International High School

Sarajevo

Physics Graduation work

Subject: Aurora Borealis

Teacher: Merve Kevser Gogkol

Student: Lejla Hrustemović, 4D

Sarajevo

June, 2018
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................1
2. Early discovery of magnetism..................................................3
3. The Magnetic Field..................................................................6
3.1.1.Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic
field........................................................................13
3.1.2.Helical path............................................................16
3.1.3.Motion of a particle in a non-uniform magnetic field
...............................................................................17
4. The magnetic field of the Earth.............................................19
4.1. Van Allen belts...............................................................22
5. The Sun..................................................................................24
5.1. Magnetic field of the Sun...............................................27
6. Origination of Aurora Borealis...............................................28
7. Colors of Aurora....................................................................30
Introduction
An aurora, commonly called aurora borealis (northern light)
or aurora australis (southern light) is a natural display of light
in the Earth's sky, which can be seen in high latitude regions
(Arctic or Antarctic) due to the reasons of it's occurence. For
millennia, this phenomena has been the source of
speculation and superstition. For instance, aurora
borealis means the dawn of the north, and aurora
australis means the dawn of the south. Hence, in
Roman myths the goddess of dawn is Aurora. In
medieval times, the occurrences of auroral displays
were seen as harbingers of war. Some Indians
believed that the lights indicated the location of giants
who were the spirits of great hunters and fishermen. A
tribe of Alaska (Inuit) believed that the lights were the
spirits of the animals they hunted: the seals, salmon,
deer and whales. Other peoples believed that the lights
were the spirits of their own people.

Additionally, photographs of aurora were cause of awe.

When I saw a photograph taken by a photographer
from ISS (International Space Station), I was admiring
it for a long time and it got me interested in this subject.
My will to investigate for more knowledge of this
phenomena raised and I persisted in it.

Though, to fully understand the occurrence of aurora

we need to have knowledge of some basic theoretical
information. That’s why I’m going to introduce topics
such as magnetic field, composition of Sun and Earth.

1
 Figure 1: Aurora Borealis in Estonia
(14.12.2015)

Figure 1: Aurora Borealis in Russia

(8.10.2016)

2
Early discovery of magnetism
Many historians of science believe that the compass,
which uses a magnetic needle, was used in China as
early as the 13th century BC, its invention being of
Arabic or Indian origin. The early Greeks knew about
magnetism as early as 800 BC.

The most popular legend accounting for the discovery

of magnets is the one of an elderly Cretan shepherd by
the name of Magnes. Legend says that he was herding
his sheep in an area of Northern Greece called
Magnesia, about 4000 years ago. Suddenly both, the
nails in his shoes and the metal tip of his staff became
firmly stuck to the large, black rock on which he had
stepped on. To find the source of attraction he dug up
the earth to find lodestones (naturally magnetized
material). This type of rock was subsequently named
magnetite (Fe3O4), after either Magnes of Magnesia.

People soon realized magnetite not only attracted

objects made of iron, but when made into the shape of
a needle and floated in water, it would always be
pointed in north-south direction, creating a primitive
compass. This led to an alternative name for
magnetite, that of lodestones or “leading stone”.

The poles received their names because of the way a

magnet, such as that in a compass, behaves in the
presence of the Earth’s magnetic field. If a bar magnet
is suspended from its midpoint and can swing freely in
a horizontal plane, it will rotate until its north pole points

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to the Earth’s geographic North Pole and its south pole
points to the Earth’s geographic South Pole.

Maricourt of France found that the directions of a

needle near a spherical natural magnet formed lines
that encircled the sphere and passed through two
points diametrically opposite each other, which he
called the poles of the magnet. Following experiments
showed that every magnet, regardless of its shape, has
two poles, called north (N) and south (S) poles, that
exert forces on other magnetic poles similar to the way
electric charges exert forces on one another. That is,
that opposite poles (N-S) attract each other and like
poles (N-N or S-S) repel each other. Furthermore,
these forces vary as the inverse square of the distance
between interacting poles.

Although the force between two magnetic poles is

otherwise similar to the force between two electric
charges, electric charges can be isolated (witness the
electron and proton), whereas a single magnetic pole
has never been isolated. That is, magnetic poles are
always found in pairs. There was never a successful
attempt to isolate a magnetic pole. No matter how
many times a permanent magnet is cut in two, each
piece always has a north and a south pole.

The relationship between magnetism and electricity

was discovered in 1819 when, Hans Christian Oersted
found that an electric current in a wire deflected a
nearby compass needle. In the 1820s, further

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connections between electricity and magnetism were
demonstrated independently by Faraday and Joseph

Henry (1797–1878). They showed that an electric

current can be produced in a circuit either by moving a
magnet near the circuit or by changing the current in a
nearby circuit. These observations demonstrate that a
changing magnetic field creates an electric field. Years
later, theoretical work by Maxwell showed that the
reverse is also true: a changing electric field creates a
magnetic field.

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The Magnetic Field
The interactions between charged objects is described
in terms of electric fields. It is known that an electric
field surrounds any electric charge. In addition to
containing an electric field, the region of space
surrounding any moving electric charge also contains a
magnetic field. A magnetic field also surrounds a
magnetic substance making up a permanent magnet.
Historically, the symbol B has been used to represent a
magnetic field, and we use this notation in this book.
The direction of the magnetic field B at any location is
the direction in which a compass needle points at that
location. As with the electric field, we can represent the
magnetic field by means of drawings with magnetic
field lines. (Figure 2)

Figure 2: Compass needles can be used to trace the

magnetic field lines in the region outside the bar
magnet.

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 3a 3b

Figure 3a: Magnetic field pattern between opposite

poles (N-S) of two bar magnets.

Figure 3b: Magnetic field bar pattern between like

poles (N-N) of two bar magnets.

We can define a magnetic field B at some point in

space in terms of the magnetic force FB that the field
exerts on a charged particle moving with a velocity v,
which we call the test object. For the time being, let’s
assume no electric or gravitational fields are present at
the location of the test object. Experiments on various
charged particles moving in a magnetic field give the
following results:

 The magnitude FB of the magnetic force exerted

on the particle is proportional to the charge q
and to the speed v of the particle.
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  When a charged particle moves parallel to the
magnetic field vector, the magnetic force acting
on the particle is zero.
 When the particle’s velocity vector makes any
angle θ ≠ 0 with the magnetic field, the magnetic
force acts in a direction perpendicular to both v
and B ; that is, FB is perpendicular to the plane
formed by v and B (Figure 3a).
 The magnetic force exerted on a positive charge
is in the direction opposite the direction of the
magnetic force exerted on a negative charge
moving in the same direction (Figure 3b).
 The magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on
the moving particle is proportional to sin θ,
where θ is the angle the particle’s velocity vector
makes with the direction of B.

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Figure 4a: Showing the direction of FB which is
perpendiculat to both, B and v.

Figure 4b: Magnetic force for a positively charged and

negatively charged particles have opposite directions

By summarizing these observations, formula for

magnetic force exerted can be written as:

Which by definition of the cross product is

perpendicular to velocity v and magnetic field B. From
this equation we conclude that the magnetic field is
defined in terms of the force acting on a moving
charged particle.

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Moreover, there are two right-hand rules which help us
to determine the direction of the magnetic force. They
are both represented on Figure 5.

Figure 5a: To use this rule, you point your fingers in the
direction of v, with B coming our of your palm, so that
you can curl your fingers in the direction of B. The
direction of v×B and a force on a positive charge, is the
direction in which your thumb points (the direction on a
negative charge would just be the oppposite).

Figure 5b: To use this rule, the vector v is in the

direction of your thumb and B in the direction of your
fingers. The force on a positive charge is now in the
direction of your palm, as if you were pushing the
particle with your hand.

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The magnitude of the magnetic force on a charged
particle is:

where θ is the smaller angle between v and B. From

this expression, we see that FB is zero when is parallel
or antiparallel to (θ = 0 or 180°) and maximum when is
perpendicular to ( θ = 90°).

Electric and magnetic forces have several important

differences:

 The electric force vector is along the direction of

the electric field, whereas the magnetic force
vector is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
 The electric force acts on a charged particle
regardless of whether the particle is moving,
whereas the magnetic force acts on a charged
particle only when the particle is in motion.
 The electric force does work in displacing a
charged particle, whereas the magnetic force
associated with a steady magnetic field does no
work when a particle is displaced because the
force is perpendicular to the displacement.

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From the last statement and on the basis of the work–
kinetic energy theorem, we conclude that the kinetic
energy of a charged particle moving through a
magnetic field cannot be altered by the magnetic field
alone. The field can alter the direction of the velocity
vector, but it cannot change the speed or kinetic energy
of the particle.

From Equation 2, we see that the SI unit of magnetic

field is the newton per coulomb-meter per second,
which is called the tesla (T):

1T= 1 N/C*m/s
Because a coulomb per second is defined to be an
ampere,

1T= 1 N/Am
A non-SI magnetic-field unit in common use, called the
gauss (G), is related to the tesla through the
conversion 1 T = 104 G.

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Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic
field

Consider the special case of a positively charged

particle moving in a uniform magnetic field with the
initial velocity vector of the particle perpendicular to the
field. As the particle changes the direction of its velocity
in response to the magnetic force, the magnetic force
remains perpendicular to the velocity. As we found
previously, if the force is always perpendicular to the
velocity, the path of the particle is a circle. Figure 6
shows the particle moving in a circle in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Figure 6: When a velocity of a particle is perpendicular

to magnetic field, it moves in a circular path and the
magnetic force is directed toward the center of the
circle.
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The particle moves in a circle because the magnetic
force FB is perpendicular to v and B and has a constant
magnitude qvB. As Figure 4 illustrates, the rotation is
counterclockwise for a positive charge in a magnetic
field directed into the page. If q were negative, the
rotation would be clockwise.

We use the particle under a net force model to write

Newton’s second law for the particle:

Since the particle moves in a circle, we also model it as

a particle in uniform circular motion and we replace the
acceleration with centripetal acceleration:

By combining these two expressions, we get equation

for the radius of the circular path:

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This means that the radius of the path is proportional to
the linear momentum mv of the particle and inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the charge on the
particle and to the magnitude of the magnetic field.

The angular speed of the particle is:

And finally, the period of the motion (the time interval

the particle requires to complete one revolution) is
equal to the circumference of the circle divided by the
speed of the particle:

These results show that the angular speed of the

particle and the period of the circular motion do not
depend on the speed of the particle or on the radius of
the orbit.

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Helical path

If a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field

with its velocity at some arbitrary angle with respect to
B, its path is a helix.

For example, if the field is directed in the x direction as

shown in Figure 7, there is no component of force in
the x direction. As a result, ax = 0, and the x component
of velocity remains constant. The magnetic force
causes the components vy and vz to change in time,
however, and the resulting motion is a helix whose axis
is parallel to the magnetic field. The projection of the
path onto
the yz plane
(viewed along
the x axis) is
a circle. (The

projections of the path onto the xy and xz planes are

sinusoids)

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 Figure 7: A charged particle having a velocity vector
that has a component parallel to a uniform magnetic
field moves in a helical path.

Motion of a particle in a non-uniform magnetic field

When charged particles move in a non-uniform

magnetic field, the motion is complex. For example, in
a magnetic field that is strong at the ends and weak in
the middle such as that shown in Figure 8, the particles
can oscillate between two positions.

A charged particle starting at one end spirals along the

field lines until it reaches the other end, where it
reverses its path and spirals back. This configuration is
known as a magnetic bottle because charged particles
can be trapped within it. The magnetic bottle has been
used to confine a plasma, a gas consisting of ions and
electrons. Such a plasma-confinement scheme could
fulfill a crucial role in the control of nuclear fusion, a
process that could supply us in the future with an
almost endless source of energy. Unfortunately, the
magnetic bottle has its problems. If a large number of
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particles are trapped, collisions between them cause
the particles to eventually leak from the system.

Figure 8: A charged particle moving in a nonuniform

magnetic field (a magnetic bottle) spirals about the field
and oscillates between the endpoints. The magnetic
force exerted on the particle near either end of the
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bottle has a component that causes the particle to
spiral back toward the center.

The magnetic field of the Earth

When we speak of a compass magnet having a north

pole and a south pole, it is more proper to say that it
has a “north-seeking” pole and a “south-seeking” pole.
This wording means that one pole of the magnet seeks,
or points to, the north geographic pole of the Earth.
Because the north pole of a magnet is attracted toward
the north geographic pole of the Earth, the Earth’s
south magnetic pole is located near the north
geographic pole and the Earth’s north magnetic pole is
located near the south geographic pole. In fact, the
configuration of the Earth’s magnetic field, pictured in
Figure 9, is very much like the one that would be
achieved by burying a gigantic bar magnet deep in the
interior of the Earth.

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Figure 9: The Earth’s magnetic field lines. Notice that a
south magnetic pole is near the north geographic pole
and a north magnetic pole is near the south geographic
pole.

If a compass needle is suspended in bearings that

allow it to rotate in the vertical plane as well as in the
horizontal plane, the needle is horizontal with respect
to the Earth’s surface only near the equator. As the
compass is moved northward, the needle rotates so
that it points more and more toward the surface of the
Earth. Finally, at a point near Hudson Bay in Canada,
the north pole of the needle points directly downward.
This site, first found in 1832, is considered to be the
location of the south magnetic pole of the Earth. It is
approximately 1 300 mi from the Earth’s geographic
North Pole, and its exact position varies slowly with
time. Similarly, the north magnetic pole of the Earth is
20
about 1 200 mi away from the Earth’s geographic
South Pole. Because of this distance between the north
geographic and south magnetic poles, it is only
approximately correct to say that a compass needle
points north.

The difference between true north, defined as the

geographic North Pole, and north indicated by a
compass varies from point to point on the Earth. This
difference is referred to as magnetic declination. For
example, along a line through Florida and the Great
Lakes, a compass indicates true north, whereas in the
state of Washington, it aligns 25° east of true north.

Although the Earth’s magnetic field pattern is similar to

the one that would be set up by a bar magnet deep
within the Earth, it is easy to understand why the
source of this magnetic field cannot be large masses of
permanently magnetized material. The Earth does
have large deposits of iron ore deep beneath its
surface, but the high temperatures in the Earth’s core
prevent the iron from retaining any permanent
magnetization. Scientists consider it more likely that the
source of the Earth’s magnetic field is convection
currents in the Earth’s core. Charged ions or electrons
circulating in the liquid interior could produce a
magnetic field just as a current loop does. There is also
strong evidence that the magnitude of a planet’s
magnetic field is related to the planet’s rate of rotation.
For example, Jupiter rotates faster than the Earth, and
space probes indicate that Jupiter’s magnetic field is
stronger than the Earth’s. Venus, on the other hand,
21
rotates more slowly than the Earth, and its magnetic
field is found to be weaker. Investigation into the cause
of the Earth’s magnetism is ongoing. It is interesting to
point out that that the direction of the Earth’s magnetic
field has reversed several times during the last million
years. Evidence for this reversal is provided by basalt,
a type of rock that contains iron and that forms from
material spewed forth by volcanic activity on the ocean
floor. As the lava cools, it solidifies and retains a picture
of the Earth’s magnetic field direction. The rocks are
dated by other means to provide a timeline for these
periodic reversals of the magnetic field.

Figure 10: Earth’s composition

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Van Allen belts

Earth is surrounded by giant donut-shaped swaths of

magnetically trapped, highly energetic charged
particles. These radiation belts were discovered in
1958 by the United States' first satellite, Explorer 1.
The discovery was led by James Van Allen at the
University of Iowa, which eventually caused the belts to
be named after him.

The Van Allen belts were the first discovery of the

space age, measured with the launch of a US satellite,
Explorer 1, in 1958. In the decades since, scientists
have learned that the size of the two belts can change
– or merge, or even separate into three belts
occasionally. But generally the inner belt stretches from
600 to 60 000 km above Earth's surface and the outer
belt stretches from 10 00 to 65 000 km above Earth's
surface.

The particles trapped by the Earth’s non-uniform

magnetic field, spiral around the field lines from pole to
pole, covering the distance in just a few seconds.
These particles originate mainly from the Sun, but
some from stars and other heavenly objects. For this
reason, they are called cosmic rays. Most of them are
deflected by Earth’s magnetic field and never reach the
atmosphere. However, some particles are trapped, it is
these particles that make up the Van Allen belts. When
the particles are located over the poles, they
23
sometimes collide with atoms in the atmosphere,
causing the atoms to emit visible light, Aurora Borealis
or Australis. Occasionally, solar activity causes larger
numbers of charged particles to enter the belts and
significantly distort the normal magnetic field lines
associated with the Earth. In these situations an aurora
can sometimes be seen at lower latitudes.

Figure 11: The Van Allen belts are made up of charged

particles trapped by the Earth’s non-uniform magnetic
field.

The Sun

The sun is a big star, at about 864,000 miles (1.4

million kilometers) wide. If the sun were a hollow ball,
more than a million Earths could stuff inside it. But the
24
sun isn't hollow; it's filled with scorching hot gases
that account for more than 99.8 percent of the total
mass in the solar system. The temperature is about
10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (5,500 degrees Celsius)
on the surface and more than 28 million degrees
Fahrenheit (15.5 million Celsius) at the core.

The Sun was born about 4.6 billion years ago. Many

scientists think the sun and the rest of the solar system
formed from a giant, rotating cloud of gas and dust
known as the solar nebula. As the nebula collapsed
because of its gravity, it spun faster and flattened into a
disk. Most of the material was pulled toward the center
to form the sun.
The sun has enough nuclear fuel to stay much as it is
now for another 5 billion years. After that, it will swell to
become a red giant. Eventually, it will shed its outer
layers, and the remaining core will collapse to become
a white dwarf. Slowly, this will fade, to enter its final
phase as a dim, cool theoretical object sometimes
known as a black dwarf.

The Sun and its atmosphere are divided into several

zones and layers. The solar interior, from the inside
out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and the
convective zone. 
Deep in the sun's core, nuclear fusion reactions
convert hydrogen to helium, which generates energy.
Particles of light called photons carry this energy
through the sun's spherical shell, radiative zone to
the top layer of the solar interior, the convection
zone. There, boiling motions of gases (like in a lava

25
lamp) transfer the energy to the surface. This journey
takes more than a million years.

The sun's surface, or atmosphere, is divided into three

regions: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and
the solar corona. The photosphere is the visible
surface of the sun and the lowest layer of the
atmosphere. Just above the photosphere are the
chromosphere and the corona, which also emit visible
light but are only seen during a solar eclipse, when the
moon passes between the Earth and Sun.
Beyond that is the solar wind, an outflow of gas from
the corona.
Solar flares are giant explosions on the sun that send
energy, light and high speed particles into space.
These flares are often associated with solar magnetic
storms known as coronal mass ejections (CMEs).
The number of solar flares increases approximately
every 11 years, and the sun is currently moving
towards another solar maximum, the last one being in
2013. That means more flares will be coming, some
small and some big enough to send their radiation all
the way to Earth.

The Sun, and everything that orbits it, is located in the

Milky Way galaxy. More specifically, our sun is in a
spiral arm called the Orion Spur that extends outward
from the Sagittarius arm. From there, the sun orbits the
center of the Milky Way Galaxy, bringing the planets,
asteroids, comets and other objects along with it.

26
 Figure 12: Composition and structure of Sun

Magnetic field of the Sun

The strength of the sun's magnetic field is typically only
about twice as strong as Earth's field. However, it
becomes highly concentrated in small areas, reaching
up to 3,000 times stronger than usual. These kinks and
twists in the magnetic field develop because the sun
spins more rapidly at the equator than at the higher
latitudes and because the inner parts of the sun rotate
more quickly than the surface.

27
These distortions create features ranging from
sunspots to spectacular eruptions known as flares and
coronal mass ejections. Flares are the most violent
eruptions in the solar system, while coronal mass
ejections are less violent but involve extraordinary
amounts of matter — a single ejection can spout
roughly 20 billion tons (18 billion metric tons) of matter
into space.

Origination of Aurora Borealis

As we have been introduced to Earth’s composition

and magnetic field, we know acquire the knowledge
that Earth has an invisible magnetic field around it. The
magnetic field has been protecting us for billions of
years, of a beam of supercharged plasma that would
otherwise wipe out the life on Earth. Also, as we have
seen, before any light hits the Earth it’s born on Sun’s
edge, corona. It’s intense heat causes the Sun’s
hydrogen and helium atoms to vibrate and shake off
protons and electrons. Soon, these particles start
moving too fast to be contained by Sun’s gravity. They
group together as plasma, an electrically charged gas.
They travel together as a constant gale of plasma,
knows as “solar wind.” A few days after it’s been
released from the Sun, travelling at a speed of 400
km/s, the wind reached the Earth. Thankfully, Earth’s
magnetic field protects us. It sends the particles around
28
the Earth. However, some of them do get into the
atmosphere. It happens during coronal mass ejections,
the event when Sun shoots a massive ball of plasma
into the solar wind. When the coronal mass ejection
collide the Earth, it overpowers the magnetosphere,
and creates a magnetic storm. The heavy storm
stressed magnetosphere back and it snaps back like
overly-stretched elastic band. It snaps back, flinging
some of the detoured particles towards Earth. The
retracting band takes them down to the aurora ovals,
which are the locations of northern and southern light.
When these energized particles (protons and electrons)
smash into the neutral atoms (oxygen and nitrogen)
way up high in our atmosphere, they “excite” them,
which means that the gas atoms grabs a little bit of
energy. Although, they don’t stay excited for long. They
give of that stored energy in a bright little burst of light,
that is, they emit photons. The colors of the Aurora’s
depend on the wavelengths of the atom’s photons.
Excited oxygen atoms give green and red, nitrogen
gives astonishing mix of blue and red which results in
an incredible purplish-pink color.

This happens every 24h of every day, but we can only

see it at night and our position has to be near the
poles. It also happens on Saturn and Jupiter.

Winter is usually the best time to see Aurora’, due to

lower levels of light pollution and the clear, crisp air.
September, October, March and April are some of the
best months to view the aurora borealis. The lights are
known to be brighter and more active for up to two

29
days after sunspot activity is at its highest. Several
agencies, such as NASA and the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, also monitor solar activity
and issue aurora alerts when they are expected to put
on a particularly impressive show.

Colors of Aurora
The colors most often associated with the aurora
borealis are pink, green, yellow, blue, violet and
occasionally orange and white. Typically, when the
particles collide with oxygen, yellow and green are
produced. Interactions with nitrogen produce red,
violet, and occasionally blue colors. 

The type of collision also makes a difference to the

colors that appear in the sky: atomic nitrogen causes
blue displays, while molecular nitrogen results in
purple. The colors are also affected by altitude. The
green lights typically in areas appear up to 150 miles
(241 km) high, red above 150 miles; blue usually
appears at up to 60 miles (96.5 km); and purple and
violet above 60 miles.

These lights may manifest as a static band of light, or,

when the solar flares are particularly strong, as a
dancing curtain of ever-changing color.
The best places to see the northern lights are Alaska
and northern Canada, but visiting these vast, open
expanses is not always easy. Norway, Sweden and
Finland also offer excellent vantage points.

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 Figure 13: Formation of color in Aurora Borealis

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Conclusion

Physics is the science of matter and its motion, space,

time and energy. Everything surrounding us is made of
matter and Physics explains matter as combinations of
fundamental particles which are interacting through
fundamental forces. Physics is also a necessity in
solving our future problems.

Through my graduation work, I have tried to explain

how Physics plays a major role in all the processes that
happen around us. From the smallest one, like
composition of our surroundings, to the one of the
biggest phenomena we are able to see.

People have tried to understand Aurora Borealis for

many years, but they couldn’t have succeeded without
the knowledge of Physics.

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REFERENCES

Raymond A. Serway,” Physics for Scientists and

Engineers”, 2009.

Roger LeRoy Miller, Sue Holt, Simmone Hewett, Keith

Morrow, ”Advanced Physics for You”, 2000.

Harald Falck-Ytter, Aurora: The Northern Lights in

Mythology, History and Science, 1999.

Van Allen Belts | Retrieved from:

https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/van-allen-
probes-spot-impenetrable-barrier-in-space

The Sun | Retrieved from:

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/sol
ar-system/the-sun/

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Commentary

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Date of delivering the work : 21.5.2018.

Date of defense: __.__.2018.

Grade: ________________

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Members of the commision:

1.________________ (president)

2.________________ (second member)

3.________________ (third member)

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