesterday Summary
 Pin-joint truss
 Concept of static determinacy
 Member forces (internal forces)?
 The method of joints?

This Lecture
 Define stresses
 How to calculate stresses ?
 How are stresses used in design?
 OBJECTIVES
• Define normal stress
• Define shear stress
• Calculate stresses using the
method of section
• How to use the calculated
stresses in design

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Application to a Bar
Normal Force (direct force):
The force is applied -
F F perpendicular to a
section

Shear Force:
The force is applied-
F F parallel to a section

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 Simple questions Force on a section is not
P sufficient to determine the
mechanical behaviour of a
member.

We need to look at the area of

the section carrying the force
as well

(a) (b)
A relative Force
measurement
Two columns are made of the same material and of force
Area
subject to the same level of loading. If failure occurs,

 Which one will fail first?

 Which will have a larger deformation? Force per unit area
Intensity of a force STRESS
Observation:
(b) carries the same force on a smaller section, so it will
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fail first and be shortened more
 STRESS
Concept of stress
• Distribution of force acting over a sectioned area;
• The unit is force per unit area; N/m2. N/mm2, etc
• A stress has both magnitude and direction;
• Stresses act either perpendicular or parallel to a plane.
Normal (direct) Shear
stress due to Stress due to shear
normal force force

Additionally
• Normally stresses are different at different points within a
material.
• At a point within a material, stresses can be different on
different sections.
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General way to calculate internal forces/stresses…………

The Method of Sections

• This method consists of passing an imaginary section
through a member, thus cutting it into 2 parts
• Provided the entire member is in equilibrium, any part
after the imaginary cutting must also be in equilibrium
The developed internal
forces must balance the
sum of all the external
F=P forces acting on this part

V=F/27
We have worked out forces, we now need to work out the intensity of the forces,
i.e., the stresses



P 
A

COMPRESSIVE
TENSILE NEGATIVE
POSITIVE
Units N/m2
V
 called Pascal
A (Pa)
P
   – shear stress
A Other units such as
MPa = 106Pa =N/mm2
 – normal (direct) stress GPa = 109Pa =kN/mm2 8
Consider another example, a bolt
connecting two structural members. Q
What is the internal force acting on the
bolts cross-section?

Q Q Q

Q V=Q
Q

As the shear force is applied directly to the bolt, we may assume shear stress is
constant across it’s section. This is a valid assumption for a number of connections
(bolts, pins, welds).

 Shear Force Q Unit:

  Pa or N/m2
Section Area Section Area
 ALLOWABLE STRESS
• Allowable stresses are material properties specified by material
manufacturers and various design codes. In most cases, allowable
stresses are taken as STRENGTH of materials

• When designing a structural member or mechanical element, the

stress in it must be restricted to safe level

• Reduce the level of the design load, or use higher strength

materials., or use more materials to keep the stress level within a
mechanical system below the allowable stress
actual stress
work stress  allowable stress of material
calculated stress
   allowable    allowable
   allowable    allowable
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 and  are safety factors that are <= 1
 FIBER PROPERTIES:TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

Alum 138

Steel 400

S-Glass 4000

Carbon 3600

Aramid 3500

E-Glass 3400

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Strength is only one of the factors you should consider when selecting materials.
Other factors, such as costs, environmental impact, etc should also be considered
J. Ye 11
EXAMPLE 3.1
Bar width = 35 mm, thickness = 10 mm
Determine max. average normal stress in bar when
subjected to loading shown. If the allowable stress
of the material is 150MPa, check the safety of the
bar.

Observations: Forces act between the two ends, so the axial force
along the axis is not always constant and sections must be taken
between any consecutive loading points.

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Internal loading The method of section

Normal stress
PBC 30(103) N
σBC = =
A (0.035 m)(0.010 m)
= 85.7 (106)N/m2
= 85.7MPa < 150MPa
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The bar is safe
Example 3.2: Shear Stresses

Helicopter weighs 2700 kg

Four mounting brackets
Four shackles in double shear
Shackle pin radius 5mm
Shear stress per shackle pin?
F/2 F/2

If the allowable shear stress

of the pin is 80N/mm2,
check the safety of the
design.

F=2700/4=675kg =6750N

F/2=3375N
Helicopter weighs 2700 kg F 14
Example: Shear Stresses
3375 N 3375 N Pin radius = 5 mm

Each shear area 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 3.14x(5x10-3)2=78.5 x 10-6 m2

F/2 F/2 V

V 3375
F    43  10 6
N / m 2

A 78.5  106
Shear stress = 43 MPa
6750 N
  43MPa  43N / mm 2

  allowable  80 N / mm 2 15
 Summary
• Get the internal forces and stresses using
1. method of sections
2. Equations of equilibrium
• Assumptions for a uniform normal stress distribution over x-
section of member (σ = P/A)
• Assumptions for a uniform shear stress distribution over x-
section of member ( = V/A)
• The work (actual) stress in a materials must be smaller than the
allowable stress of the materials

Next…..
Deformation caused by stresses --- strains
Stress-strain relationships
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