MS-21 Solved Assignment 2017

Q1. Briefly discuss the evolution of the concept of Motivation and its importance in
organizational scenario. Describe any two theories of motivation and their relevance.

Ans:

Since the beginning of man’s socialization people have been attempting to understand what
motivates an individual or group to act in the manner they do. However, official theories of
motivation did not start to develop until the early 1900’s. The first few theories of motivation
viewed man as a simple animal to be manipulated and controlled for his own good, but after World
War II and the great depression, man was seen as having complex social and physical needs. While
the motivational theories produced during this time presented differing designs they remain
constant in the sectionalism, containing both physical and social wants/needs.

Its importance in organizational scenario

Work motivation "is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an
individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity,
and duration"Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to the study of
I–O psychology.Motivation is a person's internal disposition to be concerned with and approach
positive incentives and avoid negative incentives. To further this, an incentive is the anticipated
reward or aversive event available in the environment. While motivation can often be used as a tool
to help predict behavior, it varies greatly among individuals and must often be combined with
ability and environmental factors to actually influence behavior and performance. Results from a
recent 2012 study, which examined age-related differences in work motivation, suggest a "shift in
people's motives" rather than a general decline in motivation with age. That is, it seemed that older
employees were less motivated by extrinsically related features of a job, but more by intrinsically
rewarding job features. Work motivation is strongly influenced by certain cultural characteristics.
Between countries with comparable levels of economic development, collectivist countries tend to
have higher levels of work motivation than do countries that tend toward individualism. Similarly
measured, higher levels of work motivation can be found in countries that exhibit a long versus a
short-term orientation. Also, while national income is not, itself, a strong predictor of work
motivation, indicators that describe a nation’s economic strength and stability, such as life
expectancy, are. Work motivation decreases as a nation’s long term economic strength increases.

It is important for organizations to understand and to structure the work environment to

encourage productive behaviors and discourage those that are unproductive given work
motivation's role in influencing workplace behavior and performance.There is general consensus
that motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity. Arousal is
what initiates action. It is fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from
their lives at a given moment, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take
in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Finally, intensity is the vigor and amount of
energy employees put into this goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity is based on

1|Page
the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes result in four outcomes.
First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. It also
serves to stimulate an employee to put forth effort. Next, motivation results in persistence,
preventing one from deviating from the goal-seeking behavior. Finally, motivation results in task
strategies, which as defined by Mitchell & Daniels, are "patterns of behavior produced to reach a
particular goal."

Two theories of motivation and their relevance

1.Maslow states the five levels of the hierarchy of needs as Physiological, Security, Social, Esteem,
and Self-actualizing needs. Physiological needs are described as those needed for survival such as
food, water, and sleep. Security needs were associated to the physiological needs, but not as
required. An example of this would be safety, steady employment, and shelter from the
environment. This is the point where the shift from physical to psychological needs occurred in
Maslow’s theory. The need for esteem was centered on the individual’s personal worth, social
recognition, and accomplishment which is clearly a purely psychological need. The highest need
and one Maslow stated is least like to be obtained is self-actualization. This is where the individual
is less concerned with other’s opinions and is more set for achieving their full potential. A point
worth noting is that Maslow stated that the predominance of a need assigned by the individual
determines its’ importance not the order presented. This point is brought up because Maslow’s
theory is commonly represented as a pyramid and the assumption that the first need must be
satisfied before the next need is even addressed (Green, 2000). An example provided by Green
(2000) of a man who has never felt hunger is not motivated by that need and therefore does not
seek to satisfy that need.

2.Aldefer’s Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) Needs Theory of Motivation

Aldefer states the ERG theory as Existence, Relatedness, and Growth in which existence is defined
as safety and physiological needs, relatedness is defined as internal esteem and social needs, and
growth is defined as self-actualization and external esteem needs. In this theory the dividing point
between physiological and psychological is clearly defined with existence being the only part which
pertains to the physiological needs. Aldefer believe that these changes to Maslow’s theory were
beneficial in showing that more than one need may be a motivational factor at the same time. The
ERG theory also was thought to account for the regression of needs when a higher order need
cannot be satisfied (is frustrated) and is replaced by a lower order need to compensate for this fact.

Similarities and Differences

With exception of McClelland’s theory of needs the other motivational theories discussed all
address motivation as a function of physiological and psychological needs of the individual.
McClelland’s theory focuses on psychological needs only negating the physiological needs because
they were not considered to be a primary driver to motivation (McClelland, 1995). These
similarities can be seen in appendix A of this paper.

In the review of the motivational theories it has proven evident that while the names of authors and
theories change little has been added to our understanding of what motivates people. The two

2|Page
major categories are physiological and psychological and the number of sub-divisions that are done
to each category does not change how it affects the individual or their response. Therefore, the
conclusion to this paper would be that as more is understood about motivation the more we
understand the physiology and psychology of the human race.

Q2. Briefly describe the factors affecting interpersonal relations. Discuss "Johari Window"
model with reference to enhancing interpersonal relations with examples.

Ans:

The factors affecting interpersonal relations

Interpersonal relationship refers to individuals with similar tastes and mindsets entering into an
association. Individuals who share identical goals and interests enter into an interpersonal
relationship. It is essential for individuals in a relationship to get along well.

Let us go through various factors affecting interpersonal relationship:

Compatibility

Two individuals in a relationship must be compatible with each other. There should be no scope of
conflicts and misunderstandings in a relationship. Individuals from similar backgrounds and
similar goals in life do extremely well in relationships. People with different aims, attitudes, thought
processes find it difficult to adjust and hence fail to carry the relationship to the next level.

Communication

Communication plays a pivotal role in all types of relationships whether it is personal or

professional. Feelings must be expressed and reciprocated in relationships. Individuals need to
communicate with each other effectively for better understanding. Do not stay mum as it leads to
problems and misunderstandings. Two people in love must interact with each other on a regular
basis through various modes of communication such as telephone, emails, letters (though
exchanging letter is now considered an outdated form of communication). Staying in touch is
essential for the love to grow especially in long distance relationships where individuals can’t meet
quite often.

In professional relationships as well, colleagues must communicate well for a better bonding. Sit
with your co workers and discuss issues face to face to reach to a mutually acceptable solution.

The recipient must understand what the sender intends to communicate and vice a versa. Clarity of
thoughts is essential in relationships.

Honesty

3|Page
Be honest in relationships. Do not lie or hide things from your partner. Remember every problem
has a solution. Think before you speak. Transparency is important in relationships.

Stay calm

Do not overreact on petty things in relationships. Stay calm. Be a little more adjusting. Be the first
one to say “Sorry”. It will solve half of your problems.

Forgiving

An individual needs to be a little more forgiving in relationships. Do not drag issues unnecessarily.
Fighting over small issues is foolish and makes the situation all the more worse.

Smile

As they say “Smile is a curve that makes everything staright.” Flash your smile more often. It works.
Take care of your facial expressions while interacting with the other person.

Time

Time plays an important role in relationships. Individuals in love must spend adequate time to
know each other better. Frustrations arise when people do not have time to meet or interact with
each other. Even in organization, individuals must spend quality time with their co workers to
strengthen the bond amongst themselves. Married couples must take time out for each other for the
charm to stay in relationship forever.

Make the other person feel important. Appreciate your partner whenever he/she does something
for you. Praise him/her in front of others.

Every relationship needs time and an individual’s effort to grow. Sit with your partner and try to
sort out the differences amicably. Don’t be too rigid.

"Johari Window" model with reference to enhancing interpersonal relations with examples

4|Page
In this example we are going to talk about how the Johari window works with an individual within a
team. In this instance there are two factors at work within the Johari window. The first factor is
what you know about yourself. The second factor relates to what other people know about you.

The model works using four area quadrants. Anything you know about yourself and are willing to
share is part of your open area.  Individuals can build trust between themselves by disclosing
information to others and learning about others from the information they in turn disclose about
themselves.

Any aspect that you do not know about yourself, but others within the group have become aware of,
is in your blind area. With the help of feedback from others you can become aware of some of your
positive and negative traits as perceived by others and overcome some of the personal issues that
may be inhibiting your personal or group dynamics within the team.

5|Page
There are also aspects about yourself that you are aware of but might not want others to know, this
quadrant is known as your hidden area. This leaves just one area and is the area that is unknown to
you or anyone else – the unknown area.

The balance between the four quadrants can change. You might want to tell someone an aspect of
your life that you had previously kept hidden. For example, maybe you are not comfortable
contributing ideas in large groups. This would increase your open area and decrease your hidden
area.

It is also possible to increase your open area by asking for feedback from people. When feedback is
given honestly to you it can reduce the size of your blind area. Maybe you interrupt people before
they have finished making their point which can cause frustration. Alternatively people may always
want to talk to you because you are a good listener. Sometimes you don’t realise these aspects of
your character until it is pointed out.

By working with others it is possible for you to discover aspects that neither of you may never have
appreciated before.

Some examples of unknown factors can be as follows:

 an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity, encouragement,

confidence or training
 a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realise they possess
 a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have
 an unknown illness
 repressed or subconscious feeling
 conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood

For example in an educational setting, a student’s contact with a tutor, may help them understand
how their experiences both in and outside of school can have an impact on their learning. This
discovery about themself would reduce the size of their unknown area.

From a practical point of view in implementing the Johari window you need to look at two steps.

Step one:

The place to start in the Johari window is in the open area. Make some notes about yourself.
Complete the Self Awareness Diagnostic. What are your strengths and your weaknesses? What are
you comfortable with and willing to share with others? Try and be honest and clear about what you
know about yourself already.  

Step two:

Involve other people and ask for feedback about yourself. Be prepared to seriously consider it. That
doesn’t mean that you have to do everything that’s suggested, but you should at least listen and
think about it. Then give the person who provided the feedback some acknowledgement or thanks
for making the effort.  Depending on how confident you are you might prefer to do this as either a
group exercise or on a one to one basis. Remember that giving effective feedback is a skill and some
people may be better at it than others. When receiving feedback, be respectful, listen and reflect on

6|Page
what has been said. It may be on receiving feedback you may want to explore it further that can
lead to discovery about yourself.

The Johari window as a tool does have its drawbacks:

 Some things are perhaps better not communicated with others.

 People may pass on the information they received further than you desire or use it in a
negative way.
 Some people or cultures have a very open and accepting approach to feedback and some do
not. People can take personal feedback offensively so it’s important when facilitating to
exercise caution and start gradually.

There are many ways to use the Johari model in learning and development. It very much depends
on what you want to achieve in your training or development activities? What are your intended
outputs and how will you measure that they have been achieved? How can the Johari Window
theory and principles are used to assist this.

Johari is a very elegant and potent model, and as with other powerful ideas, simply helping people
to understand is the most effective way to optimise the value to people.  When people really
understand it in their own terms, it empowers them to use the thinking in their own way, and to
incorporate the underlying principles into their future thinking and behaviour.

The Self Awareness Diagnostic is a great accompaniment to the Johari window model. It helps
people to explore the qualities that make them who they are. The simple online questionnaire
provides instant feedback to the participant that they can positively use in understanding their
personal strengths and weaknesses, what belongs in their open space. It can also objectively help
the participant to start to process some of those attributes that reside in their blind spot and can
encourage discussion amongst the group without being confrontational or causing contention.

What is unique about the Self Awareness Diagnostic is it explores not only an individual’s ‘soft
skills’ and working style preferences but also how participants like to learn; their learning styles.   In
an education or business environment this can be a great enabler for a teacher or trainer to ensure
all the members of the group are motivated and able to achieve their full potential.

Q3.Discuss the importance of Behaviour Modification in organisations and ethical issues

involved in it.

Ans:

The importance of Behaviour Modification in organizations

Companies have been forced to change their corporate cultures and their standards of operation.
The change has been forced on them by globalization of markets and competition, growth of
immediate digital information and communications, growth of the service-based economy and
changes in rules affecting corporate governance and trade relationships. Organizational structures
have trended from tall, hierarchical bureaucracies to flat, decentralized operations that encourage

7|Page
innovation. Such change doesn't happen automatically. Organizational behavior modification, called
OB-mod, plays a key role.

Theories

Modern OB-mod is based on the work of B.F. Skinner who postulated that needs of the individual
employee are inferred by his behavior. If he performs poorly at work, either his work is not
satisfying or he is not being appropriately rewarded for his work. Behaviorist theory postulates
that individuals consider how various outcomes of their performance will affect them as
individuals, and gear their work efforts to the outcome that provides the greatest payoff. The OB-
mod process identifies performance-related behaviors, studies their frequency and instances of
occurrence, identifies the triggers present, develops an intervention strategy, applies the strategy
and maintains performance through appropriate rewards.

Techniques

Managers have many ways of reinforcing good employee performance through incentive plans,
wages, bonuses, disciplinary procedures, and at last resort the threat of termination as behavior
change techniques. Most employees feel they are performing as well as possible, but if their work is
not achieving company goals or their work efforts must change to meet new company goals, it is
vital to inform the employee of the discrepancy. Feedback is key in changing employee behavior,
particularly if it is explicit and non-threatening. However, the consequences of behavior also affect
behavior change. Incentive rewards and recognition have been shown to promote positive behavior
change, while disciplinary actions and threats of termination tend to cause their own problems.

Positive Reinforcement

The best way to improve performance is to reward the employee. First, you must discover how the
employee reacts to different types of rewards. An employee who arrives late to work may be taking
children to school on the way to work. If it is possible to adjust her schedule to provide a later start
hour, she will likely be grateful and the atmosphere in the office will improve with removal of the
reason for antagonism over tardiness. If she is sleeping late because she has a second job to make
ends meet, a modest raise may solve the problem. Often, during periods of corporate change,
employees feel vulnerable. They worry about losing their jobs as needs in the company shift to
different goals. Career counseling and training are helpful in maintaining good morale by showing
employees they are valued.

Change Behavior

Modifying the behavior of the entire organization involves gathering information from the front-
line managers and employees. They are the first to discover external forces that require corporate
change. Information must flow from the front-line to top management, so the reward for excellent
information gathering and exchange might be greater decision-making authority given to the line
managers. Recognition in the form of promotion, awards and specialized training can keep the
front-line people enthusiastic about their key role in helping the company maintain competitive
edge.

8|Page
Ethical issues in behaviour modification

Behavior modification is the act of shaping how your employees behave in the workplace. Most
managers practice behavior modification by using positive reinforcement to reward those who
excel. For example, you might provide a year-end bonus or raise to those who've gone above and
beyond. Warnings and suspension of employment are examples of behavior modification through
negative reinforcement. If successful, these modification techniques encourage or discourage
behaviors in the workplace. Ethical issues come into play when you consider possible adverse
effects of behavior modification on other employees in the office and your own ability as a manager
to use positive and negative reinforcement objectively.

Control

The ethics of controlling others is perhaps the overarching ethical concern of behavior modification
in the workplace. When you perform behavior modification, you are encouraging or even forcing an
employee to behave in a way that might not be normal for her. In some instances, you might not see
any ethical issues with modification. For example, writing up an employee who's consistently late
might not seem to pose any issues. Forcing someone with specialized skills, however, to perform
work that's not normal for her might cause unnecessary stress or anxiety, even if it benefits the
company in the short term. Behavior modification should bring out the best in your employees as
well as benefit the office.

Influence

Influencing selfishness or vicious competition among employees is a serious ethical concern in

behavior modification. This issue is most obvious when it comes to negative reinforcement. If
employees find you scolding or haranguing their co-workers for making mistakes, they might
practice this behavior themselves on their colleagues, considering it a part of the workplace culture.
Positive reinforcement can potentially cause counterproductive competitiveness, creating a culture
of selfishness as opposed to one of altruism and teamwork. Consider rewarding your team as a
group to offset these adverse effects.

Fairness

Even the most well-meaning managers are capable of making decisions based on favoritism or
discrimination. Whenever you punish or reward someone in your office, consider your own
motives. Ask yourself if you're being fair. For example, if you're about to reward one of your
employees with a raise, compare her performance to that of others in the office to prove that she's
truly excelled. If you think the decision wouldn't be fair, it might be based on past experiences with
similar people or even just a preference for her personality, which isn't relevant to her job
performance.

Perspectives

9|Page
Even if you think that your methods for behavior modification are fair, monitor and confront the
perspectives of other women in the office. If you reward an employee with a promotion, others
might feel jealous or that you based your decision on favoritism. Use positive and negative
reinforcement strategically. In some cases, it might make more sense to be discreet about
rewarding or punishing one of your employees to limit the amount of chatter and negative
reactions your decision might cause.

Q4. What is the difference between a Group and a Team? Discuss the process of building
effective teams and maintaining them.

Ans:

The process of building effective teams and maintaining them

Teams have always been, and will always be, an essential ingredient for building a successful
business. But building great teams isn't something that just happens. It takes planning and ongoing
effort to get them right--and to keep them that way.

10 | P a g e
Smart leaders know that for their teams to work well, they must accurately identify employees' skill
sets and assign them tasks that are well suited to their abilities. When putting together teams, they
choose people they sense will work together well. The combined efforts of their team members not
only produce superior results, they also build a sense of solidarity within their organizations.

The next time you need to get something important done in your organization, and you want to
assign the task to a team, consider these five steps to building really effective teams:

1. Recognize the power of teamwork

Before you begin, take a moment to appreciate the power of teamwork and how you can best utilize
this tool. Consider the result you want and the tasks you think are required to achieve it. As you
think about your employees, match their skills to the tasks of the project, but also identify
personalities you feel complement one another. A successful team project maximizes the talents of
its individual members, but the true power of teamwork comes from the group's cohesion and
combined energies focused on a common goal.

2. Choose the right people

If you want your team to be really effective, you'll need to get the right people for the job. If
possible, try to incorporate employees or departments in your organization that bring varied
experience and perspective to the project. If, for example, you're trying to come up with a new way
to track customer satisfaction using new social media tools, then be sure to include employees who
represent sales, information technology, customer service, and more. Try to choose people for your
team who together will provide a broad perspective on your project.

3. Delegate

Once you've chosen your team and outlined your expectations, delegate the authority and access
the team needs to complete the project. Industrious, energetic, and creative people will become
frustrated very quickly if they do not have the freedom, access to tools, and other resources they
need to complete their work. Once you have set forth your guidelines, your job becomes making
sure they can do theirs. Avoid telling members of a team what to do and how to do it. Instead, work
with them to set goals, and then remove obstacles, grant access, and provide the support your team
needs to achieve those goals.

4. Monitor progress

In an ideal world, you'll have chosen exactly the right people for the team, and everything will take
care of itself. In the real world, you will have to verify that the team is working well together and
that the project is on track. Provide, as necessary, a forum where you and the team can share
concerns, successes, and project status on a regular basis. If necessary, you may find you need to
assign a team leader, or redefine the project and reassign roles. As much as possible, however, try
to let the team work through its own challenges. When a team identifies, addresses, and pushes
through obstacles on its own, individuals draw closer together, and their success gives rise to
confidence and camaraderie.

11 | P a g e
5. Celebrate your successes

When your team accomplishes or exceeds its goals, then be sure to recognize the win and celebrate
it. At minimum, schedule a final team meeting where you can thank the group collectively and
describe the positive impact their work will have on your organization and your customers. One
hallmark of an outstanding team is camaraderie. The team's success will build on itself, and your
team and your organization will be the better for it as the team takes on more responsibility.

Q5. Discuss Perceptual Selectivity and Perceptual Organisation. What are the Perceptual
errors which occur in the organisation and how to overcome these?

Ans:

Perceptual Selectivity

Selective perception is the tendency not to notice and more quickly forget stimuli that cause
emotional discomfort and contradict our prior beliefs. For example, a teacher may have a favorite
student because they are biased by in-group favoritism. The teacher ignores the student's poor
attainment. Conversely, they might not notice the progress of their least favorite student.

Selective perception is the process by which individuals perceive what they want to in media
messages while ignoring opposing viewpoints. It is a broad term to identify the behavior all people
exhibit to tend to "see things" based on their particular frame of reference. It also describes how we
categorize and interpret sensory information in a way that favors one category or interpretation
over another. In other words, selective perception is a form of bias because we interpret
information in a way that is congruent with our existing values and beliefs. Psychologists believe
this process occurs automatically.

Selective perception may refer to any number of cognitive biases in psychology related to the way
expectations affect perception. Human judgment and decision making is distorted by an array of
cognitive, perceptual and motivational biases, and people tend not to recognise their own bias,
though they tend to easily recognise (and even overestimate) the operation of bias in human
judgment by others.One of the reasons this might occur might be because people are simply
bombarded with too much stimuli every day to pay equal attention to everything, therefore, they
pick and choose according to their own needs.

To understand when and why a particular region of a scene is selected, studies observed and
described the eye movements of individuals as they go about performing specific tasks. In this case,
vision was an active process that integrated scene properties with specific, goal-oriented
oculomotor behaviour.

12 | P a g e
Several other studies have shown that students who were told they were consuming alcoholic
beverages (which in fact were non-alcoholic) perceived themselves as being "drunk", exhibited
fewer physiological symptoms of social stress, and drove a simulated car similarly to other subjects
who had actually consumed alcohol. The result is somewhat similar to the placebo effect.

In one classic study on this subject related to the hostile media effect (which is itself an example of
selective perception), viewers watched a filmstrip of a particularly violent Princeton-Dartmouth
American football game. Princeton viewers reported seeing nearly twice as many rule infractions
committed by the Dartmouth team than did Dartmouth viewers. One Dartmouth alumnus did not
see any infractions committed by the Dartmouth side and erroneously assumed he had been sent
only part of the film, sending word requesting the rest.

Selective perception is also an issue for advertisers, as consumers may engage with some ads and
not others based on their pre-existing beliefs about the brand.

Seymour Smith, a prominent advertising researcher, found evidence for selective perception in
advertising research in the early 1960s, and he defined it to be "a procedure by which people let in,
or screen out, advertising material they have an opportunity to see or hear. They do so because of
their attitudes, beliefs, usage preferences and habits, conditioning, etc."People who like, buy, or are
considering buying a brand are more likely to notice advertising than are those who are neutral
toward the brand. This fact has repercussions within the field of advertising research because any
post-advertising analysis that examines the differences in attitudes or buying behavior among
those aware versus those unaware of advertising is flawed unless pre-existing differences are
controlled for. Advertising research methods that utilize a longitudinal design are arguably better
equipped to control for selective perception.

Selective perceptions are of two types:

 Low level – Perceptual vigilance

 High level – Perceptual defense

Perceptual Organisation

Everything we see, we see for the first time. While parts of a scene may correspond to objects we
have some previous acquaintance with, we almost never see the same objects in the same
configuration under the same lighting conditions from the same perspective.

Unless we can decompose a scene into coherent and independently recognizable entities, the
complexity of natural scenes would render humantype vision impossible. How can we partition a
scene into independent components without already knowing without what might be present?
There are probably thousands of objects that can appear in an almost infinite variety of
configurations and orientations that we can recognize, exhaustive matching against stored models
is not a reasonable explanation of human perception.

13 | P a g e
It is largely agreed that there must be a set of generic criteria, applied independently of scene
content that underlies the procedures discovered by nature for partitioning the visual field.
Discontinuities in scene properties (distance, material composition, motion, etc.) are the most likely
clues as to where partitioning or perceptual organization problem.

These Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization include:

 The Law of Proximity: Stimulus elements that are closed together tend to be perceived as a
group
 The Law of Similarity: Similar stimuli tend to be grouped, this tendency can even dominate
grouping due to proximity
 The Law of Closure: Stimuli tend to be grouped into complete figures
 The Law of Good Continuation: Stimuli tend to be grouped as to minimize change or
discontinuity
 The Law of Symmetry: Regions bound by by symmetrical boarders tend to be perceived as
coherent figures
 The Law Simplicity: Ambiguous stimuli tend to be resolved in favor of the simplest

Perceptual errors which occur in the organization

Perceptual distortion because of attributions occurs due to two reasons:

(i) Fundamental attribution error and

(ii) Self serving bias.

When we make judgments about the behaviour of other people, we have a tendency to
underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors.
This is called the fundamental attribution error. There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute
their success to internal factors like ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external
factors like luck. This is called self serving bias. Therefore, incorrect decisions are possibly based on
erroneous attributions resulting in misconceptions.

Overcoming Perceptual Errors:

Managers can take several actions to increase the accuracy of their perceptions:

 Be more observing
 Cast a wider observational net
 Lower your profile
 Recognize your own biases
 Evaluate people as much as possible on objective factors

14 | P a g e