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Theses Collection

Spring 5-2012

Famous potatoes : the impact of potatoes on the

history of the world
Marika R. Adams

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 Adams, 1

Famous Potatoes: the Impact of Potatoes on the History of the

World

A Senior Thesis Submitted to

The Department of Humanities
College of Theology, Arts, & Sciences

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For a Bachelor of Arts degree in History

By

Marika R. Adams

Faculty Supervisor____________________________________________ ________________

Dr. Joel Davis Date

Department Chair_____________________________________________ _______________

Dr. Richard Hill Date

Dean, College of
Theology, Arts, & Sciences______________________________________ _______________
Dr. Charles Kunert Date

Provost______________________________________________________ _______________
Dr. Mark Wahlers Date

Concordia University
Portland, Oregon
May 2012
 Adams, 2

Abstract
My thesis regards the impact that potatoes have had on the history of the world. Potatoes have
not only had a great impact on history, they have also become intertwined with humanity to such
a degree that it is difficult to imagine a world without potatoes. Potatoes have been a main food
source for centuries. They were originally grown in Peru and then spread across the world
through various means. They were part of the Columbian Exchange as well as being
disseminated by many other large trade routes. Potatoes became widespread and then turned into
a necessity for the people in Europe to survive. Potatoes created a more nutritional diet as well
as creating jobs and population booms everywhere the plant was grown.

There are several specific time periods that will be discussed within the thesis in order to best
exemplify the impact the potato has had on humanity. The Irish Potato famine drastically
changed Europe and America. The famine happened because of a lack of biodiversity which led
to a weak potato plant. This also relates to the issue of biodiversity that the potato is having in
the modern day. The recent climate change as well as land practices have decreased the variety
of potatoes from hundreds to dozens and people are very worried about the future. There has
been a recent movement to bring back ancient types of tuberous roots.

Potatoes are used in a variety of different substances, not only as food but also as medicine and
for industry. Corporations have taken over the potato market and created a corrupt system that
only benefits the company selling the goods. Unnatural additives have been put into the potato
making it a health concern because of its links to obesity and other major medical issues. These
same corporations are genetically altering the potato and ultimately breeding out other varieties
which will lead to disaster if not stopped.

Potatoes are the unsung hero of the vegetable world. They have been around for centuries and
played important roles in many different cultures throughout history. Potatoes have always been
a big part of my life (growing up in Idaho) and I am very excited to share this information.
 Adams, 3

Table of Contents

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………...........4

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….....5

Introduction: The Potato………………………………………………………………….6

A Brief History of the Potato……………………………………………………………..7

How the Potato Spread: The Columbian Exchange……………………………………..15

The Irish Potato Famine: An Gorta Mor………………………………………………...32

Potatoes in the 21st Century……………………………………………………………...47

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….64

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………..66
 Adams, 4

Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to Mabel and Donald Adams, Liz and Ryan Rockwood, and several close

friends. The love, support and constructive criticism I received from these people made my

thesis possible. My parents especially helped me, without their everlasting love, patience,

editing skills and financial generosity I would not be where I am today. I will be forever

grateful, I love you Mom and Daddy. There were many points where I just wanted to scrap it

and change to an interdisciplinary major but through many tears and much retail therapy I was

able to get through it and complete my thesis. Special thank you to Kelsey S. who helped me

keep track of deadlines when I was totally clueless. To Teddy who emotionally supported me

throughout the whole process and kept me (semi)sane. To my roommates who always

encouraged me and told me how awesome my thesis topic was even when I started to feel a little

goofy and who also continued to be my friends even when I could never participate in social

activities because I had to work on my thesis. I would like to also thank my pets for being the

sweetest, cuddliest, most photogenic and supportive animals ever. All of these people have truly

made graduating college possible for me and I will be eternally grateful to them. This process

really made me feel loved.

I would also like to thank the great state of Idaho for fostering an early love for potatoes. The

potato must also be thanked, for being such an amazing vegetable and incredibly delicious as

well.

.
 Adams, 5

Acknowledgements

The people that I have met at Concordia University have inspired me to push my limits and

succeed. I never would have been able to do my thesis without the ever-present help, advice and

support I received from Dr. Davis and for that, I thank him very much. Dr. Davis has given me a

lot of guidance throughout my four years at Concordia and it is to him that I attribute my writing

skills. In Addition to Dr. Davis there are several other staff members of Concordia University

that greatly assisted me in my academic career. I would like to thank Dr. Horten and Dr. Terrill

for sparing time from their busy schedules to be members of my Thesis Defense Committee. Dr.

Horten and Dr. Terrill assisted me with many additions and revisions that really helped to

enhance my thesis. I would also like to thank Dr. Hill and Dr. Thomas who were very helpful

with guiding me in the right direction. I am forever grateful for the help that I have received

while completing this project. I know that it would not have been possible without the guidance

of my Professors at Concordia University. Thank you for making my academic career an

exciting and gratifying experience.

 Adams, 6

Famous Potatoes: the Impact of Potatoes on the History of the World

Introduction: The Potato

When a person hears the word “potato”, a brown fist-sized lump comes to mind, or

possibly the classic toy, Mr. Potato Head or maybe even the great state of Idaho. Certainly the

words “revolutionary” and “life-saving” do not come to mind, but this is what the potato is and

has been. It is a plant that has been around for thousands of years with nothing short of a

revolutionary impact on the world. The potato was originally grown in what is now Peru by the

Incas and other native South Americans. They became a large part of the Columbian Exchange

and were spread across Europe into Asia and eventually all the way to China. Potatoes soon

developed into a primary food source in Europe as well as other parts of the world; in some

places the potato became a means for the very survival of the populace. Potatoes increased

fertility rates through improved nutrition and thereby increased population. Today the potato is

one of the most widely consumed vegetables and has a very important place in society,

especially for huge corporations for which the potato is a source of income. The widespread

consumption and domestication of the potato profoundly impacted the world that we now inhabit

by increasing human reproduction during centuries past as well as causing massive famine when

the crops failed and, in modern times, contributing to poor health by increasing the rate of

obesity. The potato’s nutritional content has saved the lives of thousands, possibly millions, from

starvation or poor nourishment. It has affected marriage customs, religious ceremonies, poverty

and the attitudes that people have about them. It has changed mortality rates and the length of
 Adams, 7

work days. It contributes to modern health concerns, dietary decisions and farming practices. 1

The potato makes a large contribution to the economy; it can be quite a profitable business for

companies that grow potatoes, process potatoes and sell foods made of potatoes… from

McDonald’s French fries to soups to potato chips. So intertwined are the fates of humans and

potatoes that if the potato had not extended to different parts of the world, it is impossible to

imagine what modern societies would look like now.

There are several periods throughout history that truly exemplify the potato’s great

impact on humanity. To understand all of the changes that the potato caused, it is important to

understand where it came from as well and how it was transferred. The Columbian Exchange is

a key piece of the spud’s story as to how it came to be found in so many different parts of the

world. The Columbian Exchange is the reason that the potato became such a vital aspect of

society in Ireland. The Irish Potato Famine is another very important aspect of the potato’s

impact on humanity. It warns of future disaster which to which modern day society must pay

attention in order to avoid such a catastrophe. The potato is not confined to just one location of

importance; its impact can be seen all over the world from pre-modern day to postmodern day

and its influence will continue into the future.

Chapter I: A Brief History of the Potato

The potato is a starchy, tuberous root that is from the family Solanaceae, which is also

known as the nightshade family. The original potatoes that were grown in Peru were much

1
Larry Zuckerman, The Potato: How the Humble Spud Rescued the Western World (Boston: Faber and Faber, 1998),
xiv.
 Adams, 8

different than how they look today. They were described as savage but beautiful.2 The top part

of the plant that could be seen was similar to a small leafy bush. Thick, hairy stems grew from

the plant until they were about three feet tall, then pale green leaves started to sprout. A few

months after being planted, the blossoms started to bloom; the flowers varied from a white to a

striking bluish purple. They were five-sided, similar to the shape of a star and about one inch

across. Clusters of berries developed and they contained many round, thin seeds.3 During this

process a complex root system formed underground where the actual potato was located.

Underground lateral stems called stolons developed. The stolons were white and had a hair-like

quality to them.4 After a few weeks the fibers began to sprout tubers. Each plant often had at

least fifty tubers; some were very small while others were about an ounce or two. The skin of

the tubers became rough and turned a red or yellowish color with deep pitted eyes.5 Finally,

after roughly twelve weeks, the potato was ready to be harvested and eaten or dehydrated to be

stored for winter or times of famine.

The potato comes in hundreds of different varieties. This is another trait that makes the

potato such an asset as well as versatile. Each variety of potato is a little bit different and some

are better at growing in extreme climates while other versions are not. The shapes, colors,

flavors and nutritional value of the tubers vary quite a lot as well.6 The different species vary so

much that an entire diet can actually be built around eating only potatoes. Fourteen-thousand

years ago early Americans that had crossed the Bering Straits gathered potatoes. There were at

least 235 different species of potatoes ranging from South America through Central America and

2
Ibid., 10.
3
Ibid., 11.
4
Robert Pringle, Chris Bishop and Rob Clayton, Potatoes Postharvest (Cambridge, MA: CABI, 2009), 3.
5
Zuckerman, 11.
6
Charles Siebert, “Food Arc,” National Geographic, Vol. 220, No. 1 (July, 2011): 123.
 Adams, 9

into the American Southwest. No other domesticated edible plant has had such a large number

of wild ancestors.7

Over the centuries, through domestication by Andean farmers and later the Europeans,

thousands of types of potatoes have been developed. Although all of these differing species of

potatoes exist, only a few types are currently consumed on a large scale. Most of the rare breeds

are grown in South America by local farmers. Americans prefer the Solanum tuberosum, which

is considered to be the common potato. It is brown, round and about the size of a large fist.

Other species can be straight or curved with a longer and thinner shape. The colors of these

tubers can range anywhere from white to blue to red to yellow.8 These potatoes are becoming

rarer but are still available in certain areas.

The process of planting, growing and harvesting a crop of potatoes is quite simple. When

planting a potato, a person does not use the seeds that are produced by the berries. The potato is

cut up into smaller pieces and those pieces are planted. From that a new potato plant will grow.

When the Europeans discovered this characteristic, many found it quite unsettling. Most other

plants are grown from seeds instead of misshapen and wrinkly tubers.9 This is a possible reason

why the potato did not become immediately popular in Europe; it was foreign and different from

all other known plants.

The process of planting a potato today is similar to the way that they were planted

hundreds of years ago. The potato is cut into pieces with at least two eyes in each and that are a

little less than two square inches. Once this is done the pieces will be buried roughly four inches

deep and eighteen inches apart from each other. The potato does not need very much water; in
7
Andrew F. Smith, Potato: a Global History (New York: Reaktion Books, 2011), 10.
8
Siebert, 123.
9
Zuckerman, 11.
 Adams, 10

fact, if over-watered or if the soil has poor drainage it will become deformed.10 While it is

growing, the potato is a very low maintenance plant; all it needs is a sunny spot to grow and a

little bit of water. A potato takes twelve weeks to become fully mature; any time after this it is

safe to harvest. New potatoes are harvested when the flowers have fully blossomed on the upper

part of the plant. A new potato is just a potato that has had less time to fully mature and often

has a thinner skin and has not converted as much of its sugar content to starch yet. New potatoes

are not as good for baking or frying as fully mature potatoes. If it is not a new potato then it will

be harvested after the foliage of the plant starts to die back. They are usually larger in size and

have a slightly more bitter taste.11

Once the potato has been in the ground a sufficient amount of time it is harvested. The

potatoes are carefully dug out of the dirt; it is important to be gentle when doing this so that the

potato will not be damaged or bruised. The potato can become contaminated if it gets cut or

stabbed while being taken out of the ground. The vegetable will need to be dried either in sun or

a dry area so that the skins will toughen before storage. Potatoes need to be stored in a cool, dark

location or they will rot. They can be stored for up to about six months.12 This was very

important for the people that depended on potatoes for survival. The Andean farmers prepared

special underground storage rooms for this specific purpose. The potato is also a vegetable that

can be planted both in the spring and summer; in this way people were able to have enough

potatoes to eat as well as enough to store for the winter.13

10
Sunset Magazine, Sunset New Western Garden Book (Menlo Park: Lane Pub. Co., 1981), 425.
11
Mel Bartholomew, All New Square Foot Gardening: Grow More in Less Space! (Nashville: Cool Springs Press,
2006), 222.
12
Ibid., 222.
13
Smith, 13.
 Adams, 11

Potatoes are prolific, which makes the potato plant ideal for producing a lot of food with

minimal arable land and resources. A single plant produces more than just one potato; it usually

produces an average of 4.4 pounds of potatoes but it is possible to produce a larger amount.14

Because of the large amount of potatoes produced from one plant, it was ideal for the poor who

had only a small amount of land to till. Five-thousand pieces of potatoes can be planted on one

acre of land which produces approximately 20,000 pounds of potatoes.15 This does depend on a

few factors like irrigation and whether or not the potato is organic. The amount produced from

one acre of land is enough potatoes to sustain a family for quite a while as well as have some for

storage. The world record holder for greatest amount of potatoes grown from one tuber is Eric

Jenkins, who was able to grow more than 370 pounds of potatoes.16

Potatoes are a wonderful source of nutrition. A medium sized raw potato contains about

one hundred calories. It also is a great source for vitamins, like vitamin C and B6 as well as

minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, phosphorous and potassium. It only takes 100 grams of potato

to ingest half the minimum daily requirement for Vitamin C. The potato does not contain as

much protein as grains like wheat and maize, but the protein it contains is very rich in quality

and has certain crucial amino acids that are hard to find elsewhere and the body is unable to

create them.17A potato is 79% water and the rest is full of nutrients. The nutrients that potatoes

carry in them can almost completely sustain a person. There was a controlled experiment done

where people only ate potatoes for months and were still able to live an active lifestyle without

any health ramifications or weight fluctuation.18 Potatoes contain a high amount of starch from

14
Ibid., 7,
15
University of Maine, 5.
16
Smith, 7.
17
Reader, 21.
18
John Reader, Potato: a History of the Propitious Esculent (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 21-22.
 Adams, 12

carbohydrates, which sometimes gives them a bad reputation but the potatoes’ carbohydrates are

not fattening. It is the way that the potato is prepared that creates the high fat content, like deep

frying it or adding a lot of preservatives.19 As long as potatoes are prepared with simple and

healthy ingredients for flavor like herbs, onions, garlic and other spices or vegetables they will

have a very low fat and cholesterol content. The potato itself actually contains no fat or

cholesterol; it is also very low in sodium.20If it is prepared correctly potatoes are one of the most

efficient plants to eat and provide many dietary benefits. The skin of the potato is also

incredibly nutritious. It is an exceptional source of dietary fiber and should be eaten whenever

possible unless it is a green shade which means that there are toxins present.21

The potato is a part of the nightshade family, which is a very poisonous plant. At first

people were apprehensive about eating a plant that had some of the same properties of very

poisonous plants like the mandrake, henbane and nightshade.22 Ancient potato plants’ foliage

was full of poisonous glycoalkaloids and some of the tubers were as well. It has been proven

that the loss of toxicity of more modern potatoes did not happen through natural selection. The

glycolkaloids in the leaves are the plants’ protection against predators. The change was on such

a large scale that it wasn’t possible that by chance and mutations the potato lost all of its

poisonous properties.23 Andean farmers discovered this characteristic and were somehow able to

select and breed tubers that had less poisonous traits until finally potato plants emerged that were

completely safe to eat. This process started more than eight-thousand years ago.24 It is

perplexing to understand how this came to be because in order to domesticate the potato a lot of

19
Ibid., 21.
20
Smith, 7.
21
Ibid., 7.
22
Reader, 4.
23
Ibid., 30.
24
Ibid., 4.
 Adams, 13

knowledge is necessary, but since it was poisonous why would people be interested in it? It is

hard to imagine how a poisonous plant could become one of the most widely consumed

vegetables in the world.

The potato was very hardy, which was useful because every type of plant that was grown

in the Altiplano needed to be resilient and tough. The climate was prone to radical temperature

changes, frosts and sparse rainfall as well as strong winds.25 The soil was very poor and

sometimes rocky or thin and lacked the proper nutrition that most plants need to grow. The

potato can actually grow at fifteen thousand feet above sea level; it is one of the only plants able

to do that.26 The different climate conditions at different elevations made it possible for potatoes

to be harvested at different times during the year. In this way, farmers and their families were

able to have an almost constant supply of food year round.27The native people had discovered

that the potato plant was able to prosper and grow in even the most hostile environments. This is

why it became such an important part of their culture and was used for other purposes as well,

like religious ceremonies or festivals.

The Incas in South America planted and harvested potatoes as a main food source. It was

a relatively straightforward process to harvest potatoes that required a small number of tools.

The indigenous people used wooden spades and digging sticks, sometimes with copper tips to

prepare the rocky soil. To harvest the potatoes the farmers used hand axes.28 Potatoes only keep

for a few months after they are harvested so in order to preserve them the indigenous South

Americans developed a system to freeze dry them.29 This was done to create a safeguard in case

25
Zuckerman, 5.
26
Ibid., 5.
27
Smith, 11.
28
Ibid., 12.
29
Ibid., 12.
 Adams, 14

of famines. The potatoes were covered and left outside for a night in freezing temperatures.30

The next day the potatoes were placed in the sun and stepped upon by all the people of the

village in order to release the excess liquid. This process was repeated and the resulting freeze-

dried potato was called Chuno. It was then put into underground warehouses that would keep

them frozen until the Chuno was needed.31Chuno is usually baked into bread or added to soups.

It is a great source of nutrients especially for times of famine.32

Even before the Incas adopted the potato as their staple crop, Andean farmers had been

growing the plant for centuries. It was domesticated around 10,000 BCE near the Lake Titicaca

basin.33 The warm days encouraged the growth of the upper part of the plant while the cold

night helped the tubers’ growth.34 Trial and error was the method that the local farmers used to

learn about the potatoes. It was found that they could be planted either using its seeds or by

planting the sprouts from the tubers. Farmers would grow several varieties of potatoes in

different locations in order to discover which version of potato plant did best. Later planting

decisions were based on which plants did best in different combinations of soil, moisture and

sun.35 This is why there are now over two hundred varieties of potatoes, and in more recent

decades thousands of other types of potatoes have been developed. Farmers chose strains of

potatoes that they liked and continued to grow and develop them by planting the tubers which are

exactly the same as the original plant.36 This is why certain types of tubers have disappeared

almost completely while other types like the Solanum tuberosum have flourished and become the

most common type of potato in the world. It is the original indigenous South Americans who
30
Ibid., 13.
31
Ibid., 13.
32
Zuckerman, 6.
33
Smith, 11.
34
Zuckerman, 5.
35
Tom Standage, An Edible History of Humanity (New York: Walker & Co., 2009), 118.
36
Zuckerman, 4.
 Adams, 15

should be thanked for the domestication of a wide selection of potatoes and other crops. The

Andeans created irrigation systems, terraced mountainsides and domesticated over seventy

plants. This number was about the same as the quantity of plants that were domesticated in the

entirety of Europe or Asia. 37

Chapter II: How the Potato Spread: The Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange foreshadows the future impact that potatoes will have on

Europe and the rest of the developing world. It would become both a blessing and a curse. The

population explosion that the vegetable caused inadvertently led to the industrial revolution as

well as changes in the agricultural industry that ushered the world into modernity. The

communities that became dependent on the potato were forever changed both in land and in

spirit. If Christopher Columbus and his crew had not discovered the potato and distributed it

throughout the world as they did, it is hard to imagine the differences that would have occurred

in almost every facet of society.

The potato originated in South America and did not exist in Europe until after

Christopher Columbus discovered the New World and created a link between the Old World and

the New World. This would inadvertently alter the course of history and humanity permanently.

The impact of the Columbian Exchange is so vast that even five centuries later, historians and

scientists have still not grasped all of the changes that occurred.38 Millions of years ago the

continents were much closer together forming a large mass of land. The land mass eventually

split into multiple continents. The continents had been separated and isolated for so long that

37
Smith, 11.
38
Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Voyages, the Columbian Exchange, and their Historians (Washington, DC:
American Historical Association, 1987), 23.
 Adams, 16

entirely different evolutionary processes occurred and changed the landscape as well as all

organisms living on them. The New World had completely different species of plants and

animals that did not exist in the Old World. After Columbus arrived the two worlds started to

converge and intertwine into one another until each had been thoroughly altered by the other.39

People that traveled between the New World and the Old World re-established the connections

between the continents that had been separated for millions of years. The interchange of certain

plants and animals resulted in a positive impact while other exchanges, mostly diseases and

bacteria, had a devastating and lasting effect. The exchange greatly benefitted the people of

Europe while it nearly destroyed the native inhabitants of the New World and their cultures. The

Columbian Exchange became one of the most significant ecological revolutions that has ever

taken place.

The term “Columbian Exchange” was not coined until 1972 by historian Alfred Crosby.

It describes the exchange of plants, animals and diseases between the Europe and the New World

after Christopher Columbus discovered it while trying to locate a route to Asia in 1492.40

Christopher Columbus’ quest to find an easier trade route to Asia led him to discover the

Americas as well as other societies. When Columbus and his crew arrived they stumbled upon a

completely different environment that was unlike anything they had ever discovered before.

Almost nothing in the New World was recognizable to the Europeans on the first voyage to the

Americas. At first they believed that they had reached Eurasia but soon the bizarre plants and

animals led the Europeans to think otherwise. Even the people inhabiting the land were different

from any type of human or race that the Europeans had ever seen. From the natives’

39
Ibid., 23.
40
Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport Connecticut:
Greenwood Press, 1972).
 Adams, 17

perspective, Columbus and his men seemed like demi-gods because of their impressive ships,

clothing and weapons.41 The natives tried to accommodate the Europeans and gave them

whatever resources that were needed. This included introducing new foods and animals to the

men that would eventually be transported back to Europe.

There were many different types of flora and fauna that made their way across the ocean

to Europe as well as several types of native European plants and animals that went the other

direction. Some of modern Europe’s most widely consumed plants did not even exist in Europe

until after the year 1500. When the Europeans came to the New World, they brought with them

crops such as wheat, rice, turnips, barley and carrots. They brought with them numerous species

of animals that were native to Europe as well. These animals were the horse, goat, chicken, silk

worm and many other animals. The Europeans also carried with them bacteria and pathogens

that did not exist in the New Word. The diseases that Europeans had built up immunity to

absolutely devastated the native population wherever the Europeans landed. This created a long

term negative effect on the treatment of the South Americans by white Europeans. Europeans

felt as though they were more evolved than the indigenous people because of the quick rate that

they died when diseases such as smallpox, syphilis, measles, chickenpox, malaria and influenza

raged through the population killing millions of people. Europeans decided to colonize the land

of the “weaker” natives and claim the land as their own, which gave them a larger opportunity

for trade between the two continents.42

The exchange of plants and animals went both directions, and overall more organisms

from the New World were transported to the Old World. Crops such as potatoes, sweet

41
Ibid., 4.
42
Ibid., 31.
 Adams, 18

potatoes, manioc and maize made their way to Europe. Most of the animals that were

transported were of Old World origins, but there were a few that went to Europe such as the

llama, alpaca, wild dog, some species of fowls and the guinea pig.43 The exchange of these

organisms affected both the New World and the Old Word in significant ways. Some of the

foods that were taken to Europe became very significant to certain countries there; for example,

the potato became important to Ireland and maize to China. Both places experienced large

population increases.

The New World’s largest contribution to Europe was crops; potatoes, maize, manioc,

tobacco and sugar drastically changed the diets of Europeans during this time as well as

agricultural practices. Many of these foods have become an essential part of the diet for millions

of people. The most influential food that went to Europe, though, was the humble potato. The

potato was one of the most important food sources for the indigenous South Americans, and it

would become just as important if not more so to the people living in Europe and Asia as well as

North America.

When the potato arrived in Europe it was not widely accepted; its counter-part, the sweet

potato, was much more popular at first.44 At the beginning of the seventeenth century, potatoes

were considered suitable animal fodder but rarely eaten by humans or only in times of absolute

desperation.45 It wasn’t until the eighteen century that the potato became a common vegetable to

grow and eat. There are several attributes the potato has that caused the early Europeans to be

suspicious of the plant. The origin of the potato was questionable to Europeans; they felt that it

was the conquered people’s food. Europeans had little respect for the indigenous populations of

43
Crosby, The Columbian Voyages, the Columbian Exchange, and their Historians, 17.
44
Zuckerman, 9.
45
Standage, 120.
 Adams, 19

their colonies. Any item that was revered by them was instantly questioned by the Europeans.

Oddly enough, potatoes were one of the few foods that were not considered a foreign delicacy,

such as other plants like oranges and tobacco. The potato would find its home among the less

affluent classes of society.

The shape of the potato is unique and slightly grotesque; at one point it was compared to

a leper’s gnarled hands and was then associated with causing leprosy. The way that the potato

grows was also uncommon; the complex white hair-like root system startled people as well as

made them wary of the crazy plant. Religion was a large aspect of life in Europe, and people felt

that since potatoes were not mentioned in the Bible at all that God did not want them to eat the

tuber.46 Europe was full of God-fearing people at this time which in turn kept the potato from

achieving its true potential until it became more widely accepted.

In Europe potatoes were known as the poor man’s food. The plant had a stigma that went

with it. Even the poor people that were starving were often times too embarrassed to eat

potatoes. Many botanists grew potatoes in personal gardens or the gardens of their rich patrons.

The potatoes that were grown privately were used for research purposes instead of regular

consumption. Without the curiosity of scientists and scholars the potato would never have made

such a large impact in so many different locations.47

Potatoes are one of the most filling and nutritional vegetables that exists. Although it

does have several vital nutrients,48 the potato is greatly lacking in Vitamin A and fats. In order to

fill these dietary deficiencies the potato just has to be served with some butter or buttermilk,

46
Ibid., 119.
47
Zuckerman, 7.
48
John Percival, The Great Famine: Ireland's Potato Famine, 1845-51 (New York: Viewer Books, 1995), 35.
 Adams, 20

which is the residue left behind when cream has been processed for butter.49 The buttermilk

contains both Vitamin A and the fats the body requires. A large amount of potatoes is essential

in order to satisfy all dietary needs. A working man would have to eat fourteen pounds of

potatoes a day to be satisfied, which seems like an extraordinary quantity but is not if that is the

only item being consumed.50

Originally potatoes were used as protection against famines. Potatoes can be stored in a

dry cool area for up to eight months. In this way, Europeans were able to create a safeguard of

food for times of scarcity. In the 1740s a harsh winter ruined many crops and left people

starving.51 The potato was not affected by the cold winter weather and continued to grow deep

underground. People realized the strength and persistence of the tuber and hastily planted it,

ultimately saving themselves from death. Another use for potatoes was found: in times of war

the potatoes were less likely to be stolen by opposing forces because of their underground

storage units. The potato was originally planted as an anti-famine food and soon worked its way

to the dinner table.52 The Europeans were starting to understand some of the benefits that the

potato had to offer. It was becoming more understood and less uncommon.

During the 1800s Ireland had the highest rate of potatoes grown and eaten in the world.

Many people consumed almost exclusively potatoes. The native Irish, who survived almost

completely on the tuber, were slightly more robust and taller than their English neighbors.

Women also were healthier and more fertile which contributed to the population boom.53 This

phenomenon is also seen in other parts of the world, including China and Eastern Europe. A

49
Percival, 36.
50
Carole S. Gallagher, The Irish Potato Famine (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2002), 14.
51
Standage, 121.
52
Ibid., 122.
53
Percival, 36.
 Adams, 21

family of six in Ireland could grow up to twelve tons of potatoes a year on one acre of land. The

family would require about five tons a year for food and the surplus crop could be sold or fed to

the animals.54 If a person wanted to survive on different types of food like cereals or grains with

the same nutritional value as the potato, it would take at least three times as much land and far

more labor to supply the food.55

One man became living proof that potatoes are invaluable to our body and society,

especially in times of need. A French scientist named Antoine-Augustin Parmentier served as a

pharmacist in the French army during the Seven Years War that spanned from 1756 to 1763.56

He was captured in Germany and spent five years as a prisoner of war. During his time in prison

he and his fellow inmates were fed mostly potatoes. He had never eaten one before and was

surprised by the vegetable’s unique characteristics.57 The initial surprise soon turned to

admiration when Antoine was released after five years in prison. He had survived on a diet of

strictly potatoes for years and miraculously maintained good health. Upon Antoine’s return to

his homeland he was determined that all of France should receive the benefits of the potato.58

Parmentier became the potato’s greatest advocate and helped to popularize the vegetable

throughout France and ultimately all of Europe. He devoted much of his time to gathering

information and research about the potato and then disseminating the information to the

population.59 Antoine wrote and published his research findings and scientific analysis of the

potato, which helped to disprove the belief that potatoes were poisonous and caused disease.

54
Gallagher, 14.
55
Percival, 36.
56
Standage, 121.
57
Smith, 32.
58
Reader, 120.
59
Ibid., 120.
 Adams, 22

Although the scientific and medical communities concurred with Parmentier about the benefits

of potatoes, the general public was much more difficult to convince.

Antoine-Augustin Parmentier’s hope for the potato’s integration into everyday meals and

society propelled him to become politically active and concoct publicity stunts to aid in the

popularization of the potato in France. Antoine’s most influential political stunt occurred on

August 23rd, the King’s birthday. Antoine presented the King and his Queen with a bouquet of

potato flowers. Apparently the two were so enamored with the flowers that King Louis

immediately pinned his to his lapel and Marie Antoinette placed a sprig in her hair. Potatoes

were also placed on the royal menu, which was enough endorsement for Lords and Ladies of the

court to incorporate potatoes into their meals as well. The nobility really embraced the potato

and even had potato flowers painted on china and bouquets of potato flowers placed in their

homes.60

Convincing the impoverished French that the potato could save their lives and that of

their families was more difficult than persuading the elite to eat the tuber. The poor had the most

to benefit from eating potatoes. Many people were on the brink of starvation during this time

and potatoes were incredibly nutritious and filling. Antoine Parmentier was able to devise

another scheme to popularize the potatoes among the poor.61 Antoine planted a large number of

potato plants in a field on the edge of Paris. The field was guarded by soldiers who were ordered

to scare away curious onlookers. Naturally the locals were overcome with curiosity and assumed

that whatever was being protected must be very valuable to merit that kind of attention. The

soldiers were told to leave at night and the commoners took the opportunity to sneak in and steal

60
Reader, 121.
61
Standage, 122.
 Adams, 23

the hidden vegetable.62 The Parisians needed to be convinced that the crop was worth having,

and once they realized that the potato was worthy of the King’s attention, they willingly accepted

the tuber into their fields, homes and stomachs.63

In England the wealthy upper class as well as people who were royalty or nobility

preferred the sweet potato during this time.64 It was much more decadent and tasty. King Henry

VIII of England loved them because of their “power” to provoke lust.65 King Henry VIII had

many women to please and needed the extra help. Both the potato and its counterpart, the sweet

potato, were considered aphrodisiacs. The rest of the population shunned the sweet potato for

being too “exotic” and thus chose to eat the normal potato.66 The potato’s potential had been

realized, but the wealthy had no need for such a food; they had other more delicious food to eat.

This is part of the reason that the potato became so prominent in the daily lives of peasants who

had nothing else to eat but bread. The governments of Europe also saw the power the potato had

against famine and malnutrition and started to advertise and advocate for the vegetable.

Long before the rest of Europe, sailors realized that the potato was invaluable. While

traveling between two continents the potato gained some recognition for its nutritional value.

Scurvy has always been a problem for sailors; it is caused by a deficiency of Vitamin C. It is

very difficult to receive enough Vitamin C when on a ship for several months because the

majority of food that contains it are fresh fruits which are perishable.67 Potatoes are a wonderful

source of Vitamin C and can be frozen, dried and stored for months. They became a popular

food item to have aboard ships after 1840. It took many years for people to discover the useful

62
Reader, 121.
63
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food (U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 647.
64
Zuckerman, 9.
65
Ibid., 14.
66
Toussaint, 59.
67
Zuckerman, 60.
 Adams, 24

qualities of potatoes. The Vitamin C in potatoes helped more than just sailors but also people

that lived in places that had little or no access to fruits.68

Despite the potato’s difficulty in finding a niche, by the end of the eighteen century there

were more than one hundred varieties of potatoes grown in France alone. This number climbed

to one thousand different varieties by the twentieth century. A German Institute boasts that over

three-thousand different types of potatoes have been identified.69 In 1815 it was reported that

France had produced 21 million hectoliters of potatoes and by 1840 it had risen to 117 million

hectoliters of potatoes.70 The different varieties each served specific purposes; some were used

for soup, while others were better baked or boiled.

The potato produced a tremendous population explosion wherever it traveled due to the

higher birth rates and lower mortality rates that it caused. The increases were not visible for

several years after the potato’s arrival, but after a few decades it was clear that the potato was

contributing to the rising population in Europe.71 Social scientists were cautious about asserting

that the potato had great effects on Europe. It was not until the mid-twentieth century that the

use of anthropological research and quantitative science produced statistical data that proved the

validity of the hypothesis that wherever potatoes were farmed and eaten, the population had

increased. Studies were done in the Swiss Alps, Russia, Norway, the Himalayas, China and

Spain. The data showed that there was a direct correlation between population increases and

potato farming. They also found that people consuming potatoes were healthier and grew

taller.72 Populations all over the world doubled or even tripled after a century with the potato as

68
Ibid., 7.
69
Toussaint, 648.
70
Smith, 33.
71
Zuckerman, 223.
72
Reader, 129.
 Adams, 25

well as other advances. In England and Wales the population had gone from 5.5 million in 1702

to 17.9 million in 1851. This is a huge population increase in less than 150 years.73 England is

just one example out of the many countries and nations that embraced the tuber and incorporated

it into their lifestyles.

The most drastic rise in population took place in Ireland. The population had doubled

between 1687 and 1791, from 2.16 million to 4.75 million people. During the next fifty years

another 3.4 million people were added to the number, making it 8.15 million people.74 The

population increase was highest in the poor districts. People that lived in the country as opposed

to the city had much higher fertility rates. Diseases such as tuberculosis and measles were also

less of a problem because people were receiving the right nutrients and their bodies were better

able to defend themselves again illness.75 During this time in Ireland the potato was one of the

main sources of food and nutrition.76 People have questioned how much influence the potato

truly had on the population increase but studies show the correlation between the two.77 There

had never been a population increase of this size in such a short amount of time before. It is

obvious that the potato was partly responsible for the population explosion.

The potato’s introduction to Europe and the population increase that it caused put intense

pressure on the old agrarian and artisan economy that was ultimately too much for the original

system to handle. It was the potato’s impact that ushered in the industrial revolution and the

creation of a new economic system that was better suited to the rapid industrialization taking

73
Zuckerman, 221.
74
Ibid., 148.
75
Zuckerman, 223.
76
Reader, 149.
77
Zuckerman, 220.
 Adams, 26

over Europe. The potato was responsible for developing the circumstances that led to the

Industrial Revolution and it also aided in the continuation of modernization.

The idea that the potato’s introduction and consumption in Europe led to the Industrial

Revolution has been discussed and entertained by scholars for decades.78 The potato may not

have been the main cause of the Industrial Revolution that took place in the early 1800s, but it

certainly aided its start and contributed to its timeline as well. Without the potato, it might have

taken Europe years or decades, possibly half a century longer, to begin the Industrial Revolution.

The large population that the tuber had helped to create now had a purpose to serve. Thousands

of workers were needed to run the factories. The increase of people in Europe made it possible

for the Industrial Revolution to happen because for the first time there were enough men to work

in factories and mass produce material goods. There had never been enough healthy, strong

people to overwhelm the job market in the old system but now there was.79 Many people

traveled from the country into the crowded cities to work in the factories. They lived in

extremely small houses with no oven or storage space for coal and were often too exhausted to

cook after many hours at work; only the rich could afford luxuries such as adequate space and

leisure time.

The potato was the solution to the food problem. It has a very high yield and is easily

prepared as well as delicious. Potatoes could be bought almost anywhere. Vendors walked the

streets selling hot potatoes that were roasted similar to roasting a chestnut. The potato

unfortunately also helped to create and maintain the terrible working conditions that were a part

of the Industrial Revolution. The potato provided cheap and plentiful food which enabled

78
Reader, 171.
79
Standage, 132.
 Adams, 27

industrialists to pay low wages and produce enough goods at low prices to still compete in

foreign markets which is how the enterprise made a profit.80 The relatively inexpensive and

large production of potatoes created an opportunity for business owners to create an oppressive

cycle from which it was difficult for workers to break . The manufacturing industry could afford

to feed its workers cheap, nutritional food, while maintaining low wages in order to create a

product with a very low wholesale price and a very high profit markup. Employees were

essentially forced into an “optional” slave labor except that the new system was actually more

beneficial to employers because they could fire employees at will without losing the investment

capital that slavery required. The cost of hiring cheap labor was less expensive than providing

living essentials for slaves.81 The potato was a vital contributing source to the fast- paced course

of modernization during the 1800s but also provided the conditions necessary to create a system

of oppression and misfortune for the workers. The potato propelled Europe towards the future;

neither the workers nor the business owners could have worked without them, even though the

system was radically unbalanced.

Potatoes also made their way into many different cultural traditions. In Norway they

became Lefse which is a potato pancake. The Eastern European Jewish culture also took the

potato in and made it their own by creating another kind of potato pancake called Latkes. These

societies have been around for centuries and the potato has been incorporated into their history.

The Dutch also used the potato to create their national dish, Stamppot, which is a hot pot of a

variety of boiled and mashed tubers. Potatoes started to appear in more and more cooking

books; soon there were hundreds of different dishes and recipes available. The potato was no

80
Reader, 171.
81
Ibid., 172.
 Adams, 28

longer a survival food used for protection against famines and bad weather; it could now be

considered a staple and eaten in a variety of ways.

The tuber did not stay just in Europe and America. It was exported to many other

countries across the world. The potato entered Russia and Eastern Europe around 1800.82 It

soon became the fastest-spreading major food crop in the world.83 Both Frederick the Great of

Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia observed the successes of the potato in Western

Europe and promoted the crop to be cultivated and eaten in their own countries. This led to the

potato being grown in Silesia, Poland and the Ukraine. They all became major potato producers.

The Russians loved the potato, especially potato vodka. They used it in a variety of different

ways and it soon became the most popular vegetable in Russia.84 After years of productivity and

success in Russia and Europe, the potato was transported to other places such as Turkey, North

Africa, Nigeria, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Australia, India, and China as well as every place

en route.85 The entrance of the potato into the developing world had a significant impact; just

like in Europe, the populations exploded all over the world. Many of the people in these

countries were living in poverty on the verge of starvation; the potato was the key to fixing these

problems. It was not always a success but the standard of living was raised which aided the

economic development in these countries. The opportunity for advancement and self-

sustainability became available because of the potato.86

The potato’s impact was not restricted to Europe and America; countries in the

developing world have been influenced greatly by the potatoes natural attributes as well. The

82
Smith, 30.
83
Reader, 246.
84
Smith, 30.
85
Ibid., 35.
86
Reader, 254.
 Adams, 29

changes that the potato’s introduction has caused on the developing world have taken place

mostly in the last century. The reason for this is similar to why the potato was not initially

embraced in Europe. Indigenous people were fearful of the tuber because of its poisonous traits

and monstrous appearance. They chose to ignore it and opted to plant more well-known,

localized crops instead.87 In order to overcome the superstitions and fear surrounding the potato,

influential leaders convinced people to grow the crop with the help of economic incentives,

demonstrations and coercion. Wars also reinforced the importance of the potato in the

developing world because of its ability to be stored underground away from enemy troops. By

the end of the 1960s, the potato was becoming a staple crop in certain areas of Africa such as

Rwanda.88

In 1971 the International Potato Centre (CIP) in Lima was founded in order to preserve

the genetic resources of the plant as well as to use the potato as a solution to hunger in

impoverished areas.89The CIP’s goal was to increase the production and consumption of the

potato in developing countries while at the same time protecting ancient varieties of the plant in

order to maintain biodiversity. Improved varieties of potatoes have been introduced around the

world which has resulted in certain African and Asian countries becoming top potato consumers

and growers. CIP has been very beneficial to the preservation of potato seeds as well as helping

to make the plant more available and inexpensive for everyone. The CIP also created the first

seed bank. With the development of True Potato Seeds (TPS), which are collected from the

berries of the plant and then grown and pollinated under a controlled environment, the potato

87
Ibid., 252.
88
Ibid., 253.
89
Ibid., 258.
 Adams, 30

yields a larger and high quality crop.90The seeds are also easily transported to remote areas that

may not have received the plant otherwise. The potato is an excellent subsistence crop and is a

good alternative to weaker plants. The potato is now a vegetable considered to have the

potential to end world hunger if it is used, sold and grown correctly.

Extreme poverty and hunger exists in large portions of the world and eradicating it is an

extremely important issue in world politics today. Currently, the majority of farmers in

developing countries are barely making a profit and survive on mostly subsistence farming,

which is the practice of growing only enough crops to sustain a family. It is not enough to just

provide all of the malnourished people with food; the aid will only last for a short time until

people are hungry again. It is important to give people the tools, knowledge and resources

necessary to create an enduring system that will be able to feed generations of people for

centuries.

The introduction of the potato is beneficial for poor and self-sufficient communities; but,

unfortunately, it also forces them to interact on a much larger economic scale. This is difficult in

regions with poor communications, services, administrative policies and institutions. People

have a tendency towards deception and corruption when they can no longer support themselves.

The countries where the potato has the most potential for the improvement of the standard of

living are the places where there are the most disadvantages that limit the potato. In developed

nations, the potato is now used for exploitation in the fast food industry.91

The potato industry has grown and now encompasses many other countries; two of the

largest producers of potatoes are China and India. The potato was originally unsuccessful in

90
Ibid., 258.
91
Ibid., 264.
 Adams, 31

China and India but eventually was grown in mountainous areas. One reason that potatoes were

grown in Asia is because of rice. Rice is considered a staple food in most Asian countries.

Farmers realized that they had already used almost all land suitable for rice cultivation and they

had no other means of improving the growing process. Potatoes were an obvious answer to this

problem because of how versatile they are and how easy it is to harvest them.92 Currently China

is the largest producer of potatoes and India is the third largest. It was not until the late twentieth

century that this phenomenon occurred, and by the end of the century the potato was the most

produced and consumed vegetable in the world.93

The Columbian Exchange and the spread of the potato plant became indispensable factors

in the demographic explosion that occurred in Europe and other parts of the world. People in

contact with the potato had never been so well fed or healthy before. In Britain, the caloric

intake increased from 4% of all calories consumed rising to 22% in just a century.94 Life spans

were longer, people were taller and healthier, the fertility rate was higher, families became larger

and the world would never be the same. The Industrial Revolution may not have happened until

decades or even centuries later if the potato had not created an abundant work force and a large

supply of cheap food. The potato’s impact on the developing world was even greater. The

vegetable helped economic development as well as quality of life. The spread of the potato to

China would become an incredibly important factor in the potato industry in the future.95

92
Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492,198.
93
Smith, 35.
94
Standage, 134.
95
Smith, 35.
 Adams, 32

Chapter III- The Irish Potato Famine-: An Gorta Mor

The strong dependency that had formed on potatoes greatly benefited the population of

Europe and Asia, but it also turned out to be a very large weakness in some areas. As the

potato’s popularity spread, so did the diseases and bacteria that thrive on the potato. The

Europeans at this time did not understand that if only one type of potato is grown almost

exclusively then the entire crop will be susceptible to the same blight. Blight is a fungal disease

that causes damage to plants. Although other diseases and bad weather had ruined potato crops

before, none was ever on such a widespread scale as the potato blight.

The potato blight that is famous for decimating Ireland and forcing its inhabitants into

starvation and death did not actually start in Ireland. The blight first appeared in the 1844 in

Belgium and spread to other Europeans countries such as the Netherlands, Germany, France,

Russia and finally in 1845 England.96 Diseased potatoes had been brought to Europe for trade

and infected the crops there. The blight became widespread throughout the continent, quickly

wreaking havoc on potato crops everywhere. People were able to stockpile different types of

foods like grain and maize.97 Other countries like France sent non-infected potatoes to places in

need. The response was timely, organized and effective. Western Europe was able to prepare

for the blight and avoided mass starvation. Places like Belgium and Prussia, which relied

heavily on the potato, did not fare as well. An estimated 300,000 people from several different

countries died as a result of the blight in continental Europe.98 These famines were awful, but

none was as terrible as the famine that ravaged Ireland. The situation in Ireland became dire

96
Ibid., 36.
97
Ibid., 36.
98
Ibid., 37.
 Adams, 33

because of many different reasons.99 Ireland was a poor country to begin with and controlled by

the British Empire during this time. There were many crops grown in Ireland at this time but the

British procured these crops for themselves for trade purposes. This caused the Irish to become

almost wholly dependent on potatoes and to need the vegetable for survival. The people did not

receive the type of aid that was needed to prevent the famine and emigration that resulted.

Ireland was an agrarian society. The Irish grew the food that they ate and lived with their

animals. The peasants of Ireland were forced into feudalism. Irish peasants lived and worked on

the land and gave the profits and crops to an English landlord. This created a dependency

between the peasants and the landlords. The Irish peasants rented their houses and land from the

land owner, which meant that they could be evicted at any time without a reason or prior

notice.100 Life was very volatile and a cruel landlord could ruin a family’s life at a whim. When

potatoes arrived in Europe and became widely available for growing, the Irish really embraced

the tuber. The landscape of Ireland was well suited for growing the potato. The soil was rocky

and poor, and little else grew very well on it. A total of 40% of the Irish population depended on

potatoes to live.101 The Irish were already living in almost complete poverty and the potato was

one of the few substances that came to their aid. The population prior to the famine had nearly

doubled in the previous fifty years due to the availability of the potato. The growth was mostly

among the poor. The consumption of the potato created a stronger, healthier, stouter population.

People started to have larger and larger families because there was finally enough food to feed

everyone and miscarriages became less common. At the same time that the potato was

flourishing almost all other crops were being sent abroad. The different types of plants that

99
Smith, 39.
100
Ibid., 40.
101
Zuckerman, 190.
 Adams, 34

farmers grew such as oats, rye, barley, corn and other vegetables were less available for the

native Irish to eat as the better foods were sold into foreign markets or reserved for the upper

classes.102The potato was all that was left for the workers and farmers to eat.

Several different types of potatoes were grown in Ireland during the 18th century,

primarily the Lumper and the Cup.103 The Cup potatoes were usually reserved for the rich upper

class while the poor farmers survived on the Lumper potato. The Lumper potato grows even in

the worst soil and is very large in size. It also produces high yields of crops.104 The Lumper

potato has very desirable traits, but unfortunately was incredibly susceptible to fungus. The Irish

were already living in poverty and usually at the edge of starvation and the potato’s nutritional

value was indispensable to life. Peasants planted fields of the crop in order to survive, and the

Lumper potato became exclusively planted. When a piece of a potato is planted it creates exact

clones of itself to reproduce. In this way the Irish created a potato monoculture with only one

type of potato that was genetically identical, meaning every single potato could potentially be

affected by the same disease. This is exactly what happened.

A fungus named Phytophthora infestans causes the potato blight. It is a fungus that

thrives in warm moist areas but will remain dormant in dry and hot weather.105 Ireland has a

muggy and warm summer which makes it the perfect breeding ground for the fungus.

Phytophthora infestans is a very deceptive type of disease. The foliage of the plant is almost

unaffected to the naked eye and thus the state of the potatoes was unseen until they were

harvested. It attacks the potato plant by attaching itself and producing thousands of what are

102
Gallagher, 37.
103
Ibid., 37.
104
Cor ac r da, Black '47 and Beyond: the Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1999), 20.
105
Gallagher, 12.
 Adams, 35

technically known as zoospores that consume the plant’s tissues and nutrients. The fungus then

lives on the decaying potato and thrives until it is able to send more spores to other plants.106

After the potato has been affected it becomes black with an oozy consistency and loses all

resemblance of a healthy potato. The blight rapidly decomposes the potato by living off of it.

The potato blight is incredibly transmissible; the fungus can spread from potato to potato in a

number of different ways ruining an entire potato crop in just a few weeks. The spores which the

fungus produces can move through the air and spread topically to other plants. Another way that

the blight is spread is when it rains, the moisture pushes the spores into the soil and they attach

themselves to the root systems of new potatoes and infect them. Potatoes can also be affected

after they are harvested. If one potato plant is diseased and it rains, the spores from that plant

will leak onto the surface of healthy potatoes and began to devour them as well. Farmers also

must make sure that when planting a new crop every single seed potato is healthy because just

one diseased seed can destroy an entire potato crop and the blight will continue.107 If the storage

of healthy potatoes is anywhere near infected potatoes, the entire crop can be ruined and continue

to ruin more plants if not completely contained. This is what happened in Ireland which made it

so devastating.

Scientists studied the blight but were unable to discover that it was caused by a fungus;

instead it was termed “wet rot” and believed to be triggered by rainy weather. To try to lessen

the damage, new and complicated ways for storage were initiated as well as suggestions on how

to make the only partially rotted potatoes edible.108 None of these solutions helped and the entire

potato crop of Ireland was soon ruined. The fungus soon catapulted the country into a famine

106
Gallagher, 12.
107
Ibid., 12.
108
Ibid., 15.
 Adams, 36

that led to the breakdown of Irish society. People were starving, diseased, impoverished and

homeless because of large scale evictions, and this caused many people to emigrate from Ireland.

Effects of “The Great Hunger” can still be seen in Ireland today.

The first year that the blight was discovered in Ireland caused only localized problems.

The fungus became widespread and destructive in the spring and summer of 1846.109 Relief

committees were formed but to little or no avail. No one knew just how many potatoes were

affected in Ireland at this time. Only 80% of the previous potato crops were planted the year

after the blight hit because many farmers did not have seed potatoes to plant. Some had been

lost in the previous season’s blight while others were eaten so that famers could survive the

winter. The majority of the potatoes that were unaffected by the fungus because they were a

different species were sent away to the nobility and landlords thus leaving the peasants with

nothing but black sludge to eat. Because the blight only damaged certain areas people felt secure

that it was over by 1847. This was not the case. The fact that only 80% of the crops were

planted the following year was overlooked and thus not calculated for. The next winter the

fungus attached itself to almost every potato plant in Ireland and caused one of the largest

famines in history.

One third of the entire Irish population had relied on potatoes for survival. One third of

the population was reduced to begging and living in the streets. Without potatoes to eat there

was no food; without potatoes to grow there were none to sell which meant no money for either

the tenant or the landowner. Evictions were incredibly common during this period. Being

evicted ultimately meant death; without any food, clothing or shelter people became very ill

quickly and died. Children and squatters were the first to be kicked out and the first to die. It is

109
Smith, 43.
 Adams, 37

estimated that over 400,000 people were evicted from their homes during the famine.110 Farmers

that staked their entire capital on potatoes lost nearly everything and were economically

ruined.111 People that owned livestock either sold the animals or killed them for food. The

amount of animals slaughtered rose drastically between 1845 and 1851. The people were also

forced to sell or pawn any items of value in order to pay rent and avoid an almost certain

eviction. This included family heirlooms, clothes, jewelry, and furniture, anything that had

monetary worth. Others that had access to the countryside began to gather and eat blackberries,

nuts, turnips, cabbage leaves, shellfish (if it was available), roots, seaweed, grass, nettles and

even weeds on the side of the road.112 People everywhere were starving, women, men, children

and elders; no one was immune from the effects of the potato blight, except for those rich enough

to buy imported food.

Diseases ran rampant through the weakened population such as jaundice, dysentery,

fever, scurvy, infections, influenza and typhus.113 Exhaustion and exposure to the elements also

had a detrimental effect on the Irish, causing even more deaths. The close quarters that people

had to share only made the viruses more communicable. The bodies of the Irish were too weak

from hunger to be able to properly fight off illness. Unsanitary living conditions also helped to

spread disease. People were living in alley ways and in cramped shacks meant for a single

family but instead housing four families.

The most haunting personal memoirs from this time are from parents who had to listen to

the cries of their malnourished and dying children. Families were torn apart by evictions and

110
Smith, 47.
111
Grada, 21.
112
Gallagher, 50.
113
Smith, 47.
 Adams, 38

death. Those who made the decision to move to the work houses were also separated into male

and female sections. They were only allowed to see their family members on Sunday. 114

Families desperately tried to stay together and were only separated when there was no other

option; otherwise they tried to endure the hardships with each other.

The British were in control of Ireland at this time so it fell to them to help the country

during their time of need. Many programs were formed; charities, relief committees, hospitals,

housing, and jobs.115 The relief committees did try to lessen the misfortune by opening special

housing and creating public works so that people would have a place to live and a way to earn

money. The jobs that were created did a lot to help certain families through the famine. This was

one of the more successful programs. Food was still very expensive, so it was not totally

effective. Many charitable hospitals were also opened during this time in order to take care of

the influx of sick people streaming in every day. The work houses were made to be

uncomfortable to discourage people from staying unless they were truly destitute.116 One-

hundred and thirty such houses were constructed, which could house about 100,000 people total.

The government did provide several thousand people with jobs to earn money but the people that

had those jobs were still unable to feed themselves and their family because the price of food

continued to rise.117 The majority of aid money came from charity and taxes. Wealthy

individuals were encouraged to contribute large donations to help the organizations buy food and

distribute it to the starving population.118 There was a lot more that could have been done by the

114
Gallagher, 34.
115
Ibid., 40.
116
Gallagher, 34.
117
Percival, 49.
118
Gallagher, 41.
 Adams, 39

British officials to help the people in Ireland, but it was expensive and there was a lot of

repressed tension and mutual dislike between the two.

Some organizations that were formed in smaller towns were handed over to local people

to be managed. This only led to more disaster as the townspeople did not know how to run a

relief organization or a workhouse. The houses fell into disrepair and chaos. The Irish living in

the houses became disorderly and drank a lot which rendered the aid they were given completely

useless. There was little else to do since work was difficult to find and there was little money for

entertainment.119

As the people in Ireland became increasingly hungry with nothing to eat, violence and

illegal activities became more commonplace as well.120 The rate of thievery increased the most.

Starving people had few options other than to steal food or money that could be used to buy

food. This only furthered the breakdown of society. Some farmers shot thieves on sight because

they were just as desperate to eat. Storage places and food convoys were the most attacked

places and had to be guarded. Even livestock were stolen to be slaughtered or sold. In 1845

only 600 cases of stolen livestock were reported; in 1847 the number had risen to 2,000.121

People lost trust in their neighbors and refused to help those in need for fear they would steal

from them later.

The nexus between plants and animals is very delicate; when the connection breaks

down, the result is tremendous social upheaval. The ecosystem and biospheres that make up the

earth are all interconnected and humans are a part of this intricate system. Humans and plants

are dependent upon each other and when the link disappears or is damaged, both the plants and
119
Percival, 90.
120
Gallagher, 51.
121
Ibid., 51.
 Adams, 40

humans experience disastrous consequences. It is so important to realize this and for humans to

be careful when cross-breeding and altering plant matter. When mistakes are made, devastating

tragedies that could have been avoided occur, such as the famine in Ireland and as well as future

problems such as the lack of biodiversity that is currently rising in the potato market.

Over a million people died in Ireland between 1845 and 1851, a little over one eighth of

the population at that time. It was the highest per capita number of deaths since the Plague

ravaged Europe almost exactly 500 years earlier. Ireland started to resemble Europe during the

Middle Ages, the corpses were so numerous that they had to be put in carts and taken away by

the dozens.122 This is still considered one of the largest and most devastating famines in history.

The Irish Potato Famine has underlying themes of societal oppression and classism.

Ireland was under control of Great Britain during the time of the famine and it did not reflect

well on the British. The actions of the British to help the Irish people were small and incomplete

showing that the British were more committed to the laissez-faire ideals than the well-being of

the Irish population.123 The relationship between the British and Irish had always been unstable.

The British considered the Irish lazy, while the Irish though the British were pretentious, because

the British had always treated the Irish as inferiors. Great Britain treated Ireland as their

subordinates and considered themselves higher class than the average Irish. The tension between

the Protestants and Catholics only made matters worse. English Protestants were almost happy

to be rid of so many Catholics. Some Protestants believed that the famine was a sign from God

damning the Irish way of life and particularly Catholicism. Political leaders from Britain were

also unwilling to help because they did not feel it was their duty or that of the Protestant working

122
Percival, 9.
123
Smith, 50.
 Adams, 41

classes to feed Irish Catholics.124It was not hard for them to find reasons to justify not helping the

Irish people. The British practiced a laissez-faire policy which meant that it was not their

problem to help the millions of suffering Irish. The British Government also felt that the

“invisible hand” of the market should be allowed to take its natural course. There was food

available; grain and other goods were put into storage or sent away to other locations.125 The

British exploited the Irish workers in order to receive goods to sell abroad and then when tragedy

struck, they felt it was not their duty to help which is why the results of the famine were as

devastating as they were.

The British Government did enact several laws and programs to help ease the strain, but

many of these laws were more detrimental than helpful. The aid that Britain provided seemed

half-hearted. The public works system that was put in place needed to pay much higher wages to

actually be of any assistance to the Irish. The soup program was incredibly helpful in feeding

over a million people, but it was a short-lived program and the British decided that it should

close after the crops were better, but there was still a shortage of food.126 The food supplies that

the government had were not adequately distributed to the people in greatest need. Mass

evictions should have been avoided because they only made the situation more desperate. The

British lack of response and commitment to the famine and people struggling created a bigger

rift between the two countries. The actions of the British during the famine in Ireland planted the

seeds of revolution. It took several more decades before the Irish gained enough strength to

124
Ibid., 46.
125
Ibid., 47.
126
Ibid., 47.
 Adams, 42

revolt against England. They did it during the First World War when England was in a weak

state. Ireland finally gained its independence in 1921.127

The famine in Ireland forced people to emigrate which caused a massive population

decrease. Ireland had a population of roughly eight million people before 1845, one million

people died and around two million people emigrated to other countries. Evictions were a large

contributing factor to the migration.128 Disease and famine were the other contributors. The

majority of the people that fled the ailing country traveled to Britain or North America to settle

in Canada. By 1900 the population of Ireland was four million, half the population of pre-famine

years. The massive migration permanently changed the demographics of Ireland as well as

affecting the countries that the Irish immigrants settled down in.129

The migration of the Irish started a few years into the famine. Anyone who was able to

gather enough money to leave usually did. The trip across the Atlantic to North America cost a

few pounds. Those who could not afford a ticket to America but did have a few shillings could

travel to Britain and settle there.130In desperate attempts to leave Ireland, people took everything

from their savings or borrowed from rich friends or even resorted to thievery.131 To them, the

cost of a ticket meant the hope of saving their own lives and that of their family. The journey

across the Atlantic was dangerous and people were fearful. The thought of food drove them on

board. The ships did not always bring relief; even those who chose to leave the country did not

always survive. The ships that the immigrants traveled on were unsanitary and overcrowded.

The ships earned the nickname “Coffin Ships” because so many people died of disease on the

127
Ibid., 51.
128
Percival, 97.
129
Smith, 50.
130
Grada, 119.
131
Percival, 141.
 Adams, 43

way to a new country under such terrible conditions.132 The Passenger Acts law dictated that

each passenger should have ten cubic feet of space for himself, drinking water and a daily

allowance of food. Sadly, many owners did not abide by these rules and the passengers suffered

greatly from it with poor quality food and water.133 People were forced to share very close

quarters including their beds, often having less than a foot of space to sleep. The voyages were

so terrible that they have been compared to the slave trade ships.134 Diseases spread very quickly

in the tightly crowded boats and thousands died during their escape from Ireland. The countries

that received the Irish soon discovered how feverish and ill the travelers were and set up

quarantine centers to help Irish immigrants regain their health.135

The western seaports were overrun with Irish fleeing their failing country. Government

officials decided that a system was needed to help them integrate into society. There were many

accommodations and support was available for the Irish upon arrival in North America. The

immigrants were helped with finding a job, a house and a supportive social network. Many Irish

moved to the same areas so that they were surrounded by their nationality. They relied heavily

on neighborhood and family ties to help them adjust to life in a new country. It became easier

for later immigrants to settle down because previous travelers were already accustomed to their

new life and helped those who were not.136

The emigrants from Ireland thoroughly altered the countries to which they relocated. In

England the natives were not pleased with the slew of poor Irish immigrants that invaded their

132
Ibid., 98.
133
Ibid., 127.
134
Ibid., 128.
135
Ibid., 133.
136
Grada, 229.
 Adams, 44

country. It is estimated that up to 300,000 people sought refuge in Britain.137 Beggars from

Ireland were seen in almost every city. The Irish lived in the slums, which were overcrowded

and full of disease. It was still better than Ireland. The British work houses had three meals a

day as opposed to two and meat was included. Riots broke out against the Irish. People were

mad that they had to support the growing number of Irish paupers.138 The influx of diseased

Irish beggars only made the British resent the immigrants more and have less compassion for

those suffering. The United States especially felt the impact of the Irish settlers, as this is where

a large majority of the Irish went. Out of over a million immigrants that came to North America,

84% of them ended up in the United States.139 The Irish thought that the United States of

America was the Promised Land. It was rich and free from British rule as well as an oppressive

class structure.

The enormous number of Irish emigrants to the United States was the most important

consequence of the famine.140 The Irish created a strong community, especially in New York

City and Chicago, which is where the greatest number of emigrants settled. They were still very

poor and many turned to a life of crime for survival purposes. Crime statistics in New York after

the famine were dominated by the Irish who were sometimes heavy drinkers and liked to

brawl.141This is where the term “fighting Irish” originated. This gave the Irish a bad reputation

which in turn created social ostracism between ethnic groups. The reputation often made it

difficult to find jobs and make money. After several decades the Irish gradually moved out of

the slums and into other parts of the city. The demand in the United States for construction work

137
Percival, 120.
138
Smith, 50.
139
Ibid., 50.
140
Percival, 141.
141
Ibid., 148.
 Adams, 45

was high, and Irish laborers were able to find work in that industry. Women often worked as

domestics.142 When they had saved enough money, these women sent part of their wages back to

Ireland to help their families. The large population of Irish was particularly important to

politicians who could not afford to lose such a large number of potential voters. The government

tried to listen to the needs of the voters and the Irish finally had some political power.143 Some

young Irish became involved in politics and eventually an Irish Catholic would be elected

President, John F. Kennedy.144 The hostilities and prejudices against the Irish eventually faded

away. Irish-Americans in present day are respected citizens, successful and have one of the

largest communities. They are politically active and still pay attention to political issues that

affect Ireland.145 The Irish have become a large part of the melting pot that is American society.

The traditions, culture, foods, religion and ideology of the Irish have become a part of America’s

culture and will continue to influence the country in the future.

The psychological effects of the famine on the Irish people were extremely damaging.

People no longer had faith in their country or government leaders. Survivors often suffered

mental collapse from experiencing the loss of so many loved ones. They also died from the

physical trauma their bodies had gone through as a result of the famine.146 Those who had

experienced and survived the famine were scarred for life. The hardship forced people to make

hard life-altering decisions. The conflict separated classes, landlord and tenant relationships and

separated friends and families. There are also terrible stories of abuse towards children such as

142
Ibid., 150.
143
Ibid., 148.
144
Ibid., 159.
145
Ibid., 161.
146
Smith, 50.
 Adams, 46

murder, neglect, abandonment, resentment and even rare cases of cannibalism.147 The almost

complete dependency on the potato was now over; other types of crops were being grown once

again. People were wary of depending too much on the potato even though different species

were being grown to prevent a famine from happening again. The damage had been done and

the memories of starvation and poverty never faded from the Irish.148

Several scholars and government officials had noticed the dependency on potatoes in

Ireland and realized that if anything were to happen the result would be catastrophic. Although

this fact was understood no one took measures to prevent it from happening. It was considered

the “Irish Question”, a distant but looming disaster that people hoped would never come and did

not take adequate precautions against.149 This is the reason that the fungus had such a large

impact on Ireland. People chose to ignore the problem in hopes that it would go away naturally

or not occur at all. It obviously did occur and millions of people suffered greatly. The blight

would have occurred at some point and ruined crops but the extent of the consequences were

man-made. There were not enough relief programs put in place to actually benefit the Irish

people.

The Great Famine affected Ireland’s history permanently; the demographics were

eternally altered. The economic crisis that ensued lasted longer than the actual famine. More

importantly the impact left on the psyche and culture of the Irish greatly weakened the

population.150 It is impossible to truly comprehend the personal effects because they are too

great to be studied to completion. Neither the population nor the potato production ever

147
Grada, 211.
148
Ibid., 210.
149
Gallagher, 33.
150
Grada, 226.
 Adams, 47

recovered to the pre-famine levels. It is widely accepted by some that a famine on such a large

scale could have been avoided in Ireland. There was enough food to feed the population and

keep them from starving, but the British simply did not feel the need to save thousands of

Catholics from an impending death. The Irish Potato Famine is a lesson to all countries

depending on one main crop. Ideally the same mistakes will never be repeated; unfortunately,

the threat of a famine and dependence on only a few varieties of potatoes is already a very real

fear. The Irish example is a lesson that should be taken into account in order to avoid the same

disaster from occurring again. The potato has an enormous influence on modern day society and

the continuation of bio-diversity is a particularly important subject currently being researched.

Chapter IV- Potatoes in the 21st Century

Over the decades potatoes became more widespread and popular on every continent of

the world. This is not hard to imagine because of the potato’s resilience, versatility and health

benefits as well as cost of production. The potato has impacted every place where it is cultivated

as well as where it is consumed. Certain parts of the world depend on the crop as a source of

income as well as for sustenance. The modern day world would be radically different, even

unrecognizable, if the potato had not been popularized. Big businesses and the media now

control the potato industry which has created some problems such as a lack of biodiversity,

corruption and a genetically altered unnatural potato that could ultimately lead to another famine.

The potato is a necessity to the inter-workings of the modern world. Today potatoes are grown

in 148 countries of the 192 that are members of the United Nations. The only other crop with

this claim is maize.151 Some countries embraced the potato more than others. For instance,

151
Reader, 246.
 Adams, 48

China is now the world’s largest potato producer. 152

There are several reasons that the potato has risen to such a level of importance in the

modern world; it is easy and inexpensive to farm, and it is versatile, delicious, nutritional and

prolific. The invention of the French fry aided the popularization and mass consumption of

potatoes as well. The effects of the potato have been vast and virtually incalculable, both

positively and negatively. The industry has grown and employs many people as well as

providing food to large populations, but the corporations behind the business of potato farming

have become corrupt and created lasting negative health and environmental impacts, which may

become irreversible if something is not done to improve these.

The effects of big industry in the potato market can be seen in China where the majority

of potato production takes place. Potatoes were originally unsuccessful in China and it took

centuries from when the potato was introduced into China until it became a highly farmed plant.

The Chinese were more interested in the sweet potato at first. Once the potato became valuable,

it did not take long for China to become one of the world’s largest suppliers. Currently the

Chinese produce over 73 million tons of potatoes annually.153China has the largest population in

the world, at just over 1.3 billion people.154 In order to feed the population the country must

mass produce food and water along with other amenities. Potatoes are exported at a large rate

but many are also consumed in China.

China as well as its economy have greatly benefited from the wide-scale production of

potatoes. The demand for potatoes in China has also created a better infrastructure with more

152
Ibid., 262.
153
Ibid., 276.
154
Ibid., 265
 Adams, 49

roads so that even those in remote regions can become involved in the potato market.155 Poverty

and malnutrition have also decreased since a large amount of money is now flowing into the

economy. Potatoes can feed the workers who were previously subsistence farmers. The potato

made China a titan of industry and exportation, which led them down the path that they are

currently on, that of being one of the top producers in the world of electronics, toys and many

other items that we use every day. Many of the potato farms that once dotted the landscape of

Pennsylvania and other rural states are now located in China. This is a common theme which has

occurred in many other areas of business in the United States. China is also one of the top

consumers in the world, with a growing population more goods, money and food are needed.

Production of potatoes can have negative effects on land. China is increasingly

dependent upon irrigation, chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. All of these can

ultimately hurt the land and the people. With the use of these farming techniques it is virtually

guaranteed to produce a large crop which is why they are still in place. These systems would not

be used except that both Europeans and Americans used the same process for production, and it

would be hypocritical to tell the Chinese to stop. The workers on potato farms are better fed and

have a steady supply of income, but at the same time they are indebted to the government and

corporations that demand so many potatoes.156 The potato industry that has been created by

these corporations is used mainly for food exports, especially to America. Americans consume

potato based foods, mostly French fries, at an incredible rate.

There are many techniques for cooking potatoes and one of the most popular ways to eat

potatoes is in the form of French fries. The art of deep-frying potatoes was developed in France

155
Ibid., 268
156
Ibid., 269.
 Adams, 50

in the late eighteenth century.157 Originally called pommes de terre frites which was later

shortened to just frites, they were served at high class restaurants throughout Belgium and France

during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Soon the French fried potato made its way into

several recipe books in America. They are now an omnipresent feature in European and

American diets as well as other places such as New Zealand and Australia.158 It is a popular side

dish for a wide variety of meals in many different countries including mussels, steaks, and fried

eggs, mayonnaise and even covered in gravy with cheese.159

There are over 4,500 varieties of the potato listed in The World Catalogue of Potato

Varieties.160 In the past potatoes were mostly baked and boiled before use but now there are

many varieties of the plant, each with a specific cooking or industrial purpose. The russet potato,

which has low moisture content and is high in starch is used for baking while the round potato is

used for boiling because of its firmer shape.161 The potato’s purposes go far beyond just boiling

and baking. Now the vegetable is used for potato starch and flour, potato yeast, sugar, schnapps

and of course vodka.162 The majority of the potato industry, however, is dominated by the need

for French fries.

The popularization of potato fries in America occurred at the beginning of the twentieth

century. The treat was occasionally served in diners, cafes and small restaurants. It was a

delicate process to cook the vegetable at first. The potatoes were first peeled and thinly cut up to

serve. They were cooked to order instead of prior because the raw potato pieces would turn grey

after a certain amount of time. The potatoes were fried in lard and kept at a constant temperature

157
Ibid., 60.
158
Ibid., 61.
159
Ibid., 63.
160
Smith, 75.
161
Ibid., 71.
162
Ibid., 71.
 Adams, 51

of 340-370 degrees Fahrenheit.163 Frying the potato also included knowing how many and when

to drop the pieces into the fryer. If too many were dropped the fries would turn out greasy and

thick. The food also had to be served immediately; if French fries sit around too long they

become soggy and limp. It was time-consuming to train employees to follow the difficult

process, and it was also dangerous. Dropping vegetables into a boiling vat of fat can be very

disastrous. Many managers did not feel that French fries were worth the trouble.164 It was not

until during World War II that fries were served and eaten regularly. Potatoes were not rationed

during the war because of the vast amount that was available. French fries became a staple on

menus since hamburgers and other food items were limited. After the rationing stopped and the

war was over, fries had already made their way into the hearts and stomachs of Americans.

Fryers became safer in the 1950s and soon French fries were a permanent part of fast food

restaurants.165

McDonald’s restaurant chain founders, Richard and Maurice McDonald, embraced the

French fry when they realized it was more profitable than hamburgers in the 1960s. The process

of making fries was perfected and the French fry’s relationship with the hamburger was heavily

promoted. When the chain grew they made dozens of contracts with different potato farmers to

produce the popular snack.166 It did not take long for improved ways to prepare and distribute

the French fries to develop. In 1953, a native Idahoan potato-grower, J.R. Simplot, started to

produce frozen French fries. Other firms began taking an interest and the new product that

resulted eliminated the need to peel and slice the potatoes. Fast-food companies were very

interested in the time-saving product, and worked with Simplot in 1965 to develop a way to

163
Ibid., 76.
164
Ibid., 76.
165
Ibid., 77.
166
Ibid., 77.
 Adams, 52

freeze raw potatoes that kept their original flavor and texture.167 Many other companies became

involved and made additions to the flavor by adding soy oil and beef tallow to the fryers. The

added flavor was the first backlash that McDonald’s received for the fries; vegetarians were

outraged and demanded it to stop. McDonalds continued to research and make innovations to

the preparation process of fries until it developed into the process used today with modern fryers

that can rapidly cook frozen fries that have been saturated with different oils and chemicals.168

Other restaurant chains have devised different ways of making French fries; some companies

choose not to put in chemicals for added flavor. French fries are also eaten in a variety of ways,

topped with cheese and grilled onions, chili or tarragon. The unique seasoning of a French fry

can make a restaurant famous.169

Now French fries are the single most popular fast-food item in America. Sales have risen

dramatically in the past five decades. The sale of fries has surpassed the sale of potatoes for the

last forty years. Americans consume the highest amount of fries per year when compared to any

other country. More than 74% of potatoes that are produced all over the world are sold

specifically for making French fries.170 This is a daunting figure that all Americans should be

aware of because of the impact upon health.

Chipping became very popular in the nineteenth century. The process could be applied to

any number or fruits and vegetables including peaches, pineapples and pumpkins. The chipping

method was also applied to the potato; it was cut into small, thin slices and then fried, thus

creating the potato chip. It became highly popularized in the British delicacy “fish and chips”

167
Ibid., 78.
168
Ibid., 79.
169
Ibid., 81.
170
Dirk E. Burhans, Crunch!: a History of the Great American Potato Chip (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
2008), 142.
 Adams, 53

which is available in restaurants all over the world.171 Potato chips were first mass-produced in

the 1890s by several different manufacturers. Grocery stores sold them in large barrels and gave

samples to customers. Packaging problems caused the chips to be stale, and it took decades for

vacuum sealed bags to be developed; by this time it was already a snack food instead of part of a

meal.172

It was the Frito-Lay Company that really launched the potato chip into high production.

World War II rationing also helped popularize the potato chip since sweet snacks such as

chocolate and candy had been rationed and there was little availability. The company became a

major producer of snacks by the end of the war and had been able to fully automate the

manufacturing process as well as to develop new products.173 Ruffles were invented for dipping

and Frito corn chips were also introduced into the market. Proctor & Gamble invented Pringles

in the 1960s which are made from dehydrated and reconstituted potatoes. PepsiCo also decided

to get a hold in the potato chip market and decided to establish it as the world’s most popular

snack. Pepsi introduced the chip into foreign markets and conducted research in order to create

more exciting and unique flavors.174

Special types of potatoes are needed to make potato chips. The reasoning for this is that

when a potato is fried most of the water evaporates from it leaving a very small amount of

useable potato left.175 Potatoes containing less moisture are more suitable for producing chips.

The potatoes are then sliced extremely thin and fried until they are a crispy golden brown. The

171
Smith, 61.
172
Smith, 81.
173
Ibid., 85.
174
Ibid., 85.
175
Burhans, 35.
 Adams, 54

chips are prepared with different seasonings and then packaged in an airtight container to be

shipped to a store where they will be bought and eaten.176

Americans spend six billion dollars on potato chips every year. This is equal to the

amount of money that the rest of the world combined spends on potato chips. It averages out to

be about seventeen pounds of potato chips per person annually.177 Chips and French fries make

up the majority of the market for the consumption of potatoes throughout the world. The

dependence on junk food allows corporations to gain control over our eating habits, money

spending and even family connections.

The snack food industry started out innocently enough, but as with all major

corporations, power and money corrupted it. Concern for the health and wellbeing of consumers

is not an issue, money is. If chemicals need to be added to French fries in order to attain a higher

profit margin then that is what will happen. Processed products dominate 75% of the potato

market.178 Freeze-dried foods became more prevalent during the World War II because of the

need for military rations. The frozen food industry flourished as people realized the convenience

of it.

Companies can be ruthless when trying to attain the largest amount of profit possible.

The result is that money needs to be saved somewhere and shortcuts are taken. The quality of

the food is sometimes compromised and labor costs are often cut. Rural farmers in other

countries are responsible for growing many potatoes for consumption in the United States. The

conditions that they live in are often abysmal and all for the sake of profit.179 The integrity of the

176
Ibid., 36.
177
Smith, 85.
178
Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation: the dark side of the all-American meal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 239.
179
Reader, 277.
 Adams, 55

food can also be affected. It is impossible to know what kind of fertilizers and chemicals were

used during the growing process. It is also hard to know how old the potato is because of the

freeze dry method used.180

America is a fast food nation, and we are constantly reminded of this through the media.

Detailed marketing campaigns are used in order to attract consumers. There is a complex

science behind advertising.181 Americans are bombarded with advertisements every day in

almost every location imaginable. Bathroom stalls, television, radio, billboards, flyers are all

seen on a daily basis; we are subconsciously reminded of these advertisements until we give into

the temptation. The media is the driving force behind our economy and without mass

advertisements French fries would not be as popular as they are today. The media has made it an

American classic and it seems almost unpatriotic to not love fast food.182

The corporations in charge of the potato industry as well as the fast food industry do not

take into account the recommended amount of calories and food sources agreed upon by health

specialists. Portion sizes are out control; it is almost impossible to not over-eat. Usually large

size orders of fries are only about 25 cents more than the medium size and it makes more

financial sense to spend an extra quarter and receive a much larger amount of food. The impact

of portion sizes is exemplified best by McDonalds and their Super Size menu. A Super Size

order of fries has 540 calories and 25 grams of fat. One box of fries contains a fourth of the

caloric intake an adult is supposed to get in a day.183 A documentary called Super Size Me by

Morgan Spurlock showed blatant evidence that the food on the McDonald’s menu has the

180
Reader, 267.
181
Schlosser, 260.
182
Ibid., 261.
183
Ibid., 241.
 Adams, 56

potential to cause serious health problems.184 Spurlock chose to eat McDonald’s food every

meal for a month straight in order to test if fast-food had an effect on his body. The result was

shocking, several of Morgan’s organs started to shut down and he developed a number of serious

ailments. Immediately after the film was released McDonald’s added healthy options to their

menu.185 McDonalds is not the only company to receive flack for its menu; many other

companies have received criticism for the high fat content of the meals. Consumer demand has

forced them to make additions to the menu and offer more health conscious options such as salad

or apples instead of French fries.

Originally potatoes were known for being very nutritional and a good source of vitamins.

Most recently, potatoes have had a negative effect on the health of the population, especially in

America and parts of Western Europe. Unfortunately, this is the result of the unnatural additives

put in for flavor and the preparation process that is currently being implemented. Over half the

nutrients in the potato are lost when it is cooked. The healthy components decrease drastically

when the potato is peeled and cooked; adding other seasonings and fats only contributes to

making the potato less nutritional.186

French fries and potato chips are some of the most unhealthy snack foods that exist. Both

foods have a high fat and salt content.187 Sadly, these are the forms that potatoes are consumed

at the highest rate which is causing some major health problems. Dietitians and doctors are

concerned about what is going into the food as well as the portion sizes that are available. The

age groups that are suffering most from the health impact of fried potatoes are children and

184
Super Size Me. DVD. Directed by Morgan Spurlock. Los Angeles: Samuel Goldwyn Films, 2004.
185
Ibid.
186
Smith, 89.
187
Smith, 89.
 Adams, 57

teenagers who consume junk food at an extremely high rate. Approximately one-quarter of all

vegetables eaten by American children are in the form of French fries and potato chips; the ratio

for teenagers is even higher at about one-third the amount of vegetables.188 The pre-cooked,

freeze-dried, chemically enhanced food that they are eating has almost no nutritional value and

instead is contributing to the rising obesity rate among American children.

Children are targeted the most by fast-food companies; they are easily influenced and

also have the ability to influence their parents as well. There are many ploys used to interest the

child such as decorative and bright packaging as well as the toy that is included in most

children’s meals. The psychology behind selling to children is to create brand-loyalty and happy

memories so that ideally it will lead to a lifetime of purchasing from the same company.189

Specific marketing campaigns have been designed in order to give them a reason to ask for a

certain product. Parents will almost always give in if their child nags and whines enough.

Corporations try to convince children to see a brand and have the same feelings about it as they

would with their grandparents or mother and father. If a child becomes attached to fast-food at a

young age, they are much more likely to continue eating it into adulthood which leads to obesity,

heart disease, type II diabetes, colon cancer, breast cancer, stomach cancer, arthritis, high blood

pressure, strokes and a number of other life-threatening diseases.190 This tactic is incredibly

popular and used for a variety of products, everything from French fries to oil.191

Buying a large amount of fries has become more accessible than ever. There are

locations that serve French fries virtually every few blocks in the cities and the cost of a

188
Ibid., 89.
189
Schlosser, 43.
190
Ibid., 242.
191
Ibid., 46.
 Adams, 58

McDonald’s value meal is extremely cheap. It is an inexpensive way to receive a large amount

of food. This targets less affluent demographics who are coincidentally the same group of

people that are suffering from the highest rate of obesity and heart problems.192 This

demographic is targeted because usually there is a lack of money to spend on expensive cooking

utensils and ingredients and parents are often working multiple jobs leaving them without any

time to cook. Fast food is an easy and cheap option that makes everyone happy for a short

period of time. Factors like this lead to an unhealthy lifestyle for the whole family. Obesity has

become an epidemic in America, and it is partially due to the poor eating habits that both the

media and culture forces upon us.193 More than half of American adults and a fourth of all

children are now obese or overweight. Obesity is incredibly difficult to cure and the best way to

do it is prevention not treatment. The human body was not meant to eat a diet with such high fat

content. In the past, humans needed a lot of fat in order to store energy in order to survive during

times of scarcity. In the modern world, scarcity is not a threat however; the process of evolution

has shaped our bodies for scarcity which we do not have anymore which is why there is now an

obesity epidemic. Scarcity is a distant concept because everything that we could ever want is

easily accessible for most Americans. The human body will devour muscles before eating the

fat reserves.194 The fast food industry has created a culture based on eating. It is now almost

impossible to escape fast food because of its wide availability and accessibility.

The potato’s purpose goes far beyond the reaches of the fast food industry that gives the

potato a bad name. It is also used for making food flavorings and thickeners, gum, candy, animal

feed, for medicinal purposes, chemicals, paper-making, architecture and even oil extraction. It is

192
Ibid., 242.
193
Ibid., 240.
194
Ibid., 243.
 Adams, 59

also useful because the potato does not contain gluten, which is a growing concern for health

conscious people as well as those with allergies. Potato flour is also used to make bread as an

alternative to wheat.195 It is a very vital piece of society and industry that may not be obvious to

most people. The potato is a critical part of almost every aspect in society, culture, tradition,

industry, business, politics, ethics and diets. The impact can be negative as well as positive.

Potatoes may have helped people receive efficient nutrients, but the high caloric intake and

starch mixed with all of the additives that are put into processed food today have made the potato

a health danger. Corporations have tainted the potato’s name by developing it into a food and

industry that seems to cause more damage than good at this point.

There are some potato companies and manufacturers that are trying to counteract the

negative perceptions about consuming the potato. Promotional programs have been developed

that highlight the nutritional benefits of eating potatoes.196 Many companies are trying to reduce

the added chemicals and flavors to produce a more natural product. Organic farms are becoming

more popular than ever before. Affluent, well-educated people are now aware of the contents of

the food they consume and are becoming frustrated with the artificial additives. This is why fast

food industries target lower income and lower educated groups who are less aware of the impact

that fatty food has on their bodies. This issue exemplifies the rampant inequality that exists in

America today; obesity is a symptom and not a cause of this. Obesity may be a rising epidemic

in the world but the production of healthy organic goods is rising as well. People are fatter than

ever before all over the world. The link of potatoes with health issues is not the only problem the

vegetable is facing. Certain types of potatoes are facing the possibility of extinction; this would

195
Smith, 73.
196
Smith, 89.
 Adams, 60

be extremely detrimental to the world as potatoes are a wonderful food source and provide a

large amount of income and nutrients for millions of people.

The population of the world is continuing to grow at a rapid rate. Every year an

estimated 100 million people are added to the population and more than 95% will live in

developing countries.197 This is particularly problematic because of the strain on resources that

already exists in the developing world. These areas are usually densely populated areas and it is

already difficult to provide enough land, food, water and other resources to sustain the ever

growing population. More food than ever before will be needed to support human life.198

Scientists are trying to decide where all of the food will come from. In order to alleviate this

problem, new developments must be made in the food industry to create a more sustainable

product. Potatoes may be the answer to the impending food shortage. The high yield that they

produce in a small plot of land can help to feed hundreds of people. Potatoes in the past were

beneficial for feeding enormous numbers of people that may not have otherwise had enough

food.199 Experiments are being conducted on the vegetable at an increasing rate in order to

create genetically advanced potatoes that will produce a larger output or have other added

nutritional value. The World Bank, the UN, foundations, governments and non-governmental

organizations are all helping to fund the research for improved potato varieties and farming

technology.200 A genetically engineered potato also means that old varieties are going unused;

in this way technology is literally breeding out ancient types of potatoes.

197
Ibid., 112.
198
Ibid., 112.
199
Reader, 254.
200
Smith, 108.
 Adams, 61

Extensive potato farming has led to only a few breeds being selected and grown almost

exclusively. The result of this is the extinction of ancient tuber plants which could ultimately

lead to a new famine. A similar situation arose before during the Irish Potato Famine, when only

one type of potato was grown and it became susceptible to blight. Ireland should be taken as an

example in order to avoid this tragedy. Steps must be taken in order to stop this from happening

because the consequence for humanity would be disastrous. Potatoes have the potential to aid

developing worlds and help propel them into modernity but if proper farming techniques are not

used, the vegetable can also force people into starvation and poverty. In many less affluent

countries, it is already too late and the farmers are dependent on poor agricultural techniques that

cause irreversible damage to the land and the people living on it.201

Mono-cropping is the practice of growing only one type of plant each harvest season.

This is dangerous because if the plant is genetically weak it becomes more susceptible to disease

and if infected could spread it to all the other plants which could ultimately wipe out an entire

crop only leaving people destitute and starving. The repercussions of mono-cropping can be

seen in multiple locations throughout history, the most destructive and damaging results of this

farming practice was the Great Potato Famine that took place in Ireland. The past serves as a

warning to future generations and cultures but it is rarely paid attention to because the practice of

mono-cropping is already ingrained into the farming system and it is difficult to reverse. By

creating hybrid plants that are immune to certain diseases, this green revolution helped introduce

modern agriculture practices into the developing world.202 Farmers started to depend on the

newly adapted, hybrid, high yield varieties and chose not to plant the local crops that had

201
Standage, 230.
202
Charles Siebert, “Food Arc,” National Geographic, Vol. 220, No. 1 (July, 2011): 118.
 Adams, 62

adjusted to the local climate.203 This practice creates a system where people are almost entirely

dependent on only a small variety of food. New technologies used for farming have led to the

genetic weakening of commonly planted potatoes. The seed varieties that are used produce high

yields; unfortunately the seeds also require artificial fertilizers, toxic pesticides, an abundance of

water as well as other agricultural chemicals.204 The effects that these chemicals have on the

environment can be permanently damaging. The advanced technology that is needed is very

expensive and local farmers have put themselves into debt in order to pay for the necessary

items. This type of technology is out of reach for farmers in the developing world. This creates

an unfair advantage for corporations because poor farmers cannot afford to compete with the

subsidized, mechanized crops that are being sold in the world market at prices that rural farmers

cannot match. The poor farmers are then run out of the market. If they do try to afford it,

massive debt is collected. Charles Siebert, the author of Food Arc, compares the relationship

between the farmer and his agriculture supplies to that of an addict with a drug problem, almost

impossible to escape.205

The famine in Ireland happened due to the lack of biodiversity created by mono-cropping

practices which led to a genetically identical, frail potato plant. What happened in Ireland relates

to the issue of biodiversity that the potato is struggling with in the modern day. Ironically it is

the people that benefit from potatoes the most who are responsible for the dwindling diversity of

the crop.206 People are so fixated on producing an increased amount of food that they have

created a risk for food shortages. The recent climate change has also assisted in decreasing the

variety of potatoes and other plants available from hundreds to dozens. The climate will only

203
Ibid., 118.
204
Standage, 230.
205
Siebert, 122.
206
Ibid., 118.
 Adams, 63

continue to warm up as the result of global warming, which means that reversing the decrease of

biodiversity needs to be given immediate priority and attention before the situation is

irreparable.207

Agriculturalists are very worried about the future. The impact of the loss of potatoes

would affect every person in the world and future generations to come. A new famine could

easily occur if a disease similar to the potato blight that ravaged Ireland appeared.208 There has

been a recent movement to bring back ancient types of tuberous roots.209 There are several relief

methods currently being applied in order to alleviate this concern. Seed banks are becoming

more common in order to preserve ancient and unused varieties of plants. A seed bank is a place

where a variety of different seeds can be stored and saved for assurance that the species will

continue in the future. Today there are 1,400 seed banks throughout the world. They are

temperature controlled storage vaults that are often underground and very secure.210 No matter

how many varieties of seeds are stored, there is still the possibility of failure. The easiest and

most important way to stop extinction of the potato is to simply remember and learn from all of

the mistakes made in the past. The Irish Potato famine should have taught the world a lesson

about the dangers that can occur as the result of mono-cropping. As George Santayana once

said, “Those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it.” It never reoccurs in quite

the same way which is why extra precautions should be taken.

The future of the potato is unclear. It has provided so much for humanity and ironically it

is humans that will ultimately cause the potato to go extinct unless actions are taken to prevent

207
Ibid., 130.
208
Reader, 262.
209
Siebert, 122.
210
Ibid., 122.
 Adams, 64

this from occurring. Seed banks and more natural farming practices are the keys to stopping this

process before it is too late. Preserving the diversity of food is vital to the survival of the human

race especially as the population continues to steadily increase.

Conclusion

The course of world history was completely redirected by the introduction of the potato

into Europe as a part of the Colombian Exchange. Its original introduction to society did not go

well and made the potato slow to spread throughout the world, but when its positive attributes

were realized, the vegetable was embraced by humans all over the world. Not only did the

potato become a food source for the growing global population but it also aided population

growth. It impacted economics, politics, business and culture; without the potato the industrial

revolution might not have happened which would have set industry back centuries.

The impact of the potato continues in modern society. It is a source of income for many

large corporations producing everything from fast food and snack foods to soups and frozen

dinners. The need to maximize profits has led to the commercial production of only highly

productive varieties of potatoes causing some varieties to disappear from cultivation at the peril

of the genetic diversity of the plant species. Because of the very attributes that made it a life-

saver in centuries past, some think it may be contributing significantly to the current obesity

epidemic. The inherent plasticity and nutritional value of the potato will continue to propel the

tuber into the future.

It is unknown what the future of potatoes will hold but one reliable fact is that the fates of

humans and potatoes are intertwined. They have changed each other over the centuries in ways
 Adams, 65

that will continue to have repercussions for centuries more. There is no telling where the

potato’s path will lead it; maybe it could solve world hunger or maybe the obesity epidemic will

only become worse because of it. The potato is a constant base for humanity and it is up to us to

choose how to use the vegetable.

 Adams, 66

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