DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

VISAKHAPATTANAM, ANDHRAPRADESH

PROJECT TITLE

MAURYAN EMPIRE

SUBJECT

HISTORY

NAME OF THE FACULTY

PROF.(DR.) VISWACHANDRA NATH MADASU

NAME OF CANDIDATE- ASISH ANSUMAN MISHRA

ROLL NUMBER-19LLB036

SEMESTER-1

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would sincerely like to put forward my heartfelt appreciation to our respected History professor, Prof. Dr.
Viswachandranath Madasu for giving me a golden opportunity to take up this project regarding -Mauryan
empire. I have tried my level best to collect information about the project in various possible ways to depict
a clear picture about the given topic.

2
 ABSTRACT
The project is based on Mauryan empire-A model empire famous for its administration system and
administration techniques. This empire almost ruled Indian subcontinent for 137 years, that is from 322BC-
185BC.The way the administration ruled over such a vast area with huge population with minimum problem
is itself excellent and magnificent. This empire was originated in Magadha which was situated in Indo-
Gangetic plain. Its capital was in Pataliputra. Chandragupta Maurya was not only a great conqueror but also
a great administrator. The administrative system established by him was also followed by his successors.
There were certain changes during the time of Asoka, when he elaborated the duty of officials of the state.
The foundation and basic principles of Mauryan administration remained the same till the weaker Mauryans
lost their hold over administration.

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 CONTENTS

1.INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..5
2.IMPORTANT SOURCES REGARDING HISTORY OF MAURYAN EMPIRE………………….6
3.ORIGIN OF MAURYANS………………………………………………………………..8
4.MAURYAN DYNASTY……………………………………………………………………8
5.MAURYAN POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATION……………………………………..10
6.BUREOCRACY AND MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION………………………………….14
7.DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ADMINISTRATION……………………………………………19
8.ESPIONAGE DEPARTMENT…………………………………………………………………21
9.REVENUE DEPARTMENT…………………………………………………………………….22
10.JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION……………………………………………………………..24
11.MILITARY ORGANISATION……………………………………………………………….25
12.PUBLIC WORKS……………………………………………………………………………….26
13.PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION……………………………………………………….26
14.WELFARE STATE………………………………………………………………………………26
15.OUTCOME OF THE PROJECT……………………………………………………………….27
16.CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………27

4
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: - The researcher aims to find out the details of Mauryan administration..
The structure and the systems of administration and the method which is applied for administering such a
vast empire for 137 years will be given elaborately by the researcher.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:-The study will help to show the administration system of Mauryan
empire. The way they ruled in BC is a great source of inspiration to all administration. The study will
provide a clear picture of each and every levels and departments of Mauryan administration.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: -The researcher has done the research by using doctrinal method of
research. The research is explanatory,descriptive in nature.

HYPOTHESIS; -The Mauryan administration is a role model for any administration.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY: - The scope of the study is restricted to the Mauryan administration.

INTRODUCTION: -
According to Dr. V.A.Smith, “ The advent of the Mauryan dynasty marks the passage from darkness to light
for the historian. Chronology suddenly becomes definite, almost precise; a huge empire springs into
existence, unifying the innumerable fragments of distracted India; the kings who may be described with
justice as emperors, are men of renown, outstanding personalities whose qualities can be discerned, albeit
dimly, through the mists of time; gigantic worldwide religious movements are initiated, of which the effects
still felt; and the affairs of scheduled India are brought into close touch with outer world.”1

Mauryan empire is one of the ideal empires when we investigate its system of administration. The Mauryan
administration was a modern system of administration. There were bureaucratic departments in the
administration. Kautilya’s Arthasastra is the bible of Mauryan administration. Chandragupta Maurya
established the Mauryan empire in 322 BC. The Mauryan administration from the time of Chandragupta
remained the same and followed by his successors. Asoka made some changes regarding the matters of duty
of public administration when he was the king of the empire. After Asoka, weaker rulers the lost its control
and hold over administration.2

Mauryan administration functioned in a very systematic manner. We can get information about Mauryan
empire from Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Indika of megasthenes and Asoka’s inscriptions. Mauryan empire was
at it’s peak during the time of Asoka. They ruled almost the Indian subcontinent.

The administration is also a role model for any administration. There was very systematic hierarchy in the
administration. The administration was divided into Central level, provincial level, district level, Tehsil
level, Village level for the administrative convenience. The king was the head of the administration and the

1
V.D MAHAJN ANCIENT INDIA,PAGE NO-206
2
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, THE MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION,PG-NO-240
5
administration. The administration was centralised administration. All the levels of administration were
responsible to central level administration.

Another significant feature of Mauryan administration is the surveillance or spy system. All the officials
were under the direct supervision of spies. They reported the central level administration regarding the
activities of various officials. The espionage department promoted efficiency and stability of the state.

Thus, the Mauryan administration with its bureaucratic system, espionage system, military organisation, and
administrational division is a modern manual of administration. We can see the success of that empire by
observing how they ruled effectively entire subcontinent with that system of administration for 137 years.

IMPORTANT SOURCES REGARDING HISTORY OF MAURYAN EMPIRE: -

KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA: -
The most important source of Mauryan history is Kautilya’s arthasastra. The book is divided into 15
adhikaranas and 180 prakaranas . It has about 6,ooo slokas. 3 From Kautilya’s arthasastra we can also know
about the systematic spy system prevalent in Mauryan empire. Government is ultimately resolvable into one
ultimate, and that ultimate is the king.4Kautilya makes it clear that king receives the revenue from the people
as his fee for the service of protection. From arthasastra we can see the emphasis given by kautilya to the
civil servants, “sovereignty can be carried on only with assistance. A single wheel does not move; hence the
king should employ the ministers and hear their advice. 5 Kautilya is called India’s Machiavelli on the
account of his attitude towrds religion and morality.6Kautilya refers to 18 departments of administration.
Kautilya has also given rates of salaries to be paid to the various officials . The pay ranged from 48,000
panas a year for the heir apparent and certain high officials of the state to 60 panas for a labourer. Kautilya
also puts a great emphasis on finance. Kautilya has also advocated for use of torture for extorting
confessions.7In Kautilya’s arthasastra it is mentioned that-

Praja-sukhe sukham rajnah prajanam cha hite hitam

Natmapriyam hitam rajnah prajanam tu priyam hitam.8

We can see that Kautilya’s arthasastra was manual for Mauryan administration. Every administrative work
has been described in detail in arthasastra that has been used for Mauryan administration.

MEGASTHENES’S INDIKA: -

3
V.D MAHAJAN , ANCIENT INDIA, CHNADRAGUPTA NAD BINDUSARA, PG NO-206
4
V.D MAHAJAN, CHAPTER 21, PG NO -210
5
V.DMAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDI, CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-210
6
V.D MAHAJAN, CHAPTER 21, PG NO -211
7
V.D MAHAJAN,ANCIENT INDIA,CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-212
8
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI
6
Indika of Megasthenes is also a great source to learn about Mauryan empire. Megasthenes tells that king was
guarded by a bodyguard of women. He also describes about the majestic life of Mauryan kings and their
recreational activities like hunting. He has also described about the beauty of royal palace. Megasthenes also
says that military system under Chandragupta was under direction of war office consisting of 30 members,
who were divided into 6 boards of five members each. The administration of Pataliputra was in the hands of
a commission consisting 30 members divided into six boards or committees of five members each.
Megasthenes also described about the city of Pataliputra. The city was protected by a massive timber-
palisade, pierced by loopholes through which archers could shoot. It had also 64 gates and 570 towers. 9
Megasthenes also divided India’s population into seven classes. The philosophers belonged to the first
class.10

The second class consisted of husbandmen who were also required to pay a fourth part of the produce of the
soil to the government, The third class consisted of shepherds who lived in tents, The fourth class consisted
of artisans, The fifth class was military. The sixth class consisted of overseers- It was their duty to enquire
into and superintend all that happened in India, The seventh class consisted of councillors and assessors.
King consulted its members- Generals of the army, the chief magistrates and the arbiters usually belonged to
this class.11. In this way Indika of Megasthenes has described about the social conditions, military conditions
and administration of Mauryan empire during the time of Chandragupta Maurya.

VISAKHADATTA’S MUDRARAKSHAS: -

The Mudraraksashas was written during the Gupta period, but this drama gives details of the revolution by
which Chandragupta Maurya overthrew Nandas.12 From this drama we can also get the social, religious and
economic conditions of the people. We also get an idea about the various types of spies employed by the
Mauryan administrators.13

INSCRIPTIONS OF ASOKA: -

This gives us information about the Mauryan period. Most of the knowledge regarding Asoka is based on
those inscriptions. They give us information about inner mind of Asoka. 14They give us details about the
conditions of Asoka after and before Kalinga war. They also give us details about the measures taken by
Asoka to spread Buddhism. They also give us information regarding the administrative reforms undertaken
by Asoka. We also have law of piety as expounded by Asoka. We have an idea of Asoka’s conception of an
ideal king. In short, we can judge the greatness of Asoka from his inscriptions.15

9
V.D MAHAJAN,CHAPTER-21, PG NO-214
10
V,D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-215
11
V.D MAHAJN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-214
12
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-216
13
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHAPTER NO-21, PG.NO-216.
14
V.D MAHAJAN, CHAPTER-23, ANCIENT INDIA, PG NO-230
15
LITERARY VALUE OF INSCRIPTION OF ASOKA, D.B. KISKALKAR, JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY, 1962, P.235
7
JUNAGARH INSCRIPTION: -

Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman also gives information about Mauryans.

DIPAVAMSA AND MAHAVAMSA:-

The Ceylonese chronicles of depavamsa and mahavamsa also gives a lot of useful information about the
mauryas in general and Asoka in particular.16

ORIGIN OF THE MAURYANS: - The source of Mauryans still has unanimity among numerous history
specialists. Bhramanical writing like puranas says that Chandragupta Maurya was destined to Mora, a shudra
lady in the court of nandas. Buddhist writings attests that Chandragupta had a place with the kshatriya
republican family mariyas of pippalavahana may be an endeavor to raise the social class of Ashoka and his
ancestors. The Buddhist work like mahavamsa have endeavored to interface Mauryans to the clan of sakyas
to which buddha had a place. In divyavadana, Bindusara the child of Chandragupta, is portrayed as kshatriya
Mudrabhishikta or blessed kshatriya. Jain writing like Hema Chandra 's parisisthaparvan relates
Chandragupta as the child of the daughter of the head of peacock tamers (mayura poshaka). Visakhadatta in
his book Mudraraksassha (written in gupta period ) alludes Chandragupta Maurya as vrishala and kulahina.
Junagarh shake engraving of Rudradaman dated 150 AD makes reference to Vaishya Pusyagupta who was a
military leader of under Chandragupta maurya. Justin specifies that sandrocottus (distinguished as
Chandragupta Maurya by William jones) visited the court of alexander and that he was of humble
birthplace. There is still some difficulty with respect to inceptions of Mauryans. Yet, in end we can say that
Mauryans were nearly of humble root and were absolutely of a low position.

MAURYAN DYNASTY: -

The Mauryan empire ruled India from 322bc to 185 BC, and they ruled only for 137 years. But despite that
this empire is a role model for any administration. Mauryan dynasty started from Chandragupta and
continued till Vrihadradha. The last ruler was defeated by Pushy Mitra Sunga the military commander of
Mauryans. Many rulers ruled in between these 137 years but if we look into the details of the history then
we can see that three rulers Chandragupta, Bindusara, Ashoka these three rulers glorified the Mauryan
empire with their conquests and administration techniques. They were regarded as strong rulers in the
Mauryan reign. So, in this Mauryan dynasty the focus would be on Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka.

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA: - The rule of Chandragupta was from 321 BC to 297 BC. He rose to
control in a general public which was rarely customary. In the north west there had been impressive contacts
with outsiders and Magadha itself was looked downward on in Brahmanical literature. Other than it was
extensive presented to the thoughts of buddha and Mahavira, it was subsequently amid impressive strife
socially and politically that he rose to control in Magadha. He was a military virtuoso and guided by a

16
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHANDARGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-216
8
statesman like kautilya with positive conditions for his ascent. Justin says that Chandragupta overran the
entire India with a multitude of 6,00,000 which might be a misrepresentation. He presumably began
triumphs from north western piece of India as opposed to assaulting the focal intensity of Magadha first.

Alexander’s invasion directly or indirectly contributed to the fall of prevailing political systems in the
northwest and created a political imbalance which was exploited by Chandragupta Maurya. The death of
Alexander in 323 BC further made the condition helpful for Chandragupta. After using of all available
sources -Brahmanical, Buddhist, Jain, Greek and others, which seriously differ from one another in various
details. There is a consensus among writers that Chandragupta Maurya started Mauryan empire by preceding
nanda dynasty. The nandas ruled over vast kingdom extending from western Uttar Pradesh to Odisha and
had a large army and huge amount of resources at their command. But they became very unpopular because
of their poor administration and oppressive taxation, which helped Chandragupta to occupy the throne of
Magadha by 322 BC. Chandragupta along with kautilya proceeded with the mission to overthrow nandas.
Parasistaparvan says that kautilya and Chandragupta made alliance with parvataka and the allied armies to
beat the nandas in a war as a result of which dhanananda- the then nanda ruler, fled. All the sources whether
Buddhist, Jain and Brahminic agrees that there was complete uprooting of Nadas.

Alexander died in 323 BC and the Punjab was ruled by his Greek governors. Chandragupta after some time
conquered Punjab. Some of the land in extreme north was held by Greek Genral Seleucus Nicator. This
alarmed Seleucus, who was in control of Babylon, Seleucus marched eastward. He crossed Hindukush
mountain to have a battle with Chandragupta. But before any battle could be fought, a treaty was concluded
with him in 303 BC. Seleucus ceded to Chandragupta the territories of (Hindukush and the Kabul region),
(kandahr) and gedrosia , dispatched Megasthenes as an envoy to his court in Pataliputra, There was also a
matrimonial alliance between the families. Chandragupta gave a gift of 500 elephants and seleucus sent
Megasthenes as an ambassador to the royal court at Pataliputra. After that Chandragupta had conquered
parts of central India, so that by the time his reign ended northern India was under control of the Mauryans.17

According to Jain tradition, Chandragupta Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the
throne in favour of his son, Bindusara. Chandragupta then left the throne and starved to death in typical
Jaina fashion. The authors have held the success of bringing the whole northern India and and Afghanistan
under his control as an outstanding military achievement.18

BINDUSARA: -

After ruling about 25 years Chandragupta left his throne to his son Bindusara and became a Jaina ascetic.
Bindusara took the Mauryan armies to the south and captured the deccan plateau till Mysore. Under
Bindusara The Mauryan empire now included almost the whole of India. Only the region of Kalinga and the

17
Romila thapar, Ancient India
18
S.C Mishra review article/ A LANDMRAK STUDY OF MAURYAN INDIA
9
southernmost kingdoms were not in the empire. But the kingdoms of south were friendly to administration
so there was no need to conquer them. 19He was known to the Greeks as Amitraghat. Bindusara also had
relations with Antiochus I. The Seleucid king of Syria whose ambassador, Deimachus, was present at the
Mauryan court during he time of Bindusara20. Accoding to Puranas, Bindusara ruled for 25 years, but
according to buddhist tradition he ruled for 27 to 28 years. 21

ASHOKA: -
There was a struggle for the position of the king among the princes after Bindusara’s death for a period of
four years. Ashoka emerged as the successor and was crowned as the king of the empir in 268 B.C. The
most important incident of Ashoka reign is definitely his victorious Kalinga war in 261 B.C. According to
the Bhabra inscription that after a period of two and half years of Kalinga war he became a die hard
supporter of Buddhism after being influenced the Buddhist monk Upagupta. One of Ashokan inscriptions
major rock edict XIII refers to his southernmost neighbours as Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaguptas and Kerala
putras. Ashoka had relations with Nepal and gave one of his daughters called Charumati in marriage to a
noble in Nepal called Devapala from Nepal. The Ceylonese ruler, Tissa, made Asoka his idol. Asoka sent
his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra as Buddhist missionaries to Ceylon, to spread buddhist religion
and also sent a small plant of the original pipal tree under which buddha received his enlightment. From
literary and the evidences from inscriptions, we can know that Ashoka’s mother was Subhadrangi. The list
of his wives includes Asandhimitta, Tissaraka, Padmavati. Among Ashoka’s sons Mahendra, Tivara, Kunala
and Taluka are main sons. Two of his daughter Sanghamitra and Charumati are known.

LATER MAURYAS: -After the death of Ashoka, The Mauryan empire was divided into two parts-
Western and Eastern, Which later became one of the important reasons for the downfall of the empire. The
western part was ruled by Kunala and then after him by Samprati. The eastern part was ruled successively
by Dasratha, Samprati, Salisuka, Devaraman, Satadhanvan and finally by Brihadratha. The last Mauryan
ruler Brihadratha was assassinated in 185 BC by his brahmin military commander, Pushyamitra Sunga, who
established his Sunga dynasty after downfall of the Mauryan empire.

MAURYAN POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM: -

For the study of the political and administrative system of Mauryan empire we have many genuine
contemporary evidences. Megasthenes Indika, Kautilya’s Arthasastra and the Ashokan inscriptions are very
similar to each other to a significant proportion, apart from that literary sources like Divyavadana and
Mudraraksasha have made important contribution. Likewise, the Girnar inscription of Rudradaman provides
source into provincial administration of Gujurat under Mauryas.22

19
Romila thapar, ANCIENT INDIA
20
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-221
21
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHANDRAGUPTA AND BINDUSARA, PG NO-222
22
K.A NILAKANTA SHASTRI
10
The work of Kautilya , that is Arthasastra which is contemporary with Chandragupta is considered to be the
bible of Mauryan administration. It’s role was significant for the establishment of the Mauryan empire and
laying the foundation of the administrative structure of the empire. This is a very centralised system of
administration.

The ideal of chakrtavartikshetram, the sphere of the emperor’s rule, is clearly defined in the Arthasastra as
the whole India extending from Himalayas to the Indian ocean and a thousand yojanas across. 23There is a
belief that that Chandragupta and Kautilya were hostile to the non-monarchical states and that their policy
was not averse to taking advantage of the weakened and impoverished condition in which these states found
themselves after the ravages of Greek war.24 These republican states were apparently spread over India at the
beginning of empire, and many of them succeeded in retaining their individuality and surviving Mauryan
empire.25

THE KING: -

The king was the Dandadhara26, and his chief function was to maintain the social order by restraining the
wrongdoers and ensuring the peace the peace for lawful men to pursue their avocations without
hinderance.27 Arthasastra which says that “Royal power triumphs even without arms and ever remains
invincible when it is held up by the brahmana, is sanctified by ministers, and follows the precepts of
sastras”.28 Kautilya adds wisely that the monarch is to adjust his programme of work according to his
capacity and inclination.29. All personal services to the monarch were performed by women.30 On the
occasions when the king travelled outside from the palace, his route was protected by armed soldiers. The
security arrangement of king are fully described in the chapters of arthasastra. The whole state being the
property of the king was not there in Indian tradition and Kautilya does not support such kind of ownership
by the king. It was also mentioned that king collected one sixth of the produce of the land. The ownership of
land was with the people of the empire. Kautilya introduced the administration of all detailed supervision
and control of agricultural and marketing operations that originated from such ownership from the land.
Kautilya did not support king’s ownership over the land of the state. The head of the central executive was
the King, his most trusted advisers and the departmental heads had their head-quarters in the capital. The
chief officials included -Mantrins, the Purohita, the Senapati or Commander-in-chief, the Yuvaraja or Heir-
apparent, the Dvauvarika, the .Antarvamsika, the Prasasta, the Samaharta, the Sambidhata, the Pradesta,
Nayaka, the Paura, the Vyavaharika, the Karmantika, the Mantri-Parisadadhyaksa, the various Adhyaksas,
the Dandapalas, the Antapalas, and the Atavikas. Kautilya put great emphasis on education and training of
23
Kautilyas arthasastra IX
24
K.A NILAKANTA SHARMA
25
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI, REPUBLICS,PG NO-173
26
KA NILAKANTA SASTRI,THE KING,AGE OF NANDAS AND MAURYAS, PG NO-175
27
KA I 4.
28
Ibid I. 9, final verse
29
KA
30
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI, AGE OF NANDAS AND MAURYAS, THE KING, PG NO-176
11
the king. According to him, the King must be instructed in four branches of human knowledge those are,
philosophy, (The three vedas), (Economics) and (Science of government). The king was advised to shun
four special temptations those are, hunting, gambling, drinking and women. 31The Mauryan kings showed
tremendous energy in the disposal of official business and that was one of the secrets of the success of
Mauryan administration. The king was the fountain source of all governmental activity. 32The army and
treasury were under his immediate control. He was guided by council of ministers but their advice was never
binding upon the king. The Mauryan kings followed the advice of the Arthasastra and regarded the welfare
and interests of their subjects more important than their own beneficial interests. Mauryan kings could not
become autocrats because there was checks and balances of his power despite of having unlimited power..
There were several secret and subterranean passages as a precaution against sudden rising attack.33

MINISTERS: -

Ministers occupied important place in the administration system next to the King. The view of Kautilya is
that real sovereignty is to be achieved by three-fold powers (statesmanship),(treasury) and (energy and
enthusiasm). Kautilya states that the king cannot steer the ship of the state without the assistance of ministers
who are the eyes of the king.34All kinds of administrative policies are preceded by discussions in a well-
formed council, that in this case is the Mantri parishad.

The council of ministers was called Mantri parishad. The mantris constituted the inner circle of the parishad
which correspond to the modern cabinet. They included the Prime minister, the purohita, the commander in
chief and Yuvraj. Dauvarika, Antarvamsika, Prashasta, Samaharta, Sannidhata, Pradestha and amatyas
constituted outer circle of Parishad. The policies that were framed by the cabinet carried out by the amatyas.

Kautilya was in favour of small cabinet. He advised the king to consult three to four ministers as the advice
of one was not expected. The ministers were directly responsible to the king.

MANTRIN: - It is not clear whether there was only one Mantrin or It is not clear whether there was only
one Mantrin or more. Some passages contemplate the existence of more than one Mantrin. Whatever might
have been the case, the Mantrins occupied the highest place among officials. They seem to have been the
most trusted advisers, and as such they were called upon to advise the Sovereign in Times of Emergency. In
the Absence of any detail, one may regard them as Exercising General Superintendence over the work of
other officials. The Chief qualifications of the Mantrin, according to Kautilya were that he must be a native
of the country, learned, from free temptations, and a favourite of the people.35

31
V.D MAHAJAN , ANCIENT INDIA, CHAPTER NO-23,, PG.NO-240
32
V.D MAHAJAN, CH.NO-23, PG NO-241, ANCIENT INDIA
33
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, PG NO-241, CHAPTER NO-23
34
V.D MAHAJAN, ANCIENT INDIA, CHAPTER-23, PG.NO-241
35
BK I, CH9 Sc10, Arthasastra
12
PUROHITA: - This office was one of the earliest to come into existence. In the Vedic period, this office
had a great importance attached to it. The Purohita was once the alter ago of the King and was regarded as
the mediator between the king and the gods, and the king and his people.

SENAPATI: - This office arose early, probably to relieve the king from the duties of leading troops in battle
when urgent state business necessitated his stay at home. He was an influential officer and probably
performed the duties now entrusted to a Minister-of-war and exercised administrative control in times of
peace over the leaders of Foot, Chariot, Elephant and Horse.36

YUVARAJA: - The Yuvaraja, or the Heir-apparent, was often associated with the government. When and
how that practice arose is doubtful, but this is quite clear that the association of the Heir-apparent in the
government gave the prince a chance of learning the art of government and, at the same time, removed much
of the probability of a war of succession. The practice of crowning a Yuvaraja is found in the Ramayana and
the Epic, and the Jatakas confirm this practice. The princes were trained carefully and employed in situations
suited to their capacity. Kautilya dismisses all the antiquated and ingenious views put forward in the works
known to him, lays down the course dictated alike by common sense, propriety and the public good; he is
very clear that in no case should an ill disciplined prince, even if he happened to be the only son of the
reigning monarch, be employed in the affairs of the state or permitted to sit on the throne. Ill-natured
princes were to be put under restraint and kept out of harm’s way.37

DAUVARIKA: - it as probably the Keeper of the Gate, but through him, all applications and claims for
redress reached the king.38

ANTARVAMSIKA: - The ministerial position of him. Was since under the old system the officer who
protected the royal person was entitled to a high position.39

PRASHASTA: - His exact functions are not known; but the chapter on the Sangramika shows that he had
important military functions. He administered punishments, preserved peace in the royal camp, and the
auxiliary forces of the army were under his control.40

SAMAHARTA: - or the Collector-general of Revenue. He was one of the “Eighteen Tirthas” and had the
duties of revenue-collection. But his principal duty was, as his name suggests, the assessment of the various
royal dues and their exaction.41 he had to give attention to all fortified towns, provinces, mines, gardens,
forests and trade routes which were chief sources of income. The collector general shall collect of revenue
from forts, country parts, mines, buildings and gardens, forests and herds of cattle, and roads of traffic. All
these forms income sources for the administration. He shall pay attention to the work in hand (karaniya), the
36
ARTHASASTRA, BOOK ICH17,P39, BK II CH 33,P.176 AND BOOK IX, CH3 P 419
37
ARTHASASTRA, BOOK I CH 17, P-39, BK II CH 33, P-176 AND BK IX CH 3 P 419
38
Arthasastra, Bk I, Ch 10, p.19, Chs 20-21, pp 45-50, Bk V Ch 6, p 115, Bk IX Ch 3, p 420
39
Arthasastra, Bk I, Ch 10, p.19, Chs 20-21, pp 45-50, Bk V Ch 6, p 115, Bk IX Ch 3, p 420.
40
Arthasastra, Bk 10, Ch 1, pp 411-413.
41
Arthasastra, Bk II, Ch 35, p 179, Bk IV, Ch 1, p 253
13
work accomplished (siddham), part of work in hand (sesha). Thus, a wise collector general shall do the work
of revenue collection, increasing the income and decreasing the expenditure.42

SANNIDHATA: - Receiver-general or Chamberlain. His business was to receive all dues and keep
accounts, not only of cash payments but of payments of commodities. He was also to build store-houses,
granaries, prison-houses and armouries. He cut the forged coins and received all articles only if they were of
proper quality. He was also made responsible for construction of royal trading houses, armoury, jails,
courts.43 All these buildings were to be equipped with wells, bathrooms, firefighting appliances and other
accessories.44 He may employ outcast men (abhityakta-purusha) to build at the extreme boundary of the
kingdom a mansion to hold substantial treasure against calamities. He must have detailed knowledge of both
external and internal incomes running even for a hundred years ,when questioned, he can point out the net
balance that remains after expenditure has been met with. 45

PRADESTA: - Superintending official, whose business was multifarious. They were probably traveling
officials, who superintended the work of the Gopas, and collected the Bali. They also had criminal
jurisdiction and inflicted punishment and assessed them. One passage shows that they probably it was, who
exacted fines in lieu of mutilation. In the chapter on "Fines in lieu of Mutilation", we are told that the
Pradesta was to assess punishment after considering the offence.46

AMATYAS: -They were part of outer circle of Mantri parishad. The Amatyas were senior civil servants.
The policies were made by them and carried out by them.

BUREAUCRACY AND MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION: -

The way in which central government machinery is dealt with by Kautilya in the adhyakshaprachara (book
II) is worthy of a modern manual for administration, it contemplates a vast, numerous and all prevaiding
bureaucracy keeping itself in touch with all phases of the economic and social life of the entire country. The
speedy and successful creation of an army of officials and the organisation of them into a well-ordered
bureaucracy was by no means an easy task.47 and the performance of this great task with reasonable
efficiency is a significant achievement. Asoka introduced some changes to the administration, some of
which he mentioned in the inscriptions. The central level administration consisted of 27 adhakshyas and
amatyas who were experienced senior administrative officers.

CENTRAL OFFICES: -

42
Kautilya’s arthasastra,page no-81,
43
Arthasastra, Bk II, Ch 5,6 pp 63-69 and Ch 35, pp 178-180
44
K.A. NILAKANTA SASTRI, AGE OF NANDAS AND MAURYAS
45
Kautilya’s arthasastra, pg no-77
46
Arthasastra, Bk II, Ch 35, p 179 and Bk IV, Ch 1, 253.
47
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI, AGE OF NANDAS AND MAURYAS, P-178
14
The Arthasastra also has a chapter dealing with the duties of superintendents (adhyakshas). Twenty-six are
mentioned in a regular series and others incidentally referred to elsewhere, give affair idea of the variety and
range of the tasks attempted by central executive of the empire.48 The superintendents were same as heads of
department. Their duties comprised the exploitation of crown property as well as the regulation and the
control of the economic and social life of the community. The names of departments mentioned in
Arthasastra, are ; Treasury, Mines, Metals, Mints, Salt, Gold, Storehouse, Trade, Forest produce, Armoury,
Weights and measures, Measurement of space and time, Tolls, Spinning and weaving, Agriculture,
Intoxicating liquor, Slaughter houses, Courtesans, Shipping, Cattle, Horses, Elephants, Chariots, Infantry,
Passports, Pastures, Elephant-Forests, Spies, Religious Institutions, Gambling, Jails and Ports.49

Department for the issue of royal writs-It was under the superintendent of writs. Department for the keeping
of the royal treasure-it was under the treasury superintendent or Kosadhyakshya 50. Department of mining
under the Akaradhyakshya, who had his subordinates for the manufacture of metal goods. Lohadhyakshya,
in charge of base metals. Khanyadhyakshya, exploiting ocean mines Lavanadyakshya, are the salt
superintendent. Rupadarsaka, or manufacturer and examiner of coins. Department regulating and controlling
the work of Jewellery manufacture for the citizens and subjects. This department was presided over by the
Sauvarnika. Department of Gold mining and manufacture. This was under the Suvarnadhyaksa 51.
Department for the receipts and upkeep of agricultural and forest produce and also for keeping grain
reserves for emergency under the Kostagaradhyaksa. Department for the control of supply of commodities
under the Panyadhayaksaa52. Department for receiving raw vegetables and forest produce, under the
Kupyadhyaksaa. Department for the preservation and upkeep of weapons and implements of war under the
Ayudhagaradhyaksa.

Department for regulating weights and measure under the Pautavadhyaksa. Department for the regulation
and measurement of time under the Manadhyaksa. Department for toll collection under the Sulkadhyaksa.
Department for the superintendent of weaving under Sutradhyaksa. Department. for agriculture and royal
farms under the Sitadhyaksa. Department for the regulation of wine shop and liquor manufacture under the
Suradhyaksa53. Department for regulating the trade of Courtesans under the Ganikadhyaksa. Department for
regulating the royal ferries, guarding of rivers and for the navy under the Navadhyaksa. Department for the
royal cows and for protecting cattle under the Godhyaksa. Department of royal stables under the
Asvadhyaksa. Department of royal elephant under the Hastyadhyaksa. Department of royal chariots for
peace and war under the Rathadhyksa . Department of superintending the infantry under Pattyadhyaksa.
Department of passports under the Mudradhyaksa. Department of pastures and uninhabited meadows under
48
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI, AGE OF NANDAS AND MAURYAS,P-180
49
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI, AGE OF NANDAS AND MAURYAS , P-180
50
SODHGANGA, CHAPTER III, STATE AND SOCIETY OF MAURYAN PERIOD REPRESENTED IN ARTHASASTRA, P-
88
51
SODHGANGA, CH III, STATE AND SOCIETY OF MAURYAN PERIOD REPRESENTED IN ARTHASASTRA, P -89
52
SODHGANGA, CH III, STATE AND SOCIETY OF MAURYANS REPRESENTED IN ARTHASASTRA,P-89
53
SODHGANGA,CH III, STATE AND SOCIETY OF MAURYANS REPRESENTED IN ARTHASASTRA, P-90
15
the Vivitadhyaksa. Department of wastelands under the Sunyadhyaksa. Department of regulating guilds
under the Kantakasodhana commissioners. Department for regulating shops and prices under the
Samsthadhyaksa.

AKSHAPATALADHAKSHYA: -

The accounts branch of government had an elaborate organization, and the account year run from asadha to
asadha (July to august) and expenditure was classified into current, occasional; there were a number of
prescribed registers calculated to facilitate checking, and detailed instructions laid down for the detection of
embezzlement. The central accounts office was also the general record office (akshapatala). This department
was headed by akshapataladhakshya (accountant general).54

KOSHADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of treasury should admit into treasury gems (ratna) in
presence of experts. Kautilya has made a division between superior value treasuries and inferior value
treasuries. The koshadhyakshya should check the size, the value, repairs of various gems and treasures. The
koshadhyaksha should also have remedies against those which are inauspicious. The main work of
Koshadhyakshya is to examine the gems that are to be entered to the treasury.55

AKARADHYAKSHYA: -He must have knowledge of science regarding copper and other minerals and
must be having some knowledge regarding testing of gems. He is aided by the experts of mineralogy and
equipped with labourers and necessary instruments. He must have knowledge regarding the quality and
nature of ore.56

LOHADHYAKSHYA: - He is the superintendent of metals who shall be the head of manufacturing

department. The manufacturing of copper, lead, tin, brass (arakuta), bronze (kamsa), tala (sulphurate of
arsenic) from the metals extracted by akaradhyakshya from mines.

KHANYADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of ocean-mines shall collect conch-shells, diamonds,

precious stones, pearls, corals, and salt (kshara) . He was also the head controller of the commerce of the
above mentioned articles.

LAVANADHYAKSHYA: -The crystallisation of salt was under his department. He had to collect in time
both the money-rent(prakraya) and the quantity of the shares of salt due to the government; By the sale of
salt he had to realise its value (mulyam) and also the premium(vyajim), both in cash (rupa).57

SUVERNADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of gold had to the manufacturing of gold with the help of
the highly trained and skilful goldsmith of high birth and reliable character. No person who is not an

54
R.SHAMASASTRY, CH VII, PG-81, KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA
55
R.SHAMSASTRY, CH XI,PG -101, KAUTILYA’S ATHASASTRA
56
R. SHAMASASTRY, CH XII, PG 111, KAUTILA’S ARTHASASTRA
57
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, PAGE NO-115
16
employee shall enter the gold-smiths office. Any person who enters shall be beheaded (uchchhedyah). 58 He
had to hve the knowledge of impure and pure gold.59

KOSHTHAGARADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of storehouse had the duties to supervise the

accounts of agricultural produce, commerce, barter(parivartna), begging for grains, grains borrowed with
promise of repay, manufacture of rice, oils, accidental revenue(anyajata), statements to check expenditure,
recovery of past arrears. The superintendent shall also personally supervise the quality of grains.60

PANYADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of commerce shall look after the demand and rise and fall in
price of various kinds of merchandise. He shall also decide time suitable for the distribution, purchase and
sale of all the merchandise that have come through the road ways and water ways. He should show favour to
those who import foreign merchandise. Mariners (navika) and merchants who import foreign merchandise
shall be favoured with deduction of trade related taxes, so that they will have profit and it will attract foreign
traders.61

KUNYADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of forest produce shall collect timber and other products of
forests by employing forest guards. He shall also impose fine on those who cause any damage to productive
forests except in calamities. The superintendent of forest produce shall also manufacture all kinds of articles
which are necessary for the defence of forts.62

AYUDHAGARADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of the armoury had to manufacture in a given time

wheels, weapons, mail armour, and other accessory instruments for use in battles. He had to also
manufacture the raw materials used for construction of forts. The superintendent of armoury shall look after
demand and supply of weapons, their application, their wear and tear, as well as their decay and loss.63

PAUTAVADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of weights and measures must have all the manufactured
parameters of weight. Weights shall be made of irons or stones available in the country which will neither
expand on influence of heat or nor contract after wetting.

MANADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of lineal measure must have knowledge of measuring space
and time. Fifteen days and nights together make up one paksha. That paksha in which the moon waxes is
white (sukla) and that paksha during which moon wanes is bahula64

SULKADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of tolls shall erect the large gate of tollhouse with its flag
facing either north or south. Antapala officer in the charge of boundaries) after examining the foreign

58
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASAATRA,PG NO-119
59
R. SHAMASASTRY, PG -116, KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA
60
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, PG NO-132
61
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, PG NO-137, R. SHAMSASTRY
62
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, PG NO-142, IBID
63
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, PG NO-144, IBID
64
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA PG NO-153, IBID
17
commodities according to their superior or inferior quality and stamping them with a seal, transfer it to the
sulkadhyakshya.

SUTRADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of weaving must have qualified persons to manufacture

threads, coats, clothes and ropes. The superintendent should look after the manufacture of straps and other
commodities. He should look after the manufacture of ropes from threads and fibres and of straps from cane
and bamboo bark, with which beasts for draught are trained.65

SITADHYAKSHYA: -He must have knowledge of the science of agriculture dealing with plantation of
bushes and trees. He should collect seeds of all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, roots, fibre
producing plants and cotton. The superintendent shall grow summer crops, rain crops and winter crops
according to the supply of workmen and water. He should decide the salaries to watchmen, slaves and
labourers in proportion to the work done by them.

SURADHYAKSHYA: - The superintendent should employ men who are acquainted with the manufacture
of liquor and ferments. He should look after liquor-traffic in forts, country parts and in camps. Based on
requirements, he may decentralise or centralise the sale of liquor. He should always adopt the best course to
achieve the profit in revenue.

SUNADHYAKSHYA: -He is in the charge of regulating animal slaughters. He was also assigned the duty
to collect fines from the persons those who hunts any animal which was banned from hunting by the state.
Cattle , wild beasts, elephants, fish living in forests under state protection shall, if they become of vicious
nature, be entrapped and killed outside the forest preserve under the supervision of sunadhyakshya.

NAUKADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of ships shall examine the accounts relating to navigation not
oceans, mouths of river, natural lakes, artificial lakes and rivers near to fortified cities. The superintendent of
ships observes the customs prevalent in commercial towns.

GODHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of cows shall supervise, different types of cow herds. Regulation
of cow related activities like what are the types of herds, what are future course after death of a cattle.

ASVADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of horses shall register the breed, age, colour, marks, group or
classes, native places of horses. He shall make a report of any horses which are inauspicious, crippled, or
diseased. The construction of stable according to the number of horses was under the superintendent.

HASTADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of elephants shall take proper steps to protect elephant forests
and supervise the operations with regarding the stables of elephant. 66He shall also construct stables for
elephants.

65
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, PG NO-12,IBID

66
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA,PG NO-194
18
RATHADHYAKSHYA: -He shall look after the construction of chariots. He must examine efficiency in
training troops in shooting arrows, in wearing mail armour, in charioteering, in fighting seated on a chariot.
He must give adequate wages to those who are employed in the department.

PADADHYAKSHYA: -He must be familiar with the nature of fighting in lower grounds, fraudulent attack,
from heights, during night. He must also know the fitness and unfitness of troops on emergent occasions. He
must maintain discipline in the army. He must be aware of the grounds which is more advantageous for his
own army and what are the suitable times to attack enemy.

MUDRADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of passport shall issue passes at the rate of a Masha per pass.
Anybody going outside or coming inside the country must obtain pass. A foreigner guilty of the offence of
coming inside the country shall be punished with the highest punishment.67

VIVITADHYAKSHYA: -The superintendent of pasture must examine passes. He is in the charge of

making suitable pasture lands. It shall be his duty to protect timber and elephant forests, to protect cows, to
secure the traffic.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION: -

The Mauryan empire was divided into number of provinces, each under the control of kumaras or nobles
according to their geographical location. In Mauryan set up the king’s family members were appointed
viceroys and governors of the provinces.68The kingdom was divided into five provinces – Uttarapatha,
Dakshinapatha, Avantipura, Prachyapatha, Madhyapatha. Their capitals were Taxila, Suvernagiri, Tosali,
Ujjain, Pataliputra. Uttarapatha and Avantipura were directly under control of kumaras as the chances of
invasion from that side was maximum hence king wanted his own blood relations to be present there.
According to the edicts, the main provinces with centres in Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali and Suvernagiri constituted
special territorial and administrative units of the empire. The princes when appointed as viceroys were called
as kumara-Mahamatras and rest of viceroys were called only mahamattas. 69Prachyapatha and Dakshinaptha
were under controls of nobles. In provincial administration there was an official called Mahamattas.
Madhyapatha was under control of the king. The whole empire was divided in such a manner that it will be
easier for administration. We may guess that the provincial courts were smaller replicas of the imperial court
at Pataliputra, from which emperor directly administered the home provinces. 70 According to Dr, Altekar,
the provincial government was required to maintain law and order, collect taxes for the central government,
cooperate in the works of different department. It reported general situation to the centre and received
instructions from the centre and transmitted it to the district headquarters.

MUNICIAPAL ADMINISTRATION: -
67
KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, PG NO-202
68
S.C MISHRA, A LANDMARK STUDY OF MAURYAN INDIA
69
V.D MAHAJAN , ANCIENT INDIA, CHAPTER-23, PG NO-241
70
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI
19
Megasthenes gives an elaborate description of the administration of Pataliputra only. According to
Megasthenes, Pataliputra was controlled by a municipal commission of 30 members who were divided into
6 boards of 5 members each. The first board was concerned with industrial arts. The second board was
concerned with foreigners. Foreigners were closely watched by officials who provided suitable lodgings,
escorts, and medical attendance. The third board was concerned with census that is registration of birth and
death. The fourth board was concerned with trade and commerce. It regulated sales and enforced use of duly
stamped weights and measures. The fifth board was responsible for supervision of manufacturing sector.
The sixth board was concerned with collection of taxes on goods sold.

Kautilya also gives information regarding municipal organisation. According to him the head of
municipality was Nagarika or the modern-day mayor. Under mayor there was an officer called Gopa. They
kept registers of persons and property and inspected hotels, gambling houses, market places and places of
amusement.

DISTRICT LEVEL ADMINISTRATION: -

Pradesikas were general head of district level administration. They supervised the details of local
administration. There was another officer in district level administration called rajukas whose duty was to
survey and assess land. There was another group of officers called yuktas who looked after secretariat work.
In district administration, there were superintendents of different grades for different department.

TEHSIL LEVEL ADMINISTRATION: -

The revenue and general administration was carried on by sthanikas and gopas respectively. The gopa had
charge of ten villages was the head of general administration in tehsil level. Sthanikas supervised
maintenance of boundaries, registered gifts, sales and mortgages, and kept an accurate census of the people
and their material resources. The sthanikas were responsible to samaharta who is the head of collection of
taxes in central level.71

VILLAGE LEVEL ADMINISTRATION: -

The village was the smallest unit of administration in charge of an official called Gramika. The villages were
semi-autonomous enjoying a good deal of freedom in ordering their affairs. the village elders ( grama-
vriddhas) are often mentioned in Arthasastra. They assisted gramika while settling petty disputes in the
village. Cultivable land was parcelled out in estates belonging to individuals, while pasture and forest lands
were held common.72 Mudrarakshasa has mentioned about the role of spies in village level administration.

71
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI,AGES OF NANDAS AND MAURYANS
72
K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI, AGES OF NANDAS AND MAURYANS
20
ESPIONAGE DEPARTMENT:- With the Help by the committee of his priests the ruler will continue to
make spies: - Spies under the appearance of a deceitful pupil (kápatikachhátra) 73, a loner (udásthita)74, a
householder (grihapaitika)75, a dealer, a plain rehearsing starknesses, a schoolmate or an associate (satri), a
torch (tíkshna), a poisoner (rasada), and a beggar lady (bhikshuki).

An able individual equipped for predicting the mentality of others is a deceitful pupil. One who had austerity
and unadulterated character is a loner. This government agent, gave a lot of cash and numerous pupils, will
carry on agricultural business, dairy cattle raising, and exchange on the grounds assigned to him for the
reason. Out of the benefits accordingly gained, he will give all monks subsistence, dress and holding up, and
send on surveillance such among those under his assurance as are burning to procure a work , requesting
every one of them to recognize a specific sort of wrongdoing submitted regarding the lord's riches and to
report of it when they come to get their subsistence and wages.

A cultivator who had knowledge and of pure character is named a householder spy. This government agent
will carry on the development of lands given to him and look after cultivators.

A merchant spy had pure character. This agent will carry on the production of product on lands given to him
to earn his livelihood.

A man with shaved head or meshed hair was also a spy. Such an agent supported by a large group of
followers with shaved head or meshed hair may live in the city.

Trader spies claiming to be his devotees may admire him as he had mysterious forces. These five types of
spies will check the the works and purity of all the officials working under the King. these five
establishments of surveillance will determine the virtue of character of the ruler's workers.

WANDERING SPIES: -Orphans who are to be necessarily fed by the state and are put to study science,
palmistry (angavidya), sorcery (máyágata), the duties of the various orders of religious life, legerdemain
(jambhakavidya), and the reading of omens and augury (antara-chakra), are classmate spies. 76

Those who have no sign of affection left in them and who are very cruel poisoners were called rasada.77

A poor widow of Brahman caste, intelligent, and desirous to earn her livelihood, such a woman shall
frequent the residences of the king's prime ministers. Women with shaved head and women of sudra caste
constitute wandering spies.

73
R.SHAMASASTRY, KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA
74
R.SHAMSASTRY, KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA
75
R.SHAMASASTRY, KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA
76
R. SAMASASTRY, INSTITUION OF SPIES , KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA
77
R. SAMASASTRY, KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, INSTITUTION OF SPIES
21
Of these spies, those who are of good family, loyal, reliable, well-trained in the art of hiding themselves and
possessed of knowledge of many languages and arts shall be sent by the king to check the affairs of his own
country and the movements of king’s servants.

Classmate spies shall convey this information that gathered by the fiery spies to the institutes of espionage

Poisoners such as a sauce-maker , a cook , procurer of water for bathing, shampooer, the spreader of bed (as,
a barber , toilet-maker , servants such as have taken the appearance of a hump-backed person, a dwarf, the
dumb, the deaf, the idiot, the blind; artisans such as actors, dancers, singers, players on musical instruments,
buffoons, as well as women shall espy the private character of these officers of the country. 78

The immediate officers of the institutes of espionage shall use of signs or writing to set their own spies to
verify the validity of the information.

When the information received from these three different sources is exactly of the same version, it shall be
held reliable. If the information differs regularly, the spies shall be punished in secret or dismissed.

The hump-backed, the dwarf, the women of accomplishments, the dumb, and various grades of a caste shall
be spies inside their houses.

Merchant spies inside forts; saints and ascetics in the suburban area of forts, the cultivator and the recluse in
country parts, herdsmen in the boundaries of the country, in forests, forest-dwellers and chiefs of wild tribes,
shall be stationed to ascertain the movements of enemies, All these spies must be very accurate in their work
Those officials whose design help in finding out foreign spies were rewarded.

REVENUE:- There were three types of taxes Bhaga, Bali and Sulka. Bhaga was the agricultural tax, Bali
was the voluntary tax and sulka was the toll tax.

LAND REVENUE: -

It should be noted that the land-tax was the most important of all the sources of the State revenue in
Mauryan administration. His claim was limited to a fixed share of the produce. One was a tax on the area of
land cultivated and the other on the assessment of the produce. The assessment varied from region to region
and the sources mention a range from one-sixth to a quarter of the produce of the land. It was generally
based on the land worked by each cultivator, and on the quality of the land, irrigation availability. The land
tax was the most important source of tax to the Mauryan administration. Asoka during his reign decreased
the amount of tax collection from one-sixth to one-eighth for Lumbini as it was the birth place of Gautama
Buddha and he was a strong follower of Buddhism. This religion also flourished under him in the entire
Indian subcontinent.

SOURCES OF REVENUE: -

78
R.shamsastry, kautilya’s arthasastra, creation of wandering spies
22
(1) a share of the produce of land, a sixth part, (2) other dues and cesses laid on land including a water rate
which varied according to the nature of the land and crop, and tax on houses in towns ; (3) income from
crown lands, and from mines and manufactures, salt, (4) customs tax (5) profits of trades carried on by the
government (6) fees for licenses of various kinds to be taken by artisans, craftsmen, professionals and
traders ; (7) fines imposed in courts (8) presents, ownerless property treasure-troves.

The Arthasastra gives two distinct classifications of the revenues of the State. According to the first, the
income is classified under seven heads, in view of the sources from which they are derived, namely, (1) the
capital, (2) the country parts, (3) mines, (4) public works, (5) forests, (6) pasture-lands, and (7) trade-
routes.79

The various kinds of income from the capital were excise duties imposed on local articles, such as cotton
goods, oils, salt, liquors, and metallic manufactures ; taxes on warehouses, guilds of artisans, and temples ;
duties collected at the city gates ; and fines on gambling and betting The rates of duties were fixed in view
of the nature of a particular commodity and also of its place of origin. 80 The duties varied from one-tenth to
one-twentieth If it was a harmful commodity, 81Valuable seeds, articles for marriage were exempted from
toll tax.

The mines formed a very important source of revenue to the State. The receipts from mines consisted of the
yield of the State-mines and also a share of the produce of mines privately owned, whether the produce
consisted of precious metals or of ordinary minerals. Again the income of the State, according to another
type of classification, would fall into two parts, namely, (1) tax-revenue and (2) non-tax revenue. The first
head would comprise (i) fixed taxes (pindakara), (ii) one-sixth share of the produce (Sadabhaga), (iii)
supply of provisions for the army (sena bhakta), (iv) religious taxes (bah), (v) tributes from subordinate
rulers (kara), (vi) forced benevolences (utsariga), (vii) royalties (parsva), (viii) compensations (parihmika),
(ix) presents (aupayanika), and rents of public buildings (kaushtheyaka). Under the second head fall (i) the
agricultural produce of crown lands, (ii) sale proceeds of grains, (iii) grains obtained by special request, (iv)
incidental gains from trade and commerce, (v) interest on capital, and (vi) profits of manufactures
undertaken by the State.

OTHER SOURCES OF INCOME FOR THE STATE:-

Apart from these, there were also other sources of income, such as fines, seizures, and forfeitures of the
property of enemies. The classes of persons who were exempted from taxes were Brahmins, women, minors,
students, blind, deaf, dumb, and diseased persons.

79
ARTHASASTRA, BK II, CH 27, SC 24
80
Arthasastra, Bk. II, Ch. 43, Sc 39
81
Megasthenes also speaks of this duty of one-tenth. The Agni Purana, however, puts it at one- twentieth.
23
In times of financial crisis, a ruler was also allowed to follow some other methods other than those which are
mentioned in Arthasastra. For instance, he might demand one fourth or one-third of the share of the produce
of the soil.The King's officers might also compel the people to grow additional crops to solve financial
crisis. Religious institutions were also compelled to contribute to the funds of the State. On occasions of
severe financial difficulty, various other mechanisms were adopted. Kautilya said that this type of
compulsions should only be shown by the administration only once not more than once. Because this may
create difficulty for the public of the country.

EXPENDITURE: -

Under the expenditure we can notice the maintenance of the King and his court and the members of the
royal family and the salaries of ministers and other officials, Public works including building , roads, and
irrigation works, the demand of the vast army in its various branches, the building of forts and
manufacturing of weapons , grant to religious institutions of various kinds the maintenance of the families of
soldiers and civil officials dying in state service, the care of unemployed. These were the main expenditure
of the state as mentioned in Arthasastra.82 Asoka spent large amount in establishing hospitals for men and
animals and raising gardens of medicinal herbs within his vast empire and also in the neighbouring
countries.

JUDICIAL ADMINISTRTION: -

One of the most significant system of Mauryan empire was its system of administration. They always
supported the principle of providing impartial justice. The king was the head of the judicial administration.
The court system was basically a two-court system. There was appealing system. That is if somebody is not
satisfied with the decision of lower court, then they can approach the higher court. The highest court of
appeal was king in council, not king alone.83

There were two classes of courts. Dharmasthiya courts and kantakasodhana courts. Dharmasthiya courts
were civil courts which decided cases related to contracts, agreements, gifts, sales, marriages, inheritance,
boundary disputes.84The kantakasodhana courts were criminal courts where cases related to theft, robbery,
murder, rapes were decided. 85The supreme court was situated in the capital and was presided by the king
whose decision was final. Three amatyas or three adhyakshas presided over the dharmasthiya court at the
central level and Three pradeshikas presided over the kantakasodhana court. There were subordinate courts
in every level of administration. In provincial level the criminal court was presided by the pradeshikas and
the civil court was presided by the mahamattas. In district level the criminal court was presided by the
pradeshikas and civil court was presided by Rajukas. In tehsil level the criminal court were presided by the

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gopas and the civil courts were presided by the sthanikas. The villages had also village elders deciding
minor cases.86 The Mauryan penal code was very severe. It also had system of torture to draw the
information from the accused. There were also provisions of cutting down of limbs of the wrongdoer.
Capital punishment was the penultimate punishment. In the times of Asoka, though he converted to
Buddhism and started following the path of non-violence, but still it was there in the judicial administration.
The guilty were granted three days to perform religious ceremonies and to do charity works to secure a good
life in the next life.87

The four sources of Mauryan law were dharma, vyavahara, charitam, rajasasana (royal proclamation). The
dharma means what were the duties of each division of people. Vyavahara means what were their customs,
charitam means precedent and rajasasana means the orders of the King.

Kautilya has given 18 types of litigation. The types of litigation includes (1) recovery of debts, (2) deposit
and pledge, (3) sale without ownership, (4) concerns among partners, (5) resumption of gifts, (6) non-
payment of wages, (7) non-performance of agreements, (8) rescission of sale and purchase, (9) disputes
between owners of cattle and herdsmen, (10) disputes regarding boundaries, (11) assault, (12) defamation,
(13) theft, (14) robbery and violence, (15) adultery, (16) duties of man and wife, (17) inheritance and
partition, and (18) gambling and betting. It can be seen that the list includes both civil and criminal cases.

MILITARY ORGANISATION: -

The Mauryans maintained a large, efficient and well equipped army which was composed of six elements,
the hereditary army which was most loyal, reliable and composed mainly of the fighting classes, the hired
army consisting of mercenaries who were recruited from various countries, The army of king’s friend , The
army belonging to those who are not friend, The army composed of whose business was to detain or distract
enemy, The army provided by trade guilds on short expeditions. 88 In Kautilya’s Arthasastra, only infantry,
cavalry and elephantry are mentioned prominently.

The Mauryan empire maintained a large standing army. According to Megasthenes, put strength of
Chandragupta’s forces at 6,00,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants.The Arthasastra mentions
different types of chariots – war chariots and chariots used for assaulting fortresses among them, There were
superintendents set over each of the four sections. Among the infantry Kautilya distinguishes different
types- hereditary troops, hired troops, troops maintained by guilds and available to the state at need and
forest tribes who furnished troops to the kings at the time of war. The superintendents of forces were
responsible to the military commander. There were periodical inspections of all troops by the commander in
chief and the emperor. According to megasthenes There were six boards to regulate activities of army, each
consisting of five members each. 1.Naval warfare 2. Planning for wars, food arrangement, service matter 3.
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Infantry was under padadhakshya 4. Cavalry was under Asvadhakshya 5.Charioteers was under
rathadhakshya 6.Hastadhakshya was head of this board to regulate war elephants. 89 According to V.A Smith,
“The addition of coordinate supply and admiralty departments appears to be an innovation due to the genius
of Chandragupta. His organisation must have been efficient in practice as it was systematic in paper.”

PUBLIC WORKS: -It was the responsibility of the state to do irrigation projects for the benefit of
agriculture. They also had to construct roads and maintain public highways to help the traders in trading
activities. Megasthenes has described the highway which ran from north-west to Pataliputra. It was 1150
miles long and quite wide. Arrangements were also made for the proper maintenance of these roads.

The Mauryans also constructed many canals and irrigation projects, a governor of Chandragupta Maurya
was responsible for building a dam across a river near Girnar in western India.90

PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION; - During the time of Mauryan empire the Kings built and
maintained hospitals for human beings and animals.91 There was detailed rule regarding sanitation and those
who violated those rules were punished. There was separate department of public census. A record of births
and deaths was kept by the government officials.

WELFARE STATE:-According to Dr.A.S Altekar the nature and scope of the activities of Mauryan state
show that it was largely a welfare state. It regarded itself as the trustee of the people. Some of the features
and policies of administration signifies that how it was a welfare state. It protected consumers from the
traders who used to increase the prices of goods and created shortage in the market by diverting those goods.
The administration also checked the fraud on consumers by using standardised and stamped weights and
measures. Sellers of adulterated materials were severely punished. The state also established water irrigation
system to help the agricultural sector. The administration offered support to the orphans, old persons and the
poor women in the family.

The Mauryan rulers gave utmost importance to public hygiene. Every house was required to have a dung hill
and outlet for water. Adequate measures were taken against epidemics. In the time of famine, the granaries
provided reliefs and seeds. The govt tried to control damage of floods during monsoon season.

Dr. Altekar also said that “Mauryan administration was not only a very efficient and successful one but also
much in advance of its time. During the ancient Indian period, India was perhaps most efficiently
administered under the Mauryans.92

OUTCOME OF THE PROJECT: -the outcome of this project is detailed structure of Mauryan
administration. The systematic way Mauryan ruled the entire Indian subcontinent came into a clear picture.

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Every department of administration, espionage department of administration also came into picture. The
researcher has tried to bring a clarity about the finance, espionage of Mauryan administration.

CONCLUSIONS: -Mauryan empire is a role model for any state. The way they controlled such a vast
empire when no modern technologies were available is a great achievement. Nowadays after the availability
of all these resources also the administration is not effective in many countries. AT that time the crime rate
in Mauryan empire was very rare. In modern society despite having all modern commodities the crime rates
have been increasing day by day. Mauryan state was a welfare state, that reflects in their public
administration techniques and their developmental works.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: -

BOOKS

1.ANCIENT INDIA, S. CHAND PUBLICATION BY V.D MAHAJAN

2.AGE OF NANDAS AND MAURYAS BY K.A NILAKANTA SASTRI, PUBLISHED FOR THE
BHARATIYA ITIHAS PARISHAD

3.KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA, BY R. SHAMASASTRY

4. ROMILA THAPPAR, ANCIENT INDIA

5. A,S ALTEKAR, STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT INDIA,DELHI,1977

6. ROMILA THAPAR, ASOKA AND THE DECLINE OF MAURYAS, DELHI, 1983

RESEARCH ARTICLES;-

1.SODHGANGA , CHAPTER III, STATE AND SOCIETY OF MAURYAN PERIOD REPRESENTED IN

ARTHASASTRA

2. A LANDMARK STUDY OF MAURYAN INDIA, S.C MISHRA, SOCIAL SCIENTIST, VOL 33, NO
11/12, NOV-DEC 2005, P-76-92

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