Alternating Current vanes fesin(wt, 1/2) @ 0 FIGURE 7.6 (a) A Phasor diagram for the circuit in Fig. 7.5. {b) Graph of v and i versus et. We see that the current reaches its maximum value later than the T_n/2 voltage by one-fourth of a period [F wa). You have seen that an inductor has reactance that limits current similar to resistance in a de circuit. Does it also consume power like a resistance? Let us try to find out. ‘The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is pi =tw=t, sia(oe 7 2), sin(ot) (atta £08 (04) sin (ot) Lava fafa sin 20t) So, the average power aver a complete cycle is, ( ‘at sin (20) PR, fata (sin(201))=0, since the average of sin (200i) over a complete cycle is zero. ‘Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle ts zero. Figure 7.7 explains it in detail. Exampli pure inductor of 25.0 mH 1s connected to a source of 220 V. fe inductive reactance and rms current in the eircuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz. Solution The inductive reactance, X, =2nvL=2%3.14%50%25x107 W E = 7.850 5 ‘The rms current in the circuit is A VES 2209. 3 gata: S x, 7850 is 239 2018.20‘The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI untt 1s, ohm (0). The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely capacitive cireuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit. But it 4s inversely proportional to the frequency and @ my the capacitance. A comparison of Eq. (7.16) with the FIGURE 7.9 (a) A Phasor diagram for the cireult in Fig. 7.8. (b) Graph of v and i versus at. ‘equation of source voltage, Eq. (7.1) shows that the current is 1/2 ahead of voltage. Figure 7.9{a) shows the phasor diagram at an instant f,. Here the current phasor I is 1/2 ahead of the voltage phasor V as they rotate counterclockwise. Figure 7.9(b) shows the variation of voltage and current with time, We see that the current reaches its maximum value earlier than the voltage by one-fourth of a period. ‘The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is, p= 1v= i, costo, sin(d {Up COS(eH9 sit(oot) inten gin =a ent) (7.19) So, as in the case of an inductor, the average power P= (age sitzon) = fda (sint2on))= 0 since = 0 over a complete cycle. Figure 7.10 explains itin detail. ‘Thus, we see that in the case of an inductor, the current lags the voltage by x/2 and in the case of a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by x/2. Example 7.3 A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. Predict ‘your observations for de and ac connections. What happens in cach case if the capacitance of the capacitor is reduced? Solution When a dc source is connected to a capacitor, the capacitor gets charged and after charging no current flows in the cireuit and the lamp will not glow. There will be no change even if C ts reduced. With ac source, the capacitor offers capacitative reactance (1/@C) and the current flows in the circuit. Consequently, the lamp will shine. Reducing C will increase reactance and the lamp will shine less brightly than before. Example 7.4 A 15.0 uF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. [Find the capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the current? Solution The capacitive reactance is —_.__i___. 2vO 2x(S0HZ)(15.0x10°F) ‘The rms current is re 2120 Q RN E i el 242, 2018.20Vv _ 220v x," 22a" ‘The peak current is fy = VBE = (L41)0.04.4}= 1.474 ‘This current oscillates between +1.47A and -1.47 A, and is ahead of the voltage by 2/2. If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved and consequently. the current is doubled. an ac rough a key as shown in Fig. 7.11. a Exe = Wit bab and an Spe Gol induc wre ogc FIGURE7.11 ‘The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb (a) increases: (b) decreases; (c} is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted. Give your answer with reasons, Solution As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coll magnetizes the iron increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of the coil increases. Consequently, the inductive reactance of the coil increases. As a result, a larger fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the inductor, leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb decreases. 7.6 AC Vortace Appiiep To a Series LCR Circuir Figure 7.12 shows a series LOR circuit conected to an ac source €, As usual, we take the voltage of the source to be v= v,,sin at. If q is the charge on the capacitor and {the R current, at time f, we have, from Kirchhoff’s loop rule: at a rtyined- : 1S atk s (7.20) We want to determine the instantaneous L current ‘and its phase relationship to the applied alternating voltage v. We shall solve this problem IVECO by two methods. First, we use the technique of FIGURE 7.12 A series LCR cireuit phasors and in the second method, we solve 244 connected to an ac source. Eq. (7.20) analytically to obtain the time- dependence of i. 2018.20Alternating Current value of @, the smaller is the value of 2A@ or the bandwidth and sharper is the resonance. Using of = 1/1C . Eq. {7.36(c]] can be equivalently expressed as = 1/0,CR. We see from Fig. 7.15. that if the resonance is less sharp, not only is the maximum current less, the circuit ts close to resonance fora larger range Aq of frequencies and the tuning of the circuit will not be good. So, less sharp the resonance, less is the selectivity of the circuit or vice versa. From Eq, (7.36), we see that if quality factor is large, L.¢., Ris low or Lis large, the circuit is more selective. Examy resistor of 200 9 and a capacitor of 15.0 HF are connec! feries to a 220 V, 50 Hz. ac source. (a) Caleulate the current Yethe circuit; (b) Calculate the voltage (rms) across the resistor and the capacitor. Is the algebraic sum of these voltages more than the source voltage? If yes, resolve the paradox. Solution Given Re2000, C215.01F V =220V, v=50H2 (a) In order to calculate the current, we need the impedance of the circuit. It is 2= IE +X = JP + Oeve* = (20007 +(2x3.14%50%15.0x10717 = y(2009}? + (212.39) = 291.672 ‘Therefore, the current in the circuit is 5.0x10°F (6) Since the current is the same throughout the circuit, we have Vq = IR= (0.755 A)12000) = 151 Vo = 1X = (0.785 A}(212.39) = ‘The algebraic sum of the two voltages. V, and Vis 311.3 V which is more than the source voltage of 220 V. How to resolve this paradox? As you have learnt in the text, the two voltages are not in the same phase. Therefore, they cannot be added like ordinary numbers. The two voltages are out of phase by ninety degrees. Therefore, the total of these voltages must be obtained using the Pythagorean theorem: Vewe = \WE+VE =220V ‘Thus, if the phase difference between two voltages is properly taken Into account, the total voltage across the resistor and the capacitor 1s ‘equal to the voltage of the source. Pye 2018.20Alternating Current Solution (a) We know that P= I V cos where cos¢ is the power factor. ‘To supply a given power at a given voltage. if cos is small, we have to increase current accordingly. But this will lead to large power Toss (PR) in transmission. (b)Suppose in a circuit, current J lags the voltage by an angle ¢. Then power factor cos =R/Z. We can improve the power factor (tending to 1) by making Z tend to R Lot us understand, with the help of a phasor diagram (Fig. 7.17) how this can be achieved. Let us resolve I into two components. I, along — r 0 1, FIGURE 7.17 the applied voltage V and I, perpendicular to the applied voltage. I, ‘as you have learnt in Section 7.7, is called the waltless component since corresponding to this component of current, there is no power Joss. I, is known as the power component because it is in phase with the voltage and corresponds to pawer loss in the circuit. Its clear from this analysis that if we want to improve power factor, we must completely neutralize the lagging wattless current 1, by an ‘equal leading wattless current V’,. This can be done by connecting a capacitor of appropriate value in parallel so that T, and Y, cancel each other and P is effectively 1, V. pee © Example 7.8 A stislda voltage of peak value 288 Vand frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series LCR circuit in which R=8 0, L= 25.48 mH, and C = 796 uF. Find (a) the impedance of the circuit; (b) the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current; (¢) the power dissipated in the efrcull; and (d) the power factor. Solution (a) To find the impedance of the circuit, we first calculate X, and X.. X,=2avL = 2% 3.14 x 50x 25.48 x 10° A= 80 1 Xe 2xve 2018.20 Peeineet 253254 ™i Physics 3 & mi B *3xa.daxsox706xi0" *° Therefore, Ze (RR =e -58 Xo-X, ©) Phase difference, = tant - (2 Since 9 is negative, the current in the circuit lags the voltage across the source. (c) The power dissipated in the cireuit is P=PR -53.1° Now, ‘Therefore, P=(40A)" x30=4800W {@) Power factor = cos ¢= cos(-53.1°) = 0.6 Frample 7.9 Suppose the frequency of the source in the previous ample can be varied. (a) What is the frequency of the source at hich resonance occurs? (b) Calculate the Impedance, the current, hd the power dissipated at the resonant condition, Solution fa) The frequency at which the resonance occurs 1s 1 1 0 * TiC ~ 2548x107 x796x10* = 222.1 rad/s ey 221.1 v= Gh = SR Hie = 95.42 (&) The impedance Z at resonant condition is equal to the resistance: Ze =30 ‘The rms current at resonance is, EY (282). nn ‘The power dissipated at resonance is P2P xR= (66.77 x3= 13.35 kW You can see that in the present case, power dissipated at resonance is more than the power dissipated in Example 7.8. 2018.20EXERCIS! A. A 100 2 resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. {a) What fs the rms value of current in the circuit? (b) What is the net power consumed aver a full cycle? (a) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage? (b) The ms value of current in an ac circuit fs 10 A. What ts the peak current? © 4.44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the circuit. St AGO UF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the circuit. In Exercises 7.3 and 7.4, what is the net power absorbed by each cireuil over a complete cycle. Explain your answer. Obtain the resonant frequency w, of a series LCR circuit with L=2.0H, C= 32 UF and R= 10.9. What is the Q-value of this circuit? fA) charged 30 pF capacitor is connected to a 27 mH inductor. What is the angular frequency of [ree oscillations of the circuit? 7.8 Suppose the initial charge on the capacitor in Exercise 7.7 is 6 mC. What is the total energy stored in the circuit initially? What is the total energy at Inter time? 7.9 Aseries LCR circuit with R= 20 Q, L= 1.5 Hand C~35 Fis connected to a variable-frequency 200 V ac supply. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the average power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle? 7.10 A radio can tune over the frequency range of a portion of MW broadcast band: (800 kHlz to 1200 ki). Its LC circuit has an effective inductance of 200 ull, what must be the range of its variable capacitor? Hint: For tuning, the natural frequency ‘.e., the frequency of free ZEN illations of the £6 cireuit should be equal to the frequency of the ire 7.21 shows a series LOR circuit connected to a variable juency 230 V source. L= 5.0 H, C= 80uF, R= 40 0. FIGURE 7.21 {a) Determine the source frequency which drives the cireuit in (©) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of current at the resonating frequency. (c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements of the circuit. Show that the potential drop across the LC 266 combination is zero at the resonating frequen 2018.20212 214 2.15 7.16 2.17 7.18 7.19 Alternating Current ADDITIONAL EXERCISES ‘An LC circuit contains a 20 mH inductor and a 50 PF capacitor with, an initial charge of 10 mC. ‘The resistance of the cireuit is negligible. Let the instant the eircuit ts closed be ¢ = 0. (a) What is the total energy stored initially? Is it conserved during LC oscillations? (b) What is the natural frequency of the circuit? (c) At what time is the energy stored @ completely electrical (Le., stored in the capacitor)? (i) completely magnetic (Le., stored in the inductor)? (a) At what times is the total energy shared equally between the inductor and the capacitor? (¢) Ifa resistor is inserted in the cireust, how much energy is eventually dissipated as heat? coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100 @ is connected to a 240 V. 50 Hz ac supply. (a) What is the maximum current in the coil? (b) What is the time lag between the voltage maximum and the current maximum? Obtain the answers (a) to (b) in Exercise 7.13 if the circuit ts connected to a high frequency supply (240 V, 10 kH2). Hence, explain the statement that at very high frequency, an inductor in a circuit nearly amounts to an open circuit. How does an inductor behave in a de circuit after the steady state? A100 uF capacitor in series with a 40 resistance is connected to a. 110 V, 60 Hz supply. (a) What is the maximum current in the circuit? (b) What is the time lag between the current maximum and the voltage maximum? Obtain the answers to (a) and (b) in Exercise 7.15 if the circult is connected to a 110 V, 12 Kliz supply? Hence. explain the statement that a capacitor is a conductor at very high frequencies. Compare this behaviour with that of a capacitor in a de circuit after the steady state. Keeping the source frequency equal to the resonating frequency of the series LCR circuit, if the three elements, L, Cand R are arranged in parallel, show that the total current in the parallel LCR circuit is minimum at this frequency. Obtain the current rms value in each branch of the circuit for the elements and source specified in Exercise 7.11 for this frequency. A clreuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60 uF capacitor in series, {s connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of the circuit is negligible. (a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values. (b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element, (c) What is the average power transferred to the inductor? (d) What is the average power transferred to the capacitor? (e) What is the total average power absorbed by the circuit? Average’ implies ‘averaged over one cycle’ ‘Suppose the circuit in Exercise 7.18 has a resistance of 15 2. Obtain the average power transferred to each element of the circuit, and the total power absorbed. 2018.20 267268 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 rics LCR circuit with L= 0.12 H, C= 480 nF, R= 23 is connected 230 V variable frequency supply. What is the source frequency for which current amplitude is maximum, Obtain this maximum value. (b) What is the source frequency for which average power absorbed by the circuit is maximum, Obtain the valuc of this maximum power. (c) For which frequencies of the source is the power transferred to the circuit half the power at resonant frequency? What is the current amplitude at these frequencies? (@) What fs the Q-factor of the given circuit? Obtain the resonant frequency and Q-factor of a series LCR circuit with L= 3.0 H, C= 27 uF, and R= 7.40. It is desired to improve the sharpness of the resonance of the circuit by reducing its “full width at half maximum’ by a factor of 2. Suggest a suitable way. Answer the following questions: {a) In any ac circuit, is the applied instantaneous voltage equal to the algebraic sum of the instantaneous voltages across the series elements of the circuit? Is the same true for rms voltage? (b) A capacitor is used in the primary circuit of an induction coil. (c) An applied voltage signal consists of a superposition of a de voltage and an ac voltage of high frequency. The circuit consists of an inductor and a capacitor in series. Show that the de signal will appear across C and the ac signal across L. (@) A choke coil in series with a lamp is connected to a de line. The lamp is seen to shine brightly. Insertion of an iron core in the choke causes no change in the lamp's brightness. Predict the corresponding observations if the connection is to an ac line, (e) Why is choke coil needed in the use of fluorescent tubes with ac mains? Why can we not use an ordinary resistor instead of the choke coil? A power transmission line feeds input power at 2300V to a step- down transformer with its primary windings having 4000 tums. What should be the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power at 230? Ata hydroelectric power plant, the water pressure head is at a height of 300 m and the water flow available is 100 m's, If the turbine generator efficiency is 60%, estimate the electric power available from the plant (g = 8.8 ms"). A small town with a demand of 800 KW of electric power at 220 V is situated 15 km away from an electric plant generating power at 440 V. ‘The resistance of the two wire line carrying power is 0.5 © per km. ‘The town gets power from the line through a 4000-220 V step-down transformer at a sub-station in the town. (a) Estimate the line power loss in the form of heat. (b) How much power must the plant supply, assuming there is negligible power loss due to leakage? (c) Characterise the step up transformer at the plant Do the same exercise as above with the replacement of the earlier transformer by a 40,000-220 V step-down transformer (Neglect, as before, leakage losses though this may not be a good assumption any longer because of the very high voltage transmission involved) Hence, explain why high voltage transmission is preferred? 2018.20