The History of Visual Communication PDF

The History of Visual Communication
This website, which contains the material of the course VA312, taught at Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey; attempts to walk you through the
long and diverse history of a particular aspect of human endeavour: The translation of ideas, stories and concepts that are largely textual and/or
word based into a visual format, i.e. visual communication. Wikipedia defines visual communication as:
Visual communication is the communication of ideas through the visual display of information. Primarily associated with two
dimensional images, it includes: art, signs, photography, typography, drawing fundamentals, colour and electronic resources. Recent
research in the field has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. It is part of what a graphic designer does to
communicate visually with the audience.
The primary tool by which man has visualised ideas is through the usage of writing and, by extension, type: Writing/type is the visual manifestation
of the spoken word. And words are what we communicate with. Thus it is no overstatement when we say that type is the essence of visual
communication and by extension of visual communication design. Type, where it is present, is simply the single most important element that you
put on a page, since it inherently carries the essence of communication and communication is what our subject of study as graphic/multimedia
designers is all about. Thus, the history of visual communication, i.e. the history of the visualisation of the spoken word, will largely follow the
development of typographic systems, with a special focus on the Latin typographic system, given that this is the one that we are operating under.
Although the primary focus will be on typographic elements and methodologies, the course will, of course, also cover pictorial aspects of visual
communication, such as illustration, illumination, photography, shapes, colour etc as and where they pertain to the essence of the subject.
I shall loosely be following P.B. Megg's book "The History of Graphic Design", which is the seminal work of this area. Given that the internet
presents me with this possibility I shall be providing far more visual examples to the material covered than the book itself provides. Thus the
following pages are full of clickable thumbnails which will lead you to large sized images clarifiying the subjects at hand. The in-class presentations
which give plenty of additional images and information - especially where the contextualisation of subject matter is concerned, are all to be found at
the "downloads" link. Additionally there will soon be a downloadable walkable 3D VRML environment that covers highlights of the course for quick
recapture and also, hopefully, for fun.
I am very proud of my heritage as a graphic designer. I know that I come from a long line of remarkable individuals from the scribes of ancient
Egypt and Mesopotamia to the medieval book makers, from the likes of Aldus Manutius to the constructivist El Lisitzky. They are my friends and
colleagues. I look to them for instruction, for guidance, for inspiration. I know that whatever we design today rests upon their shoulders, their
genius, their unfailing good judgement and taste. I look at contemporary design and see traces of gothic diminuendo or Renaisance page layout. I
hope that learning the history of their craft will inspire the same pride and love in my students...
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The History of Visual Communication - The Computer
Postmodernity
Postmodernity is a term used to describe the social and cultural implications of postmodernism. The term is used by philosophers, social scientists,
art critics and social critics to refer to aspects of contemporary art, culture, economics and social conditions that are the result of the unique
features of late 20th century and early 21st century life. These features include globalization, consumerism, the fragmentation of authority, and the
commoditization of knowledge (see "Modernity"). "Post-modernity" is also used to demark a period in art, design and architecture beginning in the
1950's in response to the International Style, or an artistic period characterized by the abandonment of strong divisions of genre, "high" and "low"
art, and the emergence of the global village. Postmodernity is said to be marked by the re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to
surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms, non-orthogonal angles such as the Sydney Opera House and
the buildings of Frank Gehry.
Deconstruction
Deconstruction is a term which is used to denote the application of post-modern theory, to a "text". A deconstruction is meant to undermine the
frame of reference and assumptions that underpin the text. Jacques Derrida, who coined the term, argued that the existence of deconstruction
implied that there was no intrinsic essence to a text, merely the contrast of difference. This is analogous to the scientific idea that only the variations
are real, that there is no established norm to a genetic population, or the idea that the difference in perception between black and white is the
context. A deconstruction is created when the "deeper" substance of text opposes the text's more "superficial" form. According to Derrida, one
consequence of deconstruction is that the text may be defined so broadly as to encompass not just written words, but the entire spectrum of
symbols and phenomena within Western thought. To Derrida, a result of deconstruction is that no Western philosopher has been able to escape
successfully from this large web of text and reach that which is "signified", which they imagined to exist "just beyond" the text.
The more common use of the term is the more general process of pointing to contradictions between the intent and surface of a work, and the
assumptions about it. A work then "deconstructs" assumptions when it places them in context. For example, someone who can pass as the
opposite sex is said to "deconstruct" gender roles, because there is a conflict between the superficial appearance, and the reality of the person's
gender.
In graphic design deconstructivism gave its name to one of the major typographic movements, starting in the early 1980's and continuing into the
late 1990's: Deconstructive Typography. Taking on a more experi-mental approach to typography, the Dadaists and Futurists in the 1920s and
1930s, and later Concrete Poetry during 1950s and 1960s experimented with floating type compositions and fragmented typographic treatments,
releasing type from its linear structure. Further developments of the deconstructivist typography in the 1990’s shifted the typographic practice
towards a spatial, non-linear process: ‘Communication for the deconstructivist is no longer linear, but involves in-stead the provision of many entry
and exit points for the increasingly over-stimulated reader.’ [Cahalan 1994, p.1] The page is no longer to be just "read" but also "perceived", beyond
the pure textual content, into all of its associative conjunctions: We are meant to "feel" rather than "read" a page. The end of the century, with the
rising issues surrounding global economies, ecology and rising poverty in developing countries was a time when graphic designers took a long,
hard look at the nature of their work; at its ephemereal qualities, its associations with consumerism/capitalism. The outcome took into account
unexpected resources; the ordinary, the often-used, the soon to be discarded - as indeed is most of the output of graphic design itself. Designers
sought inspiration in unlikely items such as old ticket stubs, torn billboards and discarded packages and the expression and legitimisation of the
vernacular.
Punk was also one of the inspirations, along with 'postmodern' fiction for the science fiction genre known as 'cyberpunk'. The technological potential
unleashed by desktop publishing and graphics software allied with the methodological potential offered by variously by punk and French
deconstructionist philosophy produced a style of graphic design and typography known sometimes as deconstructionist graphic design, and
sometimes as 'The New Typography'. Though obviously coming out of different contexts and circumstances, these developments shared a
fascination with contemporary technology and in both its utopian and dystopian possibilities, as well as its glamour. They also evince similar tropes
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and strategies, of appropriation, juxtaposition, detournement, montage, collage, repetition, facilitated by or reflecting upon the extraordinary
capabilities of that technology. The deconstructionist graphic design's use of layers and experimentation with typography all reflected a world of
diffused and distributed communication mediated through networks of powerful information technologies.
Garment labels, embroidery samplers, cafe menus, ticket stubs - vernacular as "perceptual" object for typography.
Further reading
http://www.designwritingresearch.org/essays/deconstruction.html
Graphic Design at the end of the millenium

The reaction to the increasing severity imposed by modernism and minimalistic movements such as the Swiss Style on graphic design was slow
but inexorable, resulting in new typographic investigations and trends. Compounding this was the disillusionment that designers and art director's
increasingly felt towards the requirements and bland approach of the advertising sector by which they were largely employed.
An important point was reached in graphic design with the publishing of the First things first 1964 Manifesto which was a call to a more radical form
of graphic design and criticized the ideas of value-free design. This was massively influential on a generation of new graphic designers and
contributed to the founding of publications such as Emigre magazine. The First Things First manifesto was written 29 November 1963 and
published in 1964 by Ken Garland. Today we may not understand the significance of the document which at the time caused consternation. It was
backed by over 400 graphic designers and artists and also received the backing of Tony Benn, radical left-wing MP and activist, who published it in
its entirety in the Guardian newspaper. Reacting against a rich and affluent Britain of the sixties, it tried to re-radicalise design which had become
lazy and uncritical. Drawing on ideas shared by Critical Theory, the Frankfurt School and the counter-culture of the time it explicitly re-affirmed the
belief that Design is not a neutral value-free process. It rallied against the consumerist culture that was purely concerned with buying and selling
things and tried to highlight a Humanist dimension to graphic design theory. It was later updated and republished with a new group of signatories as
the First Things First 2000 manifesto.
Deconstructivist typography by "Substance" design agency, London, UK, mid 1990's

Deconstructivist Typography: Cornell Windlin (left), Neville Brody (right)
The First things first 2000 manifesto was an updated version of the earlier First things first 1964 Manifesto. it was published in 2000 by some of the
leading lights of the graphic design, artistic and visual arts community. It was republished by Emigre, Eye and other important graphic design
magazines and has stirred controversy (again) in Graphic design.
In essence, the question of value-free design has been continually contested in the graphic design community between those who are concerned
about the values in design and those who believe that design can be value-free. Those who believe that design can be free from values feel that
the graphics industries themselves should not be concerned with the underlying political questions. Those who are concerned with values believe
that graphics and the designers themselves must be critical and take a stand, for instance by not promoting industries and products perceived to be
'bad'. Examples of what might be classified as bad are adverts and designs for cigarette manufacturers, arms companies and so on. This has been
particularly influential on AdBusters, for example, and is related to ideas of detournement (In detournement, an artist reuses elements of well-
known media to create a new work with a different message, often one opposed to the original) and culture jamming (Culture jamming is the act of
transforming existing mass media to produce negative commentary about itself, using the original medium's communication method. It is a form of
public activism which is generally in opposition to commercialism, and the vectors of corporate image. The aim of culture jamming is to create a
contrast between corporate image and the realities of the corporation. This is done symbolically, with the "detournement" of pop iconography).
Further reading
First things first 1964 manifesto >>>
First things first 2000 manifesto >>>
Emigre
also known as Emigre Graphics, is a type foundry in Berkeley, California, founded by Rudy VanderLans and Zuzana Licko. It also published Emigre
magazine between 1984 and 2005. Note that unlike the word émigré, Emigre is officially spelled without accents. Emigre was founded in 1984 as
an independent foundry, developing typefaces without an association with a typesetting equipment manufacturer. Through a good part of the late
1980s and most of the 1990s, some of the most cutting-edge typefaces were developed or released by Emigre. Its magazine, in the meantime,
provided an outlet showcasing the potential of its typeface designs, and was well known for its graphical experimentation. Emigre has also
published a number of books related to graphic design.
Emigre magazine: Issue cover and spreads
Further Reading and images:

http://www.emigre.com/EMagView.php
Neville Brody
Neville Brody (1957 - ) is an alumnus of the London College of Communication and is known for his work on The Face magazine (1981–1986) and
Arena magazine (1987–1990), as well as for designing record covers for artists such as Cabaret Voltaire and Nine Inch Nails. He was one of the
founding members of FontFont (now FontShop) in London and designed a number of notable typefaces for them. He was also partly responsible
for instigating the FUSE project an influential fusion between a magazine, graphics design and typeface design. Each pack includes a publication
with articles relating to typography and surrounding subjects, four brand new fonts that are unique and revolutionary in some shape or form and
four posters designed by the type designer usually using little more than their included font.

Neville Brody, advertising poster (left) software identities for Macromedia (right).
Initially working in record cover design, Brody made his name largely through his revolutionary work as Art Director for the Face magazine. Other
international magazine directions have included City Limits, Lei, Per Lui, Actuel and Arena, together with London's The Observer newspaper and
magazine. Brody has consistently pushed the boundaries of visual communication in all media through his experimental and challenging work, and
continues to extend the visual languages we use through his exploratory creative expression.
Neville Brody for FUSE
Neville Brody, Advertising brochure, mid 1990's
In 1994, together with business partner Fwa Richards, Brody launched Research Studios, London. A sister company, Research Publishing,
produces and publishes experimental multi-media works by young artists. The primary focus is on FUSE, the renowned conference and quarterly
forum for experimental typography and communications. The publication is approaching its 20th issue over a publishing period of over ten years.
Three FUSE conferences have so far been held, in London, San Fransisco and Berlin. The conferences bring together speakers from design,
architecture, sound, film and interactive design and web.
David Carson
(1956 - ) is best known for his innovative magazine design, and use of experimental typography. His first actual contact with graphic design was
made in 1980 at the University of Arizona on a two week graphics course. Later on in 1983, Carson was working towards a Bachelor of Arts in
Sociology when he went to Switzerland, where he attended a three-week workshop in graphic design as part of his degree. This is where he met
his first great influence, who also happened to be the teacher of this course, Hans-Rudolph Lutz.

David Carson, advertising design 1990's
During the period of 1982–1987, Carson worked as a teacher in Torrey Pines High School in San Diego, California. In 1983, Carson started to
experiment with graphic design and found himself immersed in the artistic and bohemian culture of Southern California. By the late eighties he had
developed his signature style, using "dirty" type and non-mainstream photography. He would later be dubbed the "father of grunge."
Editorial design: "Beach Culture"
Editorial design: "Ray Gun"
Among other things, he was also a professional surfer and in 1989 Carson was qualified as the 9th best surfer in the world. His career as a surfer
helped him to direct a surfing magazine, called Beach Culture. This magazine lasted for three years but, through the pages of Beach Culture,
Carson made his first significant impact on the world of graphic design and typography with ideas that were called innovative even by those that
were not fond of his work. From 1991-1992, Carson worked for Surfer magazine. A stint at How magazine (a trade magazine aimed at designers)
followed, and soon Carson launched Ray Gun, a magazine of international standards which had music and lifestyle as its subject. In 1995, Carson
founded his own studio, David Carson Design in New York City.

Editorial design: book and magazine covers.
In November 1995, Carson published his first book the End of Print. His second book, 2nd Sight, followed in 1997. It is said that this book simply
changed the public face of graphic design (Newsweek). In 1998, Carson worked with Professor John Kao of the Harvard Business School on a
documentary entitled "The Art and Discipline of Creativity." The third book that Carson published was Fotografiks (1999) which earned Carson the
Award of Best Use of Photography in Graphic Design. Carson’s fourth book, Trek, was released in 2000. Carson has also helped in the
development of The History of Graphic Design by Philip Meggs.
The age of the computer

In 1950 the British mathematician and computer pioneer Alan Turing published a paper describing what would come to be called the Turing Test.
The paper explored the nature and potential development of human and computer intelligence and communication, while the first commercially
successful electronic computer, UNIVAC, was also the first general purpose computer - designed to handle both numeric and textual information
was also designed the same year. The implementation of this machine marked the real beginning of the computer era.
In the mid 1980s, just 30 years later, the arrival of desktop publishing and the introduction of software applications introduced a generation of
designers to computer image manipulation and 3D image creation that had previously been unachievable. Computer graphic design enabled
designers to instantly see the effects of layout or typography changes without using any ink in the process. not only did computers greatly speden
and fascilitate the traditional design process, they also gave a completely new outlook to sketching and idea formation, enabling designers to
virtually create endless generations of one work/concept.

April Greiman was one of the first to recognize the vast potential of this new medium,
quickly establishing herself as a pioneer of digital design.
Further images
http://www.madeinspace.la/
http://www.madeinspaceshop.com/
http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm?contentalias=AprilGreiman
Web Design
Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, published a website in August 1991, making him also the first web designer. His first was to
use hypertext with an existing email link. Early on, websites were written in basic HTML, a markup language giving websites basic structure
(headings and paragraphs), and the ability to link using hypertext. This was new and different to existing forms of communication - users could
easily open other pages using browsers. Programmers were the original web page designers in the early 1990s. Currently most web designers
come from a graphic artist background in print, where the artist has absolute control over the size and dimensions of all aspects of the design. On
the web however, the Web designer has no control over several factors, including the size of the browser window and the size and characteristics
of available fonts.
Website design crosses multiple disciplines of information systems, information technology and communication design. The website is an
information system. The observable content (e.g page layout, user interface, graphics, text, audio) is known as the front-end. The back-end is the
functional design and programming or software engineering. Depending on the size of initial design, a multi-skilled individual web master may be
required, or a project manager may be require to oversee collaboration design between group members with specialized skills.
Web interfaces, flash and html
Emerging design applications

Although mainstream graphic design applications, print or digital, rely heavily on the presence of interfaced, intuitive, proprietrary software, one of
the many exciting manifestations of digital design has been the merging of programming and design environments, creating new hybrid professions
and areas of expertise, skills and transdisciplinary collaborations.
Design and programming

Design By Numbers was created for visual designers and artists as an introduction to computational design. It is the result of a continuing endeavor
by John Maeda to teach the “idea” of computation to designers and artists. It is his belief that the quality of media art and design can only improve
through establishing educational infrastructure in arts and technology schools that create strong, cross-disciplinary individuals. DBN is both a
programming environment and language. The environment provides a unified space for writing and running programs and the language introduces
the basic ideas of computer programming within the context of drawing. Visual elements such as dot, line, and field are combined with the
computational ideas of variables and conditional statements to generate images.

Pages from Maeda@Media
Processing is an open source project initiated by Casey Reas and Benjamin Fry, formerly of the Aesthetics and Computation Group at the MIT
Media Lab. It is "a programming language and integrated development environment (IDE) built for the electronic arts and visual design
communities", which aims to teach the basics of computer programming in a visual context, and to serve as the foundation for electronic
sketchbooks. One of the stated aims of Processing is to act as a tool to get non-programmers started with programming, through the instant
gratification of visual feedback. It is a language that builds on the graphical side of the Java programming language, simplifying features and
creating a few new ones.
These illustrations, created in Processing for the New York Times Magazine, are the result of a physics-based model of keywords connected by
springs. The strength of the virtual spring connecting a pair of keywords together is dependent upon their rate of cooccurrence on the Internet, a
measure of their degree of relationship to each other. In addition to the three tiles shown above which are featured in the online version of the
article, the cover of the magazine and the following pages of the print article all feature different views of the model.
Built with Processing by Lisa Strausfeld and James Nick Sears.

Processing: Metropop Denim by Clayton Cubitt and Tom Carden

Fashion photography meets print resolution physics-inspired generative artwork.
Processing by Daniel Rothaug: "digital acoustic cartography" is an interactive experiment in mapping sonic events into a concrete visual language.
source material for the visualizations are images (db and frequency-sequences) recorded by the "acoustic camera".
Processing has spawned another project, Wiring, which uses the Processing IDE together with a simplified version of the C programming language
as a way to teach artists how to program microcontrollers. There are now two separate hardware projects, Wiring and Arduino, using the Wiring
environment and language. Another spin-off project, Mobile Processing by Francis Li, allows software written using the Processing programming
language and environment to run on Java powered mobile devices.
Further reading
http://dbn.media.mit.edu/
http://www.maedastudio.com/index.php
http://www.processing.org/
Information visualisation
Scientific- (or data-), and Information visualization are branches of computer graphics and user interface which are concerned with the presentation
of interactive or animated digital images to users to understand data. For example, scientists interpret potentially huge quantities of laboratory or
simulation data or the results from sensors out in the field to aid reasoning, hypothesis building and cognition. The field of data mining offers many
abstract visualizations related to these visualization types. They are active research areas, drawing on theory in information graphics, computer
graphics, human-computer interaction and cognitive science and also, of course, visual communication design, for which this is promising to be a
very rewarding field of investigation. More and more scientists and engineers are entering collaborations with graphic designers in the realisation of
data visualisation systems. Scientific visualization deals with data that has a natural geometric structure (e.g., MRI data, wind flows). Information
visualization handles more abstract data structures such as trees or graphs. Visual analytics is especially concerned with sensemaking and
reasoning.The distinction between "natural" and complex data structures, however is blurred, keeping in mind that graphs can in general
represented by adjacency matrices.

Walrus: information visualisation is used here to create abstractions.

http://www.caida.org/tools/visualization/walrus/gallery1/
Visualization, in the presentation sense, is not a new phenomenon. It has been used in maps, scientific drawings, and data plots for over a
thousand years. Examples of this are the map of China (1137 a.d.) and the famous map of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, by Jacque
Minard. Most of the concepts learned in devising these images carry over in a straight forward manner to computer visualization and can be
incorporated in courses in visualization. Edward Tufte has written two critically acclaimed books which explain many of these principles.
Txtkit: http://cache.ofcd.com/www.txtkit.sw.ofcd.com/
Computer Graphics has from its beginning been used to study scientific problems. However, in its early days the lack of graphics power often
limited its usefulness. The recent emphasis on visualization started in 1987 with the special issue of Computer Graphics on Visualization in
Scientific Computing. Since then there have been several conferences and workshops, co-sponsored by the IEEE and ACM SIGGRAPH, devoted
to the general topic, and special areas in the field, for example volume visualization. There have also been numerous books and research articles
on visualization in the past several years. Some of the most popular examples of scientific visualizations are computer generated images which
show real spacecraft in action, out in the void far beyond Earth, or on other planets. Dynamic forms of visualisation such as educational animation
have the potential to enhance learning about systems that change over time.

http://www.fxdesignstudio.com/crengpub.htm
Apart from the distinction between interactive visualizations and animation, the most useful categorization is probably between abstract and model-
based scientific visualizations. The abstract visualizations show completely conceptual constructs in 2D or 3D. These generated shapes are
completely arbitrary. The model-based visualizations either place overlays of data on real or digitally constructed images of reality, or they make a
digital construction of a real object directly from the scientific data.
Scientific visualization is usually done with specialized software, though there are a few exceptions, noted below. Some of these specialized
programs have been released as Open source software, having very often its origins in universities, within an academic environment where sharing
software tools and giving access to the source code is common. There are also many proprietary software packages of scientific visualization tools.
Models and frameworks for building visualizations include the data flow models popularized by systems such as AVS, IRIS Explorer, and VTK
toolkit, and data state models in spreadsheet systems such as the Spreadsheet for Visualization and Spreadsheet for Images.
Further reading and images

http://www.visualcomplexity.com/vc/
http://www.infosthetics.com/
3D: Game Design and Educational Environments

One of the greates impacts on Visual communication Design that the computer has generated has been the advent of three dimensional design.
while graphic designers historically have always been involved in three dimensional design, especially where the implementation of typographic
elements in architecture are concerned, the virtual 3D environment has greatly increased the involvement of graphic designers, indeed creating
hybrid professions between architecture, cinematography and graphic design, which involve knowledge of narratology, scenarios, storyboarding,
camera handling, light, modelling as well as the design of 2 and 3 dimensional elements such as space and typogrpahy.
Screenshots from "Planet Half-life", created by GameSpy http://planethalflife.gamespy.com/
An offshoot of game design are game modifications/Videogame art which involve the use of patched or modified computer and video games or the
repurposing of existing games or game structures. Often this modification is through the use of level editors, though other techniques exist. Some
artists make use of machinima applications to produce non-interactive animated artworks, though it is a mistake, however, to regard artistic
modification as being synonymous with machinima as these form only a small proportion of artistic modifications.

Videogame art relies on a broader range of artistic techniques and outcomes than artistic modification. These can include painting, sculpture,
appropriation, in-game intervention and performance, sampling, etc. Videogame art also includes creating art games from scratch, rather than by
modifying existing games. It is useful to regard these as distinct from art mods as they rely on different tools, though naturally there are many
similarities with some art mods. Like games, artistic game mods may be single player or multiplayer. Multiplayer works make use of networked
environments to develop new models of interactivity and collaborative production.
Game modification: The Nybble Engine by Margarete Jahrman and Max Moswitzer. http://www.climax.at/nybble-engine-toolz/
Three dimensional environments and applications are also used widely for educational purposes:
Educational software for Mathematics: http://www.teber.biz/
User interface design

or user interface engineering is the design of computers, gadgets, appliances, machines, mobile communication devices, software applications,
and websites with the focus on the user's experience and interaction. Unlike traditional design where the goal is to make the object or application
physically attractive, the goal of user interface design is to make the user's interaction experience as simple and intuitive as possible—what is often
called user-centered design. Where good graphic/industrial design is bold and eye catching, good user interface design is often subtle and
invisible.
User Interface design is involved in a wide range of projects from mall kiosks to software applications to car navigation systems to e-commerce
sites; all of these projects have some things in common yet also require some unique skills and knowledge. As a result, user interface designers
tend to specialize in certain types of projects and have skills centered around their expertise, whether that be software design, web design, or
industrial design. What all these projects have in common is, of course, the focus on how the user interacts with the device/system/application.

Industrial design and interface design. Output: VA215, Sina Çetin
Graphic User Interfaces
A graphical user interface (or GUI, often pronounced "gooey"), is a particular case of user interface for interacting with a computer which employs
graphical images and widgets in addition to text to represent the information and actions available to the user. Usually the actions are performed
through direct manipulation of the graphical elements.
Skins and themes are custom graphical appearances that can be applied to certain software and websites in order to suit the different tastes of
different users. Such software is referred to as being skinnable, and the process of writing or applying such a skin is known as skinning. Applying a
skin changes a piece of software's look and feel — some skins merely make the program more aesthetically pleasing, but others can rearrange
elements of the interface, potentially making the program easier to use.
Custom skins for the Windows operating system.

Desktop wallpapers: An emerging design genre.
Motion Graphics
Motion graphics are graphics that use video and/or animation technology to create the illusion of motion or a transforming appearance. These
motion graphics are usually combined with audio for use in multimedia projects. Motion graphics extend beyond the most commonly used methods
of frame-by-frame footage and animation. Computers are capable of calculating and randomizing changes in imagery to create the illusion of
motion and transformation.
Motion graphics stills
Since there is no universally accepted definition of motion graphics, the official beginning of the art form is heavily disputed. There have been
presentations that could be classified as motion graphics as early as the 1800's. Perhaps one of the first uses of the term "Motion Graphics" was by
animator John Whitney, who in 1960 founded a company called Motion Graphics Inc. Among those in the motion graphics profession, most agree
that Saul Bass is the most significant pioneer in animated graphic design, and that his work marks the true beginning of what is now commonly
referred to as motion graphics. His work included title sequences for popular films such as The Man With The Golden Arm (1955), Vertigo (1958),
Anatomy of a Murder (1959), North by Northwest (1959), Psycho (1960), and Advise & Consent (1962). His designs were simple, but effectively
communicated the mood of the film.

The History of Visual Communication - The Modernists
Download slideshow >>>
Modernism
is a trend of thought which affirms the power of human beings to make, improve and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific
knowledge, technology and practical experimentation. The term covers a variety of political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes
in Western society at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Broadly, modernism describes a series of progressive cultural
movements in art and architecture, music, literature and the applied arts which emerged in the decades before 1914. Embracing change and the
present, modernism encompasses the works of artists, thinkers, writers and designers who rebelled against late 19th century academic and
historicist traditions, and confronted the new economic, social and political aspects of the emerging modern world.
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Art Deco/modernist everyday objects.
Modernist magazine advertisements of the mid 20th century
By 1930, Modernism had entered popular culture. With the increasing urbanization of populations, it was beginning to be looked to as the source
for ideas to deal with the challenges of the day. Popular culture, which was not derived from high culture but instead from its own realities
(particularly mass production) fueled much modernist innovation. Modern ideas in art appeared in commercials and logos, the famous London
Underground logo being an early example of the need for clear, easily recognizable and memorable visual symbols. One of the most visible
changes of this period is the adoption of objects of modern production into daily life. Electricity, the telephone, the automobile—and the need to
work with them, repair them and live with them—created the need for new forms of manners, and social life. The kind of disruptive moment which
only a few knew in the 1880's, became a common occurrence. The speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of
family life.
Art Deco
also known as Style Moderne or 1925 Style, was a twentieth century movement in the decorative arts that grew to influence architecture, design,
fashion and the visual arts. The name Art Deco derived from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, a World's
Fair held in Paris, France in 1925, though the term was not used prior to the late 1960s. Art Deco was influenced by many different cultures,
particularly pre-World War I Europe. The movement occurred at the same time as, and as a response to, the rapid social and technological
advances of the early 20th century.
The Art Deco buildings of New York City: The Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building and the Rockefeller Center.

Art Deco cigar labels.
The paintings of Tamara de Lempicka (1898 - 1980) convey the mood of the Deco period unlike any other.
Corresponding to these influences, Art Deco is characterized by use of materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, lacquer, inlaid wood,
sharkskin, and zebraskin. The bold use of zigzag and stepped forms, and sweeping curves (unlike the sinuous curves of the Art nouveau), chevron
patterns, and the sunburst motif are typical of Art Deco. Some of these motifs were ubiquitous — for example the sunburst motif was used in such
varied contexts as a lady's shoe, a radiator grille, the auditorium of the Radio City Music Hall and the spire of the Chrysler Building. Art Deco was
an opulent style and this lavishness is attributed to reaction of the forced austerity caused by World War I. Its rich, festive character fitted it for
"modern" contexts including interiors of cinema theaters and ocean liners such as the Ile de France and Normandie. A parallel movement called
Streamline Moderne or simply Streamline followed close behind. Streamline was influenced by manufacturing and streamlining techniques arising
from science and the mass production shape of bullet, liners, etc., where aerodynamics are involved. Once the Chrysler Airflow design of 1933 was
successful, "streamlined" forms began to be used even for objects such as pencil sharpeners and refrigerators.
Eventually the style was cut short by the austerities of World War II. In colonial countries such as India, it became a gateway for Modernism and
continued to be used well into the 1960s. A resurgence of interest in Art Deco came with graphic design in the 1980s, where its association with
film noir and 1930s glamour led to its use in ads for jewelry and fashion. South Beach, Miami, FL has the largest collection of Art Deco architecture
remaining in North America.
Adolphe Mouron Cassandre

(1901 – 1968) was an influential Ukrainian-French painter, commercial poster artist, and typeface designer. Cassandre became successful enough
that with the help of partners he was able to set up his own advertising agency called Alliance Graphique. Serving a wide variety of clientele, during
the 1930s, his creations for the Dubonnet wine company were among the first posters designed in a manner that allowed them to be seen by
occupants in fast-moving vehicles. His posters are memorable for their innovative graphic solutions and their frequent denotations to such painters
as Max Ernst and Pablo Picasso. In addition, he taught graphic design at the Ecole des Arts Décoratifs and then at the Ecole d'Art Graphique.
The posters of Cassandre

With typography an important part of poster design, the company created several new typeface styles. Cassandre developed Bifur in 1929, the
sans serif Acier Noir in 1935, and in 1937 an all-purpose font called Peignot. In 1936, his works were exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in
New York City which led to commissions from Harper's Bazaar to do cover designs.
The posters of the WPA

In stark contrast to the oppulence of Art Deco was the poverty generated by the Great Depression in the United States. Interestingly enough, some
of the most beautiful graphic design work comes from the WPA, which was a work relief program that provided jobs and income to the unemployed
during the Great Depression in the United States. It built many public buildings and roads, and as well operated a large arts project. Until it was
closed down by Congress in 1943, it was the largest employer in the country--indeed, the largest employer in most states. Only unemployed people
on relief were eligible for most of its jobs. The wages were the prevailing wages in the area, but workers could not work more than 20-30 hours a
week. Before 1940 there was no training involved to teach people new skills.
The silkscreen posters of the WPA

http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/wpaposters/wpahome.html
Editorial Design between the two wars: Fortune Magazine

Fortune was founded by Time co-founder Henry Luce in February 1930, four months after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 that marked the outset of
the Great Depression. Briton Hadden, Luce's partner, wasn't enthusiastic about the idea, but Luce went forward with it after Hadden's October 15,
1929 death. Luce wrote a memo to the Time, Inc. board in November 1929, "We will not be over-optimistic. We will recognize that this business
slump may last as long as an entire year."
Fortune magazine covers
Fortune magazine, double spreads of information graphics

Herbert Bayer for Fortune magazine
Single copies of that first issue cost $1 at a time when the Sunday New York Times was only 5c.[3] At a time when business publications were little
more than numbers and statistics printed in black and white, Fortune was an oversized 11"x14", using creamy heavy paper, and great art on a
cover printed by a special process. Fortune was also noted for its photography, featuring the work of Margaret Bourke White and others. Walker
Evans served as its photography editor from 1945-1965. An urban legend says that art director T M Clelland mocked up the cover of the first issue
with the $1 price because nobody had yet decided how much to charge; the magazine was printed before anyone realized it, and when people saw
it for sale, they thought that the magazine must really have worthwhile content. In fact, there were 30,000 subscribers who'd already signed up to
receive that initial 184-page issue.
Economic and social influence aside, Fortune magazine's creative staff set a trend in magazine and editorial design, from page layout to usage of
photography, illustration and typography which is still in use widely today.

http://www.fulltable.com/VTS/f/fo.htm
http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/
Post WW2
The years around and following the second world war saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application. A
booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of
the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "mass-produced" minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of "modern"
architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger; Paul
Rand, who, from the late 1930's until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design,
helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic
design known as corporate identity; and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s
and 1960s.
Swiss Style
A new graphic design style emerged in Switzerland in the 1950s that would become the predominant graphic style in the world by the ‘70s.
Because of its strong reliance on typographic elements, the new style came to be known as the International Typographic Style.The style was
marked by the use of a mathematical grid to provide an overall orderly and unified structure; sans serif typefaces (especially Helvetica, introduced
in 1957) in a flush left and ragged right format; and black and white photography in place of drawn illustration. The overall impression was simple
and rational, tightly structured and serious, clear and objective, and harmonious.
Max Bill, work from 1948 to 1969

Armin Hoffman, work from 1948 to 1996.
Fridolin Mueller, work from 1960 to 1990.
Joseph Mueller-Brockman, work from 1960 to 1970.
The style was refined at two design schools in Switzerland, one in Basel led by Armin Hofmann and Emil Ruder, and the other in Zurich under the
leadership of Joseph Muller-Brockmann. All had studied with Ernst Keller at the Zurich School of Design before WWII, where the principles of the
Bauhaus and Jan Tschichold’s New Typography were taught.
The new style became widely synonymous with the "look" of many Swiss cultural institutions which used posters as advertising vehicles.
Hofmann’s series for the Basel State Theater and Muller-Brockmann’s for Zurich’s Tonhalle are two of the most famous. Hofmann’s accentuation of
contrasts between various design elements and Muller-Brockmann’s exploration of rhythm and tempo in visual form are high notes in the evolution
of the style. In addition, the new style was perfectly suited to the increasingly global postwar marketplace. Corporations needed international
identification and global events such as the Olympics called for universal solutions which the Typographic Style could provide. With such good
teachers and proselytizers, the use of the International Typographic Style spread rapidly throughout the world. In the U.S., Hofmann’s Basel design
school established a link with the Yale School of Design, which became the leading American center for the new style.
Further Reading and images:

http://www.postershow.com/swiss_poster/poster_history.htm
http://posters.snl.ch/cgi-bin/gw/chameleon?lng=en&skin=posters
http://swissposters.library.cmu.edu/Swiss/Tour.html
The New York School

The New York School was an informal group of American poets, painters and musicians active in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s in New York City.
The poets, painters, composers, and musicians often drew inspiration from Surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movements, in
particular action painting, abstract expressionism, Jazz, improvisational theater, avant-garde music, and the interaction of friends in the New York

City art world's vanguard circle.
For the purposes of Graphic Design, however, the New York School denotes the group of graphic designers active during the 1950s in and around
New York. The older generation of these designers had fled from Europe earlier in the century, while the younger consisted of students which they
educated at institutions such as the Cooper Union, Blackmountain College and the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, and who in turn become
educators themselves, setting up a chain of innovative, modernist design firmly embedded within an instructional tradition.
Alexey Brodovich
(1898-1971) was a Russian emigrant photographer and designer who worked in Paris, then America, at the beginning of the twentieth century. He
went on to become the art editor for Harper's Bazaar. He is considered to be one of the most influential 20th century designers in the field of
graphic design.
Alexei Brodovitch, editorial design at Harper's Bazaar, 1940's and 1950's.
His contribution to contemporary magazine design while art director of Harper’s Bazaar would be sufficient enough to honor Alexey Brodovitch as a
pioneer in graphic design, but his influence was much greater. He was one of the first to introduce European modernism of the 1920s to the United
States both by his own work and by commissioning art and photography from leading European artists and photographers, including A.M.
Cassandre, Salvador Dali, Henri Cartier-Bresson and Man Ray. Through his lifelong dedication to teaching, he created a generation of designers
who shared his belief in visual vitality and immediacy. Fascinated with photography, he fostered an expressionistic approach that became the
dominant photographic style of the 1950s.
Born in Russia in 1898, Brodovitch fled the Bolsheviks in 1920 with his family and future wife and settled in Paris. Brodovitch’s design career
flourished in 1924 after his poster design for Le Bal Banal, a benefit dance for poor artists, was selected over many other artists including Pablo
Picasso. Soon he was in great demand, designing fabric, jewelry, restaurant décor, posters and department store advertisements.
Invited to the United States in 1930 to start an advertising art department at the Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art, Brodovitch began his
teaching career while completing numerous freelance assignments. In 1934, Carmel Snow, the new editor of Harper’s Bazaar, saw his design work
and immediately hired him to be its art director. It was the beginning of a 24-year tenure that would revolutionize both fashion and magazine
design.
By the 1950s, Brodovitch had perfected his style of combining text and photography with copious amounts of white space. Despite his easily
recognizable work, Brodovitch did not formulate a theory of design. “There is no recipe for good layout,” he said. “What must be maintained is a
feeling of change and contrast. A layout man should be simple with good photographs. He should perform acrobatics when the pictures are bad.”
Henry Wolf, Brodovitch’s successor at Harper’s Bazaar, commented on his unique approach to magazine layout. “Oh, of course he was a good
designer and superb typographer and had an innate sense of elegance about space,” Wolf said. “But his layouts were done only as
approximations. He stood in the middle of the room and, with a scissor, cut out photostats which he taped to a piece of paper. Others later
straightened them. It was communicating an idea, a mood, a criticism that he was precise and masterful.”
Besides his achievements at Bazaar, Brodovitch’s legacy as a publication designer included the influential but short-lived Portfolio. Only three
issues were published in 1950 and 1951. An innovative quarterly aimed at the design profession, Portfolio contained vividly illustrated features on
Alexander Calder, Charles Eames, Paul Rand, Saul Steinberg and others. It also contained the work of pioneering photographers, many of whom
were Brodovitch’s students. As art editor, Brodovitch helped determine the magazine’s contents, and created its distinct design with the help of
elaborate devices such as die-cuts, transparent pages and multi-page foldouts. Those three issues are considered by many to be the pinnacle of
Brodovitch’s design.
He continued to teach throughout his career. His Design Laboratory, which he began in 1941 at the New School for Social Research in New York,
focused on illustration, graphic design and photography. As a teacher, Brodovitch was considered harsh in his criticism but inspiring, and his
student list reads like a who’s who of visual communication, including photographers Irving Penn, Richard Avedon, Art Kane and Hiro, and art
directors Bob Gage, Helmut Krone and Steve Frankfurt.
Further reading
http://www.commarts.com/ca/feapion/brodovitch

Paul Rand
(1914 – 1996) was a well-known American graphic designer, best known for his corporate logo designs. Rand's education included the Pratt
Institute (1929–1932), the Parsons School of Design (1932–1933), and the Art Students League (1933–1934). He was one of the originators of the
Swiss Style of graphic design. From 1956–1969 and beginning again in 1974, Rand taught design at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut.
Rand was inducted into the New York Art Directors Club Hall of Fame in 1972. He designed many posters and corporate identities including the
logos for IBM and ABC. Rand died of cancer in 1996.
The editorial design of Paul Rand, 1937- 1941
Paul Rand: Advertising design, 1941- 1954
Paul Rand: Corporate Identities, 1954 - 1996
In an interesting way the chronology of Paul Rand’s design experience has paralleled the development of the modern design movement. Paul
Rand’s first career in media promotion and cover design ran from 1937 to 1941, his second career in advertising design ran from 1941 to 1954, and
his third career in corporate identification began in 1954. Paralleling these three careers there has been a consuming interest in design education
and Paul Rand’s fourth career as an educator started at Cooper Union in 1942. He taught at Pratt Institute in 1946 and in 1956 he accepted a post
at Yale University’s graduate school of design where he held the title of Professor of Graphic Design. In 1937 Paul launched his first career at
Esquire. Although he was only occasionally involved in the editorial layout of that magazine, he designed material on its behalf and turned out a
spectacular series of covers for Apparel Arts, a quarterly published in conjunction with Esquire. In spite of a schedule that paid no heed to regular
working hours or minimum wage scales, he managed in these crucial years to find time to design an impressive array of covers for other
magazines, particularly Directions. From 1938 on his work was a regular feature of the exhibitions of the Art Directors Club. Most contemporary
designers are aware of Paul Rand’s successful and compelling contributions to advertising design. What is not well known is the significant role he
played in setting the pattern for future approaches to the advertising concept. Paul was probably the first of a long and distinguished line of art
directors to work with and appreciate the unique talent of William Bernbach. Paul described his first meeting with Bernbach as “akin to Columbus
discovering America,” and went on to say, “This was my first encounter with a copywriter who understood visual ideas and who didn’t come in with

a yellow copy pad and a preconceived notion of what the layout should look like.”
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, a pioneer typographer, photographer, and designer of the modern movement and a master at the Bauhaus in Weimar, may
have come closest to defining the Rand style when he said Paul was “an idealist and a realist using the language of the poet and the businessman.
He thinks in terms of need and function. He is able to analyze his problems, but his fantasy is boundless.”
Further reading
http://www.commarts.com/CA/feapion/rand/
Bradbury Thompson
(1911-1995) When it came to the blending of photography, typography and color, nobody did it better than Brad Thompson . In his own quiet way,
he expanded the boundaries of the printed page and influenced the design of a generation of art directors. Thompson is one of the few art directors
who have received all three major design awards: National Society of Art Directors Art Director of the Year in 1950; AIGA Gold Medal in 1975; and
the Art Directors Hall of Fame award in 1977.
Bradbury Thompson, Westvaco books, 1940's and 1950's.
By simply looking at one year of his career, the scope of his involvement in the field of graphic design can be understood: In 1945, Thompson
designed the final issues of three wartime magazines including Victory and USA. Back in New York, before the year was out, he had become art
director of Mademoiselle, where he worked for nearly fifteen years. He also accepted the role of design director for Art News and Art News Annual,
a position he held for 27 years. As if that were not enough, he designed a brochure for the Ford Motor Company and began his experiments in
typographic reform by creating his “monoalphabet,” which broke with the tradition of separate letterforms for capital and lower-case letters. He first
introduced this typographic innovation in an issue of Westvaco Inspirations for Printers, one of four issues that he produced that year. And 1945
was not unusual.
Any analysis of Thompson’s style and any attempt to assess the value and extent of his influence leads irrevocably to one word: form. Whether by
examining his precise cropping and careful placing of images on the printed page or studying his attention to typographic detail, his sense of order
and stucture cannot be missed. Recalling his early draftsman experience Thompson said, “It was a critical part of my training as a designer. It
taught me discipline and, working with huge sheets of tracing cloth, I learned to cope with space in an orderly way.”
Further reading
http://www.commarts.com/CA/feapion_d/brad/
Saul Bass
(1920 - 1996) was a graphic designer, but is best known for his design on motion picture title sequences, which is thought of as the best such work
ever seen. During his 40-year career he worked for some of Hollywood's greatest filmmakers, including most notably Alfred Hitchcock, plus Otto
Preminger, Stanley Kubrick and Martin Scorsese. His most famous title sequence is probably the animated paper cut-out of a heroin addict's arm
for Preminger's The Man with the Golden Arm. Saul Bass designed the 6th AT&T Bell System logo, that at one point achieved a 93 percent
recognition rate in the United States. He also designed the AT&T "globe" logo for AT&T after the break up of the Bell System.

Movie posters by Saul Bass, 1950's and 60's
Further reading
http://www.commarts.com/ca/feapion/bass/index.html
The 1960's and 1970's
Herb Lubalin
(1918 -1981) was a prominent American graphic designer who collaborated with Ralph Ginzburg on four of Ginzburg's magazines: Eros, Fact
Magazine, Fact and Avant Garde and was responsible for the creative visual beauty of these publications. He designed a typeface, ITC Avant
Garde, for the last of these; this distinctive font could be described as a post-modern interpretation of art deco, and its influence can be seen in
logos created in the 1990s and 2000s. He also published and designed the famous typography periodical u&lc.
Herb Lubalin, "Avantgarde" and "Blackletter", 1970's
Herb Lubalin entered Cooper Union at the age of seventeen, and quickly became entranced by the possibilities presented by typography as a
communicative implement. During this period Lubalin was particularly struck by the differences in interpretation one could impose by changing from
one typeface to another, always “fascinated by the look and sound of words (as he) expanded their message with typographic impact. After
graduating in 1939, Lubalin had a difficult time finding work; he was fired from his job at a display firm after requesting a two dollar raise on his
weekly salary. Lubalin would eventually land at Reiss Advertising, and later worked for Sudler & Hennessey, where he served as art director for
twenty years, eventually taking on the roles of vice president and creative director before leaving to start his own studio.
U&lc, typographic magazine, 1970's and 1980's
Lubalin spent the last ten years of his life working on a variety of projects, notably his typographic journal U&lc and the newly founded International
Typographic Corporation. U&lc (shorthand for Upper and Lower Case) served as both an advertisement for Lubalin’s designs and a further plane of
typographic experimentation; Steven Heller argues that U&lc was the first Emigre, or at least the template for its later successes, for this very
combination of promotion and revolutionary change in type design. Heller further notes, “In U&lc, he tested just how far smashed and expressive
lettering might be taken. Under Lubalin’s tutelage, eclectic typography was firmly entrenched.”[4] Lubalin enjoyed the freedom his magazine
provided him; he was quoted as saying “Right now, I have what every designer wants and few have the good fortune to achieve. I’m my own client.
Nobody tells me what to do.”
Milton Glaser
(1929 - ) is best known for his "Bob Dylan" poster, the I Love New York logo, and the "DC bullet" logo used by DC Comics from 1977 to 2005.
Glaser was educated at New York City's High School of Music and Art , graduated from the Cooper Union in 1951 and later, via a Fulbright
Scholarship, the Academy of Fine Arts in Bologna under Giorgio Morandi. In 1954 Glaser was a founder, and president, of the Push Pin Studios
formed with several of his Cooper Union classmates. Glaser's work is characterized by directness, simplicity and originality. He uses any medium
or style suggested by the picture problem - from primitive to avant garde - in his design for book jackets, record album covers, advertisements and

direct mail pieces, as well as for magazine illustrations.
Milton Glaser, 1960's to 1980's
He started his own studio, Milton Glaser, Inc., in 1974. This led to his involvement with an increasingly wide diversity of projects, ranging from the
design of New York Magazine, of which he was a co-founder, to a 600 foot mural for the Federal Office Building in Indianapolis.
Throughout his career he has had a major impact on contemporary illustration and design. His work has won numerous awards from Art Directors
Clubs, the American Institute of Graphic Arts, the Society of Illustrators and the Type Directors Club. In 1979 he was made Honorary Fellow of the
Royal Society of Arts and his work is included in the Museum of Modern Art, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Israel Museum and the Musee de
l'affiche in Paris. Glaser has taught at both the School of Visual Arts and at Cooper Union in New York City.

http://www.miltonglaser.com/
http://av.adobe.com/studio/miltonglaser/miltonglaser.html
The Polish Poster

By the end of the 1950's Socialist realism had been dumped in Polish art. The Graphic Arts Department at the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts
divided its areas of instruction into fine arts, visual communications, applied arts, and poster art. It helped, thereby, to establish what is known as
the Polish Poster School.For the Polish poster artists in the early 1960's the realism that had once seemed adequate and the symbolism that had
arisen out of the war no longer satisfactory. These artists used metaphoric imagery which demanded active participation from the reader. One of
the "fathers" of this new generation was Henryk Tomaszewski (1914- ). The work of many of the younger artists of the Polish School (born in the
1920's and 1930's) varied in style from expressionistic to subdued. Maciej Urbaniec (1925), who had done public service posters during the
communist regime, achieved great notoriety in 1970 with Cyrk (Mona Lisa). Gone were the happy clown motifs of many lesser artists, Urbaniec
decided to stimulate the viewer with a juxtaposition of history and the circus. The bete noire of Polish poster artists Franciszek Starowieyski
promoted an elitist quality in his work and carefully maintained the facade of the idiosyncratic artist. That is, wrapped up in his own little world, he
created posters that suited his tastes and attitudes. He didn't mean for everyone to be able to understand his work nor freely read the text. Jan
Lenica (1928- ), who began as a painter, had a free style early in his career. One of the most stylistically diverse of the Polish poster artists Lenica
then revived Art Nouveau expressionism in the early 1960's with his poster for Alban Berg's Wozzeck.

Roman Cieslewicz (1930 - 1996). Posters between 1955 -1993
Jan Lenica (1928 - 2001). Posters between 1955 and 1990.

Franciszek Starowieyski (1930 - ). Posters from 1965 to 1990.
The work of the "second generation" Polish poster artists who "built" the Polish Poster School all had one thing in common: a distinctly personal
gesture in one form or another. This characteristic is unique to the posters of Poland. Today's Polish poster art still has this characteristic. Their
posters are still predominately made with brushes, pastels, and paints. One sees very little photography in these posters. To them the only valid
expression of one's ideas is by human hand to paper. In a way this is what makes Polish Poster Art unique even today.Each poster is a genuine
expression of the artist's feeling toward the subject, not just a catchy slogan or image.

http://www.polish-poster.com/polish-art-poster.htm
http://www.polishposter.com/
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_deco
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandre
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration

The History of Visual Communication - The Avantgarde
Avant-garde
in French means front guard, advance guard, or vanguard. People often use the term in French and English to refer to people or works that are
experimental or novel, particularly with respect to art, culture, and politics. According to its champions, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of
what is accepted as the norm within definitions of art/culture/reality. The origin of the application of this French term to art can be fixed at May 17,
1863, the opening of the Salon des Refusés in Paris, organised by painters whose work was rejected for the annual Paris Salon of officially
sanctioned academic art. Salons des Refusés were held in 1874, 1875, and 1886.
The vanguard, a small troop of highly skilled soldiers, explores the terrain ahead of a large advancing army and plots a course for the army to
follow. This concept is applied to the work done by small bands of intellectuals and artists as they open pathways through new cultural or political
terrain for society to follow. Due to implied meanings stemming from the military terminology, some people feel the avant-garde implies elitism,
especially when used to describe cultural movements. The term may also refer to the promotion of radical social reforms, the aims of its various
movements presented in public declarations called manifestos. Over time, avant-garde became associated with movements concerned with art for
art's sake, focusing primarily on expanding the frontiers of aesthetic experience, rather than with wider social reform. In our context the avantgarde
will cover the avantgarde'ist movements of the early 20th century that specifically focused on visual communication design and/or implemented it
as a modus operandi.
Constructivism
was an artistic and architectural movement in Russia from 1914 onward, and a term often used in modern art today, which dismissed "pure" art in
favour of art used as an instrument for social purposes, namely, the construction of the socialist system. The term Construction Art was first used
as a derisive term by Kazimir Malevich to describe the work of Alexander Rodchenko in 1917. Constructivism first appears as a positive term in
Naum Gabo's Realistic Manifesto of 1920. Kazimir Malevich also worked in the constructivist style, though he is better known for his earlier
suprematism and ran his own competing group in Vitebsk. The movement was an important influence on new graphic design techniques
championed by El Lissitzky.
Paintings by Constructivist Kasimir Malevich (1878 - 1935)
As a part of the early Soviet youth movement, the constructivists took an artistic outlook aimed to encompass cognitive, material activity, and the
whole of spirituality of mankind. The artists tried to create art that would take the viewer out of the traditional setting and make them an active
viewer of the artwork. Most of the designs were a fusion of art and political commitment, and reflected the revolutionary times.
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/avantgarde.html[13/09/17 4:35:23 a.m.]

The Constructivist culture, from fashions to theater...
El Lissitzky
El Lissitzky: Self portrait
Lazar Markovich Lissitzky (1890 – 1941), better known as El Lissitzky, was a Russian artist, designer, photographer, teacher, typographer, and
architect. He was one of the most important figures of the Russian avant garde, helping develop suprematism with his friend and mentor, Kazimir
Malevich.
El Lissitzky's extraordinary typographic work: page spreads for a book of poems by Mayakovsky
"The story of the little red square". Book design by El Lissitzky

The "Proun"s. This was years befoe the invention of digital 3D...
Lissitzky's entire career was laced with the belief that the artist could be an agent for change. 4 A Jew, he began his career illustrating Yiddish
children's books in an effort to promote Jewish culture in Russia, a country that was undergoing massive change at the time and had just repealed
its anti-semitic laws. Starting at the age of 15, he began teaching; a duty he would stay with for the vast majority of his life. Over the years, he
taught in a variety of positions, schools, and artistic mediums, spreading and exchanging ideas at a rapid pace. He took this ethic with him when he
worked with Malevich in heading the suprematist art group UNOVIS, when he developed a variant suprematist series of his own, Proun, and further
still in 1921, when he took up a job as the Russian cultural ambassador in Weimar Germany, working with and influencing important figures of the
Bauhaus and De Stijl movements during his stay. In his remaining years he brought significant innovation and change to the fields of typography,
exhibition design, photomontage, and book design, producing critically respected works and winning international acclaim for his exhibition design.
This continued until his deathbed, where in 1941 he produced one of his last known works — a Soviet propaganda poster rallying the people to
construct more tanks for the fight against Nazi Germany.
Alexander Rodchenko
(1891 - 1956), was one of the most versatile Constructivist artist/designers to emerge after the Russian Revolution. He worked as a painter and
graphic designer before turning to photomontage and photography. His photography was socially engaged, formally innovative, and opposed to a
painterly aesthetic. Concerned with the need for analytical-documentary photo series, he often shot his subjects from odd angles - usually high
above or below - to shock the viewer and to postpone recognition. He wrote: "One has to take several different shots of a subject, from different
points of view and in different situations, as if one examined it in the round rather than looked through the same key-hole again and again."
The graphic design of Rodchenko
Futurism
The Futurists explored every medium of art, including painting, sculpture, poetry, theatre, music, architecture and even gastronomy. The Italian
poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti was the first among them to produce a manifesto of their artistic philosophy in his Manifesto of Futurism (1909),

first released in Milan and published in the French paper Le Figaro (February 20). Marinetti summed up the major principles of the Futurists,
including a passionate loathing of ideas from the past, especially political and artistic traditions. He and others also espoused a love of speed,
technology and violence. The car, the plane, the industrial town were all legendary for the Futurists, because they represented the technological
triumph of man over nature.
Futurist book design and typography
Marinetti's impassioned polemic immediately attracted the support of the young Milanese painters —Boccioni, Carrà, and Russolo—who wanted to
extend Marinetti's ideas to the visual arts (Russolo was also a composer, and introduced Futurist ideas into his compositions). The painters Balla
and Severini met Marinetti in 1910 and together these artists represented Futurism's first phase.
Futurism influenced many other twentieth century art movements, including Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism and Dada. Futurism as a
coherent and organized artistic movement is now regarded as extinct, having died out in the 1944 with the death of his leader Marinetti, and
Futurism was, like science fiction, in part overtaken by 'the future'. Nonetheless the ideals of futurism remain as significant components of modern
Western culture; the emphasis on youth, speed, power and technology finding expression in much of modern commercial cinema and culture.
Ridley Scott consciously evoked the designs of Sant'Elia in Blade Runner. Echoes of Marinetti's thought, especially his "dreamt-of metallization of
the human body", are still strongly prevalent in Japanese culture, and surface in manga/anime and the works of artists such as Shinya Tsukamoto,
director of the "Tetsuo" (lit. "Ironman") films.
Further reading
The typographic revolution
Dada
or Dadaism is a cultural movement that began in neutral Zürich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The movement
primarily involved visual arts, literature (poetry, art manifestoes, art theory), theatre, and graphic design, which concentrated its anti war politic
through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works.

Dada periodicals. Page layouts and typography: "391". Publisher and designer: Francis Picabia
"Dada". Publisher and designer: Tristan Tzara
One of the most beautiful periodicals ever designed, Merz was published and designed by Kurt Schwitters:
Merz. Issue 1.
Merz. Issue 2.

Merz. Issue 4.
Merz. Issues 6 and 7.
Merz. Issue 8.
Merz. Issue 21: Das Veilchen (The Violet)
According to its proponents, Dada was not art — it was "anti-art". Dada sought to fight art with art. For everything that art stood for, Dada was to
represent the opposite. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art were to have at least an implicit or latent
message, Dada strove to have no meaning — interpretation of Dada is dependent entirely on the viewer. If art is to appeal to sensibilities, Dada is
to offend. It is perhaps then ironic that Dada became an influential movement in modern art. Dada became a commentary on order and the carnage
they believed it wreaked. Through this rejection of traditional culture and aesthetics they hoped to destroy traditional culture and aesthetics. Art
historians have described Dada as being, in large part, "in reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of

collective homicide."Years later, Dada artists described the movement as "a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and
moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path. [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization...In
the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege." Reason and logic had led people into the horrors of war; the only route to salvation was to reject
logic and embrace anarchy and the irrational.
Raoul Hausmann (1886-1971)
John Heartfield / Helmut Herzfeld (1891-1968).
Further reading
Dada.doc
Bauhaus
is the common term for the Staatliches Bauhaus, an art and architecture school in Germany that operated from 1919 to 1933 and briefly in the
United States from 1937-1938 and for the approach to design that it developed and taught. The most natural meaning for its name (related to the
German verb for "build") is Architecture House. Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist architecture. The
foundation of the Bauhaus occurred at a time of crisis and turmoil in Europe as a whole and particularly in Germany. Its establishment resulted from
a confluence of a diverse set of political, social, educational and artistic shifts in the first two decades of the twentieth century. Art nouveau had
broken the preoccupation with revivalist historical styles that had characterised the 19th century. In the first decade of the new century however, the
movement was receiving criticism; impelled by rationalist ideas requiring practical justification for formal effects. Nonetheless, the movement had
opened up a language of abstraction which was to have a profound importance during the 20th century.
One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology. The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore
industrial and product design were important components. Vorkurs ("initial course") was taught; this is the modern day Basic Design course that
has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural schools across the globe. There was no teaching of history in the school
because everything was supposed to be designed and created according to first principles rather than by following precedent.

Graphic Design and Typography of the Bauhaus school.
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in Western Europe, the United States and Israel in the decades following its
demise, as many of the artists involved fled or were exiled by the Nazi regime. Both Gropius and Breuer went to teach at the Harvard Graduate
School of Design and worked together before their professional split in 1941. The Harvard School was enormously influential in the late 1940s and
early 1950s, producing such students as Philip Johnson, I.M. Pei, Lawrence Halprin and Paul Rudolph, among many others.
Herbert Bayer
(1900-1985) was an Austrian graphic designer, painter, photographer, and architect. In the spirit of clean simplification, Bayer developed a crisp
visual style and adopted an all-lowercase and sans serif typeface for all Bauhaus publications. Bayer is also credited with designing the custom
geometric sans-serif font, universal. In 1928, Bayer left the Bauhaus to become art director of Vogue magazine's Berlin office. Ten years later, he
settled in New York City where he had a long and distinguished career in nearly every aspect of the graphic arts.
László Moholy-Nagy
(1895 – 1946) was a Hungarian painter and photographer as well as professor in the Bauhaus school. He was highly influenced by constructivism.
He was a strong advocate of the integration of technology and industry into the arts. In 1923, he replaced Johannes Itten as the instructor of the
preliminary course at the Bauhaus. This effectively marked the end of the school's expressionistic leanings and moved it closer towards its original
aims as a school of design and industrial integration. The Bauhaus became known for the versatility of its artist and Moholy-Nagy was no
exception. Throughout his career he became proficient and innovative in the fields of photography, typography, sculpture, painting, and industrial
design. One of his main focuses was on photography. He coined the term "the New Vision", for his belief that photography could create a whole
new way of seeing the outside world that the human eye could not. His theory of art and teaching was summed up in the book The New Vision,
from Material to Architecture.
De Stijl
also known as neoplasticism, was a Dutch artistic movement, founded in 1917. In a narrower sense, the term De Stijl is used to refer to a body of
work created by a group of Dutch artists, from 1917 to 1931. De Stijl is also the name of a journal which was published by the painter and critic
Theo van Doesburg, propagating the group's theories. Next to Van Doesburg, the group's principal members were the painters Piet Mondrian and
Bart van der Leck, and the architects Gerrit Rietveld and J.J.P. Oud. The artistic philosophy that formed a basis for the group's work is known as
neoplasticism — the new plastic art. Proponents of De Stijl sought to express a new utopian ideal of spiritual harmony and order. They advocated
pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour — they simplified visual compositions to the vertical and
horizontal directions, and used only primary colors along with black and white.
Posters and flyers by Paul Schuitema, 1920's
Paul Schuitema (1897 - 1973 ) was a Dutch graphic artist. He also designed furniture and expositions and worked as photographer, film director,
painter and teacher for publicity design at the Royal Academy of Art in The Hague. Schuitema studied at the Academie voor Beeldende Kunsten in
Rotterdam. In the 1920s, he began to work on graphic design,[1] applying the principles of De Stijl and constructivism to commercial advertising.
Along with Gerard Kiljan and his famous colleague Piet Zwart, he followed ideas pioneered in the Soviet Union by El Lissitzky and Rodchenko, in

Poland by Henryk Berlewi and in Germany by Kurt Schwitters.
During his employment at the NV Maatschappij Van Berkel Patent scale company in Rotterdam, Schuitema gained recognition for his original
designs of stationery and publicity material, often using only the colors black, red and white and bold sans serif fonts. From 1926 on, he started
working with photomontages, becoming one of the pioneers of this technique in the field of industrial design. Even though he was a convinced
socialist and often designed leftist publications directed at industrial workers, Schuitema also worked for major companies, such as Philips.
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avantgarde
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Lissitzky
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Rodchenko
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauhaus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Bayer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laszlo_Moholy-Nagy

The History of Visual Communication - Breaking the Grid
The Industrial Revolution

was the major technological, socioeconomic and cultural change in the late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout
the world. During that time, an economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It
began with the mechanisation of the textile industries and the development of iron-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the
introduction of canals, improved roads and then railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery
(mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[1] The development of all-metal machine tools in the
first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.
What started it all: James Watt's steam engine
The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of
this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic revolution, when various human subgroups embraced agriculture and
in the process, forswore the nomadic lifestyle[4].
The first Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained
momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the internal combustion engine and
electrical power generation. At the turn of the century, innovator Henry Ford, father of the assembly line, stated, "There is but one rule for the
industrialist, and that is: Make the highest quality goods possible at the lowest cost possible, paying the highest wages possible."
Breaking the Grid

Printing techniques using movable type had restricted graphic design to an inflexible grid: Anything that was to be mass printed in great volume
needed to adhere to a system whereby type was set in consecutive rows of parallel lines. Illustrations, maps and the like were hand drawn and
engraved, only allowing for limited, costly editions due to the wearage of the engraving plates. The mass productive milieu of the industrial
revolution manifested itself in a unique invention called lithography and this technique was to set type free from the bondage of the compositor.
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/grid.html[13/09/17 4:36:46 a.m.]

Lithography
The term "lithography" dates back to the end of the 18th century, when Alois Senefelder invented the technique of printing with stone plates. This
novel method - originally intended for the reproduction of music notation - quickly spread throughout the art world. Munich became the center of this
printing technique, which was to be come extraordinarily important for 19th century art and for advertising of the age as well.
Lithographic stones, the lithography press and portrait of Senefelder
Lithography refers to a printing process that uses chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the positive part of an image would be a
hydrophobic chemical, while the negative image would be water. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible ink and water mixture, the ink
will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image. This allows for a relatively flat print plate which allows for much longer
runs than the older physical methods of imaging (e.g., embossing or engraving).
Within a few years of its invention, the lithographic process was used to create multi-color printed images that held all manner of cropped,
embedded and bordered images as well as free running type, a process known by the middle of the 19th century as Chromolithography. A
separate stone was used for each colour, and a print went through the press separately for each stone. The main challenge was of course to keep
the images aligned (in register). This method lent itself to images consisting of large areas of flat colour, and led to the characteristic poster designs
of this period. Many fine works of chromolithographic printing were produced in America and Europe.
Photography
Yet another invention which greatly affected visual communication procedures was the invention of photography: This is the process of making
pictures by means of the action of light. Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip
through a timed exposure. The process is done through mechanical, chemical or digital devices known as cameras. The first photograph was an
image produced in 1826 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce on a polished pewter plate with a camera. The image required an eight-hour
exposure in bright sunshine. In partnership, Niépce and Louis Daguerre refined the existing process. In 1839 Daguerre announced that he had
invented a process called the Daguerreotype. William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it
secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention Talbot refined his process, so that it might be fast enough to take photographs of people.

Victorian family portraits
The Daguerreotype proved popular in responding to the demand for portraiture emerging from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution.
This demand, that could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of photography. Daguerreotypes,
while beautiful, were fragile and difficult to copy. A single photograph taken in a portrait studio could cost USD $1,000 in 2006 dollars. In 1884
George Eastman developed film, to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic
chemicals around. In July of 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now
anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography became available for the mass-market in
1901 with the introduction of Kodak Brownie.
The Victorian era

of Great Britain marked the height of the British industrial revolution and the apex of the British Empire. Victorian morality is a distillation of the
moral views of people living at the time of Queen Victoria (reigned 1837-1901) in particular, and to the moral climate of Great Britain throughout the
19th century in general. For most, the Victorian period is still a byword for sexual repression. Victorian prudery sometimes went so far as to deem it
improper to say "leg" in mixed company; instead, the preferred euphemism “limb” was used. Those going for a dip in the sea at the beach would
use a bathing machine. Verbal or written communication of emotion or sexual feelings was also often proscribed so people instead used the
language of flowers. However they also wrote explicit erotica, perhaps the most famous being the racy tell-all My Secret Life by Henry Spencer
Ashbee, who wrote under the pseudonym Walter.
Travel to far away places became far more widespread resulting in the emergence of a new commodity called the postcard.
As far fashions and lifestyle elements are concerned, Men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as fussy and over-done. Clothing covered
the entire body, we are told, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that corsets constricted women's bodies and
women's lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating bric-a-brac. Myth has it that
even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny pantalettes. Of course, much of this is untrue, or a gross exaggeration. Men's formal
clothing may have been less colorful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant waistcoats and cummerbunds provided a touch of color, and
smoking jackets and dressing gowns were often of rich Oriental brocades. Corsets stressed a woman's sexiness, exaggerating hips and bust by
contrast with a tiny waist. Women's ball gowns bared the shoulders and tops of the breasts. The tight-fitting jersey dresses of the 1880s may have
covered the body, but they left little to the imagination.

Victoriana refers to items or material from the Victorian period (1837–1901), especially those particularly evocative of the design style and outlook
of the time. The word is usually used to refer to printed work or to objects such as machinery, house decoration, or furniture. Victoriana tends to
reflect the tastes of the period. Examples in literature might be Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist or Sheridan Le Fanu's Carmilla, stories which strongly
reflect the moral atmosphere of the time. Victoriana strongly reflects two phenomena, one of which is the necessity of catering to the tastes of the
nouveaux riché of the era and the other the ability of large masses of the population having aquired the wealth and ability to travel due to the
introduction of steam boats and trains. Thus, both exotica and kitsch make a strong appearance in victoriana.
Kitsch
The term is used loosely in referring to any art that is pretentious or in bad taste, and also commercially produced items that are considered trite or
crass. Because the word was brought into use as a response to a large amount of art in the 19th century where the aesthetic of art work was
confused with a sense of exaggerated sentimentality or melodrama, kitsch is most closely associated with art that is sentimental, mawkish, or
maudlin; however, it can be used to refer to any type of art that is deficient for similar reasons—whether it tries to appear sentimental, glamorous,
theatrical, or creative, kitsch is said to be a gesture imitative of the superficial appearances of art. It is often said that kitsch relies on merely
repeating convention and formula, lacking the sense of creativity and originality displayed in genuine art.
Victorian greeting cards

Victorian die cuts. These were the counterparts of today's stickers, with which people would ornament their diaries and letters. The effects of mass
production and hence the neccessity to appeal to a far less sophisticated customer base can clearly be felt in the design of both these and the
postcards above.
The Gothic Revival

was an architectural movement which originated in mid-18th century England. In the nineteenth century, increasingly serious and learned neo-
Gothic styles sought to revive medieval forms, in distinction to the classical styles which were prevalent at the time. The Gothic Revival was
paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals and curiosities. The movement had significant
influence throughout the United Kingdom as well as in Europe and North America, and perhaps more Gothic architecture was built in nineteenth
and twentieth centuries than had originally ever been built. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture. By the mid-nineteenth century
Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively recreated in wallpaper, and gothic blind arcading could decorate a ceramic pitcher. The
illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery.
The Arts and Crafts movement

is a major English and American aesthetic movement occurring in the last years of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century.
Inspired by the writings of John Ruskin, it was at its height between approximately 1880–1910. It was a reformist movement that influenced British
and American architecture, decorative arts, cabinet making, crafts, and even the "cottage" garden designs of William Robinson or Gertrude Jekyll.
Its best-known practitioners were William Morris, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Frank Lloyd Wright, and artists in the Pre-Raphaelite movement.
The Arts and Crafts Movement began primarily as a search for authentic and meaningful styles for the 19th century and as a reaction to the eclectic
historicism of the Victorian era and to "soulless" machine-made production aided by the Industrial Revolution. Considering the machine to be the
root cause of all repetitive and mundane evils, some of the protagonists of this movement turned entirely away from the use of machines and
towards handcraft, which tended to concentrate their productions in the hands of sensitive but well-heeled patrons.
Paintings by Pre-Raphaelite painter Dante Gabriel Rosetti (1828-1882). In most of them William Morris' wife is the model...

Paintings by Pre-Raphaelite painter Edward Burne Jones (1833-1898).
Yet, while the Arts and Crafts movement was in large part a reaction to industrialization, if looked at on the whole, it was neither anti-industrial nor
anti-modern. Some of the European factions believed that machines were in fact necessary, but they should only be used to relieve the tedium of
mundane, repetitive tasks. At the same time, some Art & Craft leaders felt that objects should also be affordable. The conflict between quality
production and 'demo' design, and the attempt to reconcile the two, dominated design debate at the turn of the last century. The need to reverse
the human subservience to the unquenchable machine was a point that everyone agreed on. Yet the extent to which the machine was ostracized
from the process was a point of contention debated by many different factions within the Arts and Crafts movement throughout Europe. In order to
express the beauty inherent in craft, some products were deliberately left slightly unfinished, resulting in a certain rustic and robust effect. There
were also socialist undertones to this movement, in that another primary aim was for craftspeople to derive satisfaction from what they did. This
satisfaction, the proponents of this movement felt, was totally denied in the industrialised processes inherent in compartmentalised machine
production.
William Morris
(1834 – 1896) was an English artist, writer, socialist activist and pioneer of eco-socialism, one of the principal founders of the British Arts and Crafts
movement, best known as a designer of wallpaper and patterned fabrics, a writer of poetry and fiction, and a pioneer of the socialist movement in
Britain near London and the Eco-socialist movement of the later twentieth century. He went to school at Marlborough College, but left in 1851 after
a student rebellion there. He then went to Oxford University (Exeter College) after studying for his matriculation to the university. He became
influenced by John Ruskin there, and met his life-long friends and collaborators, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Edward Burne-Jones, Ford Madox Brown
and Philip Webb there as well. He also met his wife, Jane Burden, a working-class woman whose pale skin, languid figure, and wavy, abundant
dark hair were considered by Morris and his friends the epitome of beauty. These friends formed an artistic movement, the Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood. They eschewed the tawdry industrial manufacture of decorative arts and architecture and favoured a return to hand-craftsmanship,
raising artisans to the status of artists. He espoused the philosophy that art should be affordable, hand-made, and that there should be no hierarchy
of artistic mediums.
The versatile craft of William Morris
The Kelmscott Press

In January 1891, Morris founded the Kelmscott Press at Hammersmith, London, in order to produce examples of improved printing and book
design. He designed clear typefaces, such as his Roman 'golden' type, which was inspired by that of the early Venetian printer Nicolaus Jenson,
and medievalizing decorative borders for books that drew their inspiration from the incunabula of the 15th century and their woodcut illustrations.
Selection of paper and ink, and concerns for the overall integration of type and decorations on the page made the Kelmscott Press the most
famous of the private presses of the Arts and Crafts movement. It operated until 1898, producing 53 volumes, and inspired other private presses,

notably the Doves Press. Among book lovers, the Kelmscott Press edition of The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, illustrated by Burne-Jones, is
considered one of the most beautiful books ever produced. A fine edition facsimile of the Kelmscott Chaucer was published in 2002 by The Folio
Society.
Book pages printed by the Kelmscott Press
The Glasgow School

The Glasgow School was a circle of influential modern artists and designers who began to coalesce in Glasgow, Scotland in the 1870s, and
flourished from the 1890s to sometime around 1910. Glasgow experienced an economic boom at the end of the 19th century, resulting in a burst of
distinctive contributions to the Art Nouveau movement, particularly in the fields of architecture, interior design, and painting. Among the most
prominent definers of the Glasgow School loose collective were "The Four": acclaimed architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh, the painter and glass
artist Margaret MacDonald (Mackintosh's wife), MacDonald's sister Frances MacDonald, and Herbert MacNair. Cumulatively, The Four defined the
Glasgow Style (a syncretistic blend of Celtic and Japanese art), which found favour throughout the modern art world of continental Europe. The
Four, otherwise known as the Spook School, ultimately made a great impact on the definition of Art Nouveau.
Posters and sketches by Margaret MacDonald
Children's book illustrations by Margaret MacDonald

Design by architect Charles Rennie Mackintosh
Eclecticism
according to Hume, is "the borrowing of a variety of styles from different sources and combining them". Significantly, Eclecticism hardly ever
constituted a specific style in art: it is characterized by the fact that it was not a particular style. In general, the term describes the combination in a
single work of a variety of influences — mainly of elements from different historical styles in architecture, painting, and the graphic and decorative
arts. Eclecticism was an important concept in Western design and architecture during the mid and late 19th century, where oriental and particularly
Japanese wood printing was suffused into existent western art traditions, Eclecticism reappeared in a new guise in the latter part of the 20th
century. Thus much of postmodern art is characterized by eclecticism.
Japanese woodprints of the 19th century
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau is a style which does not result from European history alone. It is of experimental character, a mixture of baroque, oriental and
classical elements, in parts strongly influenced by japanese art, wanting to express the break with traditional forms, on one hand reflecting the spirit
of the Belle Epoque and influencing it at the same time. Characteristic for Art Nouveau is the absence of any straight line and any right angle. The
lines seem to bend infinitely, the forms swell and contract. It is the nature serving as model: Being a decorative art by origin, the artists preferred
ornamental structures imitating flowers and leaves. Most works of the Art Nouveau resemble living organisms. The curved vegetable lines create
an impression of lightness and charm. Many artists of the Art Nouveau used these curved forms of vegetation: The most favourite flowers were the
lily, the iris and the orchid, but they also used oriental subjects such as palm branches, papyruses, seaweed. Stylistically represented were
animals, too, especially insects and birds abounding in colours: dragonflies, peacocks, swallows, swans. Moreover, the artists appreciated the
female body as a decorative element, especially with long open hair, flowing in long and soft waves.
Art Nouveau arose at the end of the nineteenth century and persisted until the First World War. It was a reaction against the prevailing practice in
architecture and applied arts of using conservative design motifs from Gothic, Baroque, Neo-Classical and other standard historical styles. As a
movement, Art Nouveau sought to find a new, modern style that escaped from the formal, rigid past by emphasizing natural, organic forms such as
plants and flowers. Generally speaking, earlier works of Art Nouveau tend to be more lush and dramatic, whereas later examples are more likely to
be more subtle and stylized. However, the style's manifestations differed dramatically from one European country to another.

Art nouveau package design
Art Nouveau in architecture and crafts.
One of the most prolific and complex centers of turn-of-the-century applied arts is Vienna. There, the artists and architects of the Secession sought
to rebel entirely - that is, morally, aesthetically, intellectually and politically - against standard practice in the fine and applied arts. Among the
leaders of this group was Gustav Klimt. An influential movement that came out of the Secession was the Vienna Werkstätte, or Vienna Workshop.
The workshop was a collaborative effort based on the concept of completely original artistic designs executed in fine materials being mass-
manufactured for the public at a very high standard. Implicit in this was the idea that the artist could have an important influence on everyday,
practical, functional objects.
Secessionist design, from textiles to glass...
Posters
were popularized by the mid-19th-century invention of lithography, which allowed coloured posters to be produced cheaply and easily. Henri de
Toulouse-Lautrec was noted for his poster art, which often advertised Parisian cabaret performers. Poster art flourished with the rise of the Art
Nouveau style, as seen in the work of Alphonse Mucha.

Art nouveau posters. First two are by Secessionist designer and artist Koloman Moser
Alfons Mucha
(1860 - 1939) After study in Prague, Munich, and Paris, he became the principal designer of posters advertising the stage appearances of Sarah
Bernhardt; he designed sets and costumes for her as well. His many opulent posters and magazine illustrations made him one of the foremost
designers in the Art Nouveau style. In 1922, after Czechoslovakia had become independent, he settled in Prague and designed the new republic's
stamps and banknotes.
Alphonse Mucha: designs and posters
Postcards designed by Alphonse Mucha
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
(1864 - 1901) Born to an old aristocratic family, he developed his interest in art during lengthy convalescence after both his legs were fractured in
separate accidents (1878, 1879) that left them permanently stunted and made walking difficult. In 1881 he resolved to become an artist; after taking
instruction, he established a studio in the Montmartre district of Paris in 1884 and began his lifelong association with the area's cafés, cabarets,
entertainers, and artists. He captured the effect of the movement of dancers, circus performers, and other entertainers by simplifying outlines and
juxtaposing intense colours; the result was an art throbbing with life and energy. His lithographs were among his most powerful works, and his
memorable posters helped define the possibilities of the genre. His pieces are often sharply satirical, but he was also capable of great sympathy,
seen most poignantly in his studies of prostitutes (e.g., At the Salon, 1896). His extraordinary style helped set the course of avant-garde art for
decades to come. A heavy drinker, he died at 36.

The posters of Henri de Toulouse Lautrec
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriana
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_fashion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_revival
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_morris
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_School
http://www.firsteuropeanshipping.com/styles.html
http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9380996
http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9372757

The History of Visual Communication - The Masters of Typography

The Renaissance
is the term used to describe the development of Western civilization that marked the transition from medieval to modern times.
In the 12th cent. a rediscovery of Greek and Roman literature occurred across Europe that eventually led to the development of the humanist
movement in the 14th cent. In addition to emphasizing Greek and Latin scholarship, humanists believed that each individual had significance within
society. The growth of an interest in humanism led to the changes in the arts and sciences that form common conceptions of the Renaissance.
The 14th cent. through the 16th cent. was a period of economic flux in Europe; the most extensive changes took place in Italy. After the death of
Frederick II in 1250, emperors lost power in Italy and throughout Europe; none of Frederick's successors equaled him. Power fell instead into the
hands of various popes; after the Great Schism (1378–1415; see Schism, Great), when three popes held power simultaneously, control returned to
secular rulers. During the Renaissance small Italian republics developed into despotisms as the centers of power moved from the landed estates to
the cities. Europe itself slowly developed into groups of self-sufficient compartments. At the height of the Renaissance there were five major city-
states in Italy: the combined state of Naples and Sicily, the Papal State, Florence, Milan, and Venice. Italy's economic growth is best exemplified in
the development of strong banks, most notably the Medici bank of Florence. England, France, and Spain also began to develop economically
based class systems.
Renaisance Painting: Sandro Boticelli (1445 - 1510)
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/masters.html[13/09/17 4:37:06 a.m.]

Renaisance Painting: Michelangelo Caravaggio (1571 - 1610)
Beginning in the latter half of the 15th cent., a humanist faith in classical scholarship led to the search for ancient texts that would increase current
scientific knowledge. Among the works rediscovered were Galen's physiological and anatomical studies and Ptolemy's Geography. Botany,
zoology, magic, alchemy, and astrology were developed during the Renaissance as a result of the study of ancient texts. Scientific thinkers such as
Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Johannes Kepler attempted to refine earlier thought on astronomy. Among
Leonardo's discoveries were the revelation that thrown or shot projectiles move in one curved trajectory rather than two; metallurgical techniques
that allowed him to make great sculptures; and anatomical observations that increased the accuracy of his drawings.
In 1543 Copernicus wrote De revolutionibus, a work that placed the sun at the center of the universe and the planets in semicorrect orbital order
around it; his work was an attempt to revise the earlier writings of Ptolemy. Galileo's most famous invention was an accurate telescope through
which he observed the heavens; he recorded his findings in Siderius nuncius [starry messenger] (1610). Galileo's Dialogo...sopra i due massimi
sistemi del mondo [dialogue concerning the two chief world systems] (1632), for which he was denounced by the current pope (because of
Galileo's approval of Copernicus), resulted in his living under house arrest for the rest of his life. Tycho Brahe gave an accurate estimate of
planetary positions and refuted the Aristotelian theory that placed the planets within crystal spheres. Kepler was the first astronomer to suggest that
planetary orbits were elliptical.
The Art of Calligraphy

It was inevitable that the upheval described above would also affect our subject matter. One of the major benefits of this new milieu of learning and
enquiry was the spreading of literacy, i.e. the ability of not only to be able to read but also to write. Keeping diaries and notebooks became a
widespread practice, not only amongst artists and scientists but also amongst the wealthy upper classes and the aristocracy, as did the sending
back and forth of notes and letters. As a consequence the art of calligraphy as well as of page layout and lettering aquired special importance.
Calligraphy masters travelled from mansions to palaces teaching the new educated elite these new fine crafts. However, it is the scholarly
notebooks and texts, often embelished with illustrations, that are the most noteworthy of the genré.

Renaisance notebooks, late 15th to mid 16th centures. Top left is a letter of the famous Italian scholar Pietro Bembo, after whom the
typeface "Bembo" was named by it's creator Francesco Griffi.
Leonardo da Vinci
Florentine painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, and scholar, and one of the greatest minds of the Renaissance; born at Vinci, near Florence, in
1452; died at Cloux, near Amboise, France, 2 May, 1519, natural son of Ser Piero, a notary, and a peasant woman. He was reared carefully by his
father, and was remarkably gifted and precocious. Few artists owed so little to circumstances and teachers. He was quite self-made. His work was
small in bulk, and what remains may be counted on fingers of both hands. Few men had such varied talent and amassed such encyclopedic
knowledge; his method as an artist was original with him, science was the measure of beauty, he combined fact with poetry and made use of both
to carry on wide investigations in nature and to reproduce life according to the very laws of life. There are three periods in Leonardo's biography:
The Florentine period (1469-82); the Milanese period (1483-99); the Nomadic period (1500-19).
Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci
Between 1490 and 1495 he developed his habit of recording his studies in meticulously illustrated notebooks. His work covered four main themes:
painting, architecture, the elements of mechanics, and human anatomy. These studies and sketches were collected into various codices and
manuscripts, which are now hungrily collected by museums and individuals. It is these notebooks that are of particular interest to us, not only due
to the beautiful illustrations and technical drawings but also through their extraordinary page layouts.

Notebook pages of Leonardo's concerning engineering projects.
Notebook pages of Leonardo's on anatomy.

http://www.leonardo.net/
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.html
http://www.wga.hu/index1.html
http://www.mos.org/leonardo/bio.html
The Renaisance Book

The great intellectual movement of Renaissance Italy was humanism. The humanists believed that the Greek and Latin classics contained both all
the lessons one needed to lead a moral and effective life and the best models for a powerful Latin style. They developed a new, rigorous kind of
classical scholarship, with which they corrected and tried to understand the works of the Greeks and Romans, which seemed so vital to them. Both
the republican elites of Florence and Venice and the ruling families of Milan, Ferrara, and Urbino hired humanists to teach their children classical
morality and to write elegant, classical letters, histories, and propaganda.
Renaisance book bindings
The Renaisance illuminated books: Lighter, whiter and elegant.
In the course of the fifteenth century, the humanists also convinced most of the popes that the papacy needed their skills. Sophisticated classical
scholars were hired to write official correspondence and propaganda; to create an image of the popes as powerful, enlightened, modern rulers of
the Church; and to apply their scholarly tools to the church's needs, including writing a more classical form of the Mass.
Humanism, which began as a movement to revive ancient literature and education, soon turned to other fields as well. Humanists tried to apply
ancient lessons to areas as diverse as agriculture, politics, social relations, architecture, music, and medicine. This new influx of knowledge
necessitated the production of secular books. In the Middle Ages, magnificent illumination was rarely used in the decoration of secular texts. In the
Renaissance, though sacred texts continued to receive the most sumptuous decoration, secular texts began to rival them for elegance of script,
illumination, and binding.

http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/Main_Hall.html
The Renaisance masters of type

New, humanist writings required creating a new type of fonts---more secular, more legible, and more elegant. Additionally, the usage of paper had
gradually replaced parchment and vellum and while rag paper was still expensive it was still more cost efficient than parchment. Thus the need for
the condensed gothic typefaces was also becoming obsolete. Page designs were rapidly becoming lighter, more and more white white space was
making its apperance. Thus came the first "revival wave," the first time when font artisans looked into the past in order to create better typefaces for
the present. The problem at that time was, however, that ancient Romans didn't have but uppercase, capital letters. While adopting their designs

for capitals, Renaissance typographers had to spend more time working on lowercase lettershapes. As a basis, they took carolingian scripts that
were common in early Middle age (before the blackletter had become dominant style across the Western Europe), but changed them significantly
to match the Roman uppercase letters and to better adopt to Gutenberg's printing technology (that had just appeared).
Aldus Manutius
(1450–1515) He was educated as a humanistic scholar and became tutor to several of the great ducal families. One of them, the Pio family,
provided him with money to establish a printery in Venice. Aldus was at this time almost 45 years old. He devoted himself to publishing the Greek
and Roman classics, in editions noted for their scrupulous accuracy; a five-volume set of the works of Aristotle, completed in 1498, is the most
famous of his editions. He was especially interested in producing books of small format for scholars at low cost. To this end he designed and cut
the first complete font of the Greek alphabet, adding a series of ligatures or tied letters, similar to the conventional signs used by scribes, which
represented two to five letters in the width of one character. To save space in Latin texts he had a type designed after the Italian cursive script; it is
said to be the script of Petrarch. This was the first italic type used in books (1501). Books produced by him are called Aldine and bear his mark,
which was a dolphin and an anchor. Aldus employed competent scholars as editors, compositors, and proofreaders to insure accuracy in his
books. Much of his type was designed by Francesco Griffi, called Francesco da Bologna, who also designed the typeface "Bembo", after the
Humanist scholar Pietro Bembo. The Aldine Press was later managed by other members of his family, including a son, Paulus Manutius (1512–74),
and a grandson, Aldus Manutius (1547–97), who was best known for his classical scholarship.
Binding and pages of "Aldine"s

http://www.answers.com/topic/aldus-manutius
Claude Garamond
(1480–1561) was a Parisian publisher. He was one of the leading type designers of his time, and several of the typefaces he designed are still in
use, notably the font Garamond, named in his honor. Garamond came to prominence in 1541, when three of his Greek typefaces were requested
for a royally ordered book series by Robert Estienne. Garamond based them on the handwritings of Angelo Vergecio, the King's Librarian at
Fontainebleau, and his ten-year-old pupil, Henri Estienne. According to Arthur Tilley, the editions are "among the most finished specimens of
typography that exist." Garamond's Roman were created shortly thereafter, and his influence rapidly spread throughout and beyond France during
the 1540s.
Granjon, designed by Robert Granjon is the closest typeface to the original Garamond
There are several typefaces called Garamond. Some are based on the work of Claude Garamond. The “original” Garamond belongs to the family
of “Renaissance” or “old style” serif typefaces. The font that most resembles the original Garamond is not named Garamond, but Granjon -
designed by Robert Granjon, to differentiate it from the many other kinds of Garamonds.
Geoffroy Tory,

one of the major printers in Paris during the first third of the sixteenth century, wrote and printed this theoretical treatise on the design of Roman
capital letters in 1529. He was rewarded by François I with the title of Imprimeur du Roi in 1531.
Pages from Champs Fleury, 1529
Early type designers attempted to find special relationships between the proportions of the letters and the shape and dimension of the human body.
Thus, just like Dürer, whom he criticized severely, Tory shows how to draw letters with geometrical aids, and how their proportions relate to the
human body. Although the book was not aimed at the printing trade, the work is mentioned by many subsequent writers on lettering and printing
and has had a great influence on typography.
The Baroque masters of type

From the Renaisance masters of type, who created/refined lowercase characters to setting up the basic principles of page design we come to the
Baroque masters who took the art of book design and typography even further: Pages became even whiter, margins broader and type even more
refined. One of the most beautiful characteristics of Baroque page design are the ornate borders and typographic flourishes.
In the arts, Baroque is both a period and the style that dominated it. The Baroque style used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail
to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, and music. The style started around 1600 in Rome, Italy and
spread to most of Europe. In music, the Baroque applies to the final period of dominance of imitative counterpoint, where different voices and
instruments echo each other but at different pitches, sometimes inverting the echo, and even reversing thematic material.
Baroque flourishes
Yet another one are the printers marks:

A printer's mark
Philippe Grandjean
(1666-1714) was a French type engraver notable for his series of Roman and italic types known as Romain du Roi (French: King's Roman). King
Louis XIV, in 1692, directed that a typeface be designed at any necessary expense for the exclusive use of the Royal printer. The design was
carried out by Grandjean together with a group of mathematicians, philosophers, and others.
Romain du Roi
William Caslon
(1692–1766) was an English gunsmith and designer of typographic fonts. In 1716 he started a business in London as an engraver of gun locks and
barrels, and as a bookbinder's tool cutter. Being thus brought into contact with printers, he was induced to fit up a type foundry, largely through the
encouragement of William Bowyer. The distinction and legibility of his type secured him the patronage of the leading printers of the day in England
and on the continent.
His typefaces were influenced by Dutch types then common in England. His work influenced John Baskerville and are thus the progenitors of
Transitional types, which in turn led to Modern types. Caslon typefaces were very popular and used for many important printed works, including the
first printed version of the Declaration of Independence. They fell out of favour in the century after his death, but were revived in the 1840s, and

Caslon-inspired typefaces are still widely used today.
John Baskerville
(1706 - 1775) was a printer in Birmingham, England, a member of the Royal Society of Arts, and an associate of some of the members of the Lunar
Society. He directed his punchcutter John Handy in the design of many typefaces of broadly similar appearance. His businesses included
japanning and papier-mâché, but he is best remembered as a printer. He printed works for Cambridge University in 1758 and although an atheist,
printed a splendid folio Bible in 1763. His fonts were greatly admired by fellow member of the Royal Society of Arts, Benjamin Franklin, who took
the designs back to the newly-created United States, where they were adopted for most federal government publishing. His work was criticized by
jealous competitors and soon fell out of favor, but since the 1920s many new fonts have been released by Linotype, Monotype, and other type
foundries – revivals of his work and mostly called 'Baskerville'.
Book pages designed by John Baskerville
It is thought that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who once lived in Birmingham, borrowed his name for one of his Sherlock Holmes stories, The Hound of
the Baskervilles - which, in turn, was borrowed by Umberto Eco for the character William of Baskerville in his best-selling novel, The Name of the
Rose.
Pierre Simon Fournier

(1712 - 1768) was a French mid-eighteenth century punch-cutter, typefounder and typographic theoretician, master of the rococo form. Typefaces
designed by Fournier include Fournier and Narcissus.
He was known as Fournier le Jeune: his father Jean Claude was also in the type-setting industry. In his early life, Fournier studied watercolour with
J. B. G. Colson, and later wood engraving. In 1737, Fournier published his first theoretical work, on the minimum spacing between letters, while still
retaining readability. The typefaces that Fournier and successors created had such extreme contrast between thick and thin strokes, that there was
a constant risk of the letters shattering.
Typographic manual by Fournier
When the Netherlands was superseeded by France, King Louis XIV commissioned new type for during his reign, called Romain du roi. The King

kept the font as a monopoly to himself, with penalties against unauthorized reproduction. In the following century, Fournier's Modèles des
Caractères (1742) continued the romaine du roi style, but adapted it for his own new age. Upon publishing Modèles des Caractères, filled with
rococo and fleurons, Fournier's publication helped revive the 1500s concept of type ornaments.
The masters of type of the Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment refers to either the eighteenth century in European philosophy, or the longer period including the seventeenth century
and the Age of Reason. It can more narrowly refer to the historical intellectual movement The Enlightenment, which advocated Reason as a means
to establishing an authoritative system of aesthetics, ethics, and logic, which, they supposed, would allow human beings to obtain objective truth
about the universe. Emboldened by the revolution in physics commenced by Newtonian kinematics, Enlightenment thinkers argued that the same
kind of systematic thinking could apply to all forms of human activity.
The intellectual leaders regarded themselves as a courageous elite who would purposely lead the world into progress from a long period of doubtful
tradition, irrationality, superstition, and tyranny, which they imputed to the Dark Ages. The movement helped create the intellectual framework for
the American and French Revolutions, the Latin American independence movement, and the Polish Constitution of May 3; and led to the rise of
classical liberalism and capitalism. It is matched with the high baroque and classical eras in music, and the neo-classical period in the arts; it
receives contemporary attention as being one of the central models for many movements in the modern period.
The 18th century brought about the ultiamte refinement in page design and typography, especially embodied in Giambattista Bodoni's work. The
beautiful font "Bodoni", named after him is one we use with relish even today.
François-Ambroise Didot
(1730-1804) succeeded his father François, and was appointed printer to the clergy in 1788. All the lovers of fine books highly appreciate the
editions known as "D'Artois" (Recueil de romans français, 64 vols.) and "du Dauphin", a collection of French classics in 32 vols., edited by order of
Louis XVI. He also published a Bible. He invented a new printing-press, improved type-founding, and was the first to print on vellum paper.
Book title page by Didot (left). Contemporary base upon Didot's type system
About 1780 he adapted the "point" system for sizing typefaces by width. This he established as 1/72nd of a French inch (i.e., this was before the
metric system), which was larger than any of the former Imperial inch of the UK or that of the US, let alone the international inch of 25.4 mm. His
unit of the point was later named after him as the didot. It became the prevailing system of type measurement throughout continental Europe, its
former colonies, and Latin America. In 1973 it was metrically standardized at 0.375 mm for the European Union. The English-speaking world, on
the other hand, established the unit called simply the "point," originally to the same proportion of the smaller inches of the various countries.
Giambattista Bodoni
(1740-1813) was an Italian engraver, publisher, printer and typographer of high repute remembered for designing a typeface which is now called
Bodoni. Giambattista Bodoni achieved an unprecedented level of technical refinement, allowing him to faithfully reproduce letterforms with very thin
"hairlines", standing in sharp contrast to the thicker lines constituting the main stems of the characters. His printing reflected an aesthetic of plain,
unadorned style, combined with purity of materials. This style attracted many admirers and imitators, surpassing the popularity of French
typographers such as Philippe Grandjean and Pierre Simon Fournier. Bodoni was appointed printer to the court of Parma in 1768. Important folio
editions by Bodoni are works by Horace (1791), Vergil (1793), and Homer (1808). The Bodoni Museum, named for the artisan, was opened in
Parma in 1963.

Book design by Giambattista Bodoni
Encyclopedias, maps and scientific Illustrations

Scientists illustrated their research and studies with images from early days onwards: Indeed even some of the Egyptian frescoes seem to point at
scientific depictions. There are, of course, many herbariums and medicinal books in Medieval Europe that were illustrated with drawings; but it is
with the onset of the renaisance and especially the baroque and the age of the enlightenment, bringing about the spirit of scientific accuracy and of
research that scientific illustrations really came into their own.
Andreas Vesalius
(1514 - 1564) was a Flemish anatomist and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the
Workings of the Human Body). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. Vesalius' name is also referred to as
Andreas Vesal or Andreas van Wesel, depending on the source.

Anatomical drawings of Vesalius

http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www/html/collect/anatomy/Vesalius/VesaliusContents.htm
Sydney Parkinson
The voyage of HMS Endeavour (1768-1771), under the legendary Captain James Cook (1728 - 1779), was the first devoted exclusively to scientific
discovery. This link below will you to a site that presents most of the botanical drawings and engravings prepared by artist Sydney Parkinson before
his untimely death at sea, and by other artists back in England working from Parkinson's initial sketches.
Born in Scotland, Parkinson came to London in 1766 and was soon after engaged by Banks to work at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, where he
worked for a year before before joining the Endeavour. One of two on board artists, neither of whom survived the voyage, Parkinson died at sea
shortly after leaving Java.
Botanical drawings of Sydney Parkinson

http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/endeavour-botanical/
Scientific illustrations of flora and fauna in the 17th and 18th Centuries

Johann Wilhelm Weinmann (1683-1741)
William Curtis (1746 - 1799)
Pierre Joseph Redouté (1759-l840)
The art of cartography

Martin Waldseemüller (1470 - 1522)
Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) "The Mercator Atlas"
Abraham Ortelius(1527 - 1598) "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum"
Astronomy

Johann Bayer (1572 – 1625) "Uranometria"
Astronomical maps by Julius Schiller, 1627 (left) and Stanislaw Lubienicki, 1668 (right).

http://www.lhl.lib.mo.us/events_exhib/exhibit/exhibits/stars/index.html
Encylopedias
Cyclopaedia, or, A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (folio, 2 vols.) was an encyclopedia published by Ephraim Chambers in London in
1728, and reprinted in numerous editions in the 18th Century. The Cyclopaedia was one of the first general encyclopedias to be produced in
English.
Tables from "Cyclopedia"

Encyclopédie, or "Encyclopedia, or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts" was an early encyclopedia, published in France
beginning in 1751, the final volumes being released in 1780. The editor-in-chief Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784) was a French philosopher and writer,
a prominent figure in what became known as the Enlightenment.
Pages from "Encyclopédie"
Architectural and technical drawings

The famous work entitled "French Architecture" was written and illustrated by Jacques-François Blondel between 1752-1756. The most significant
churches, royal mansions, palaces, hotels, residences and other buildings of Paris, as well as holiday homes and castles on the outskirts of Paris
and in other parts of France, built by the most celebrated architects". The full work contained 498 large-sized illustrations by celebrated architects
showing panoramic views and detailed interior and exterior decoration composition drawings of 18th century notable buildings churches, royal
palaces, monuments, parks, etc. A range of architectural styles can be viewed, and many of these buildings no longer exist or been remodelled,
such as the Palace of Tuileries which was destroyed by fire in 1871. The initial four volume work was published by Charles-Antoine Jombert, one of
the leading French printer-publishers of the 18th century.
L'Architecture Francoise
References
http://www.pagerank10.co.uk/wiki/?title=Renaisance
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphy
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15440a.htm
http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/Main_Hall.html
http://www.webreference.com/dlab/9802/
http://www.octavo.com/editions/index.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Garamond
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Grandjean
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Caslon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Simon_Fournier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_enlightenment
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattista_Bodoni
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didot
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesalius

The History of Visual Communication - The Printing Press
Incunabula
An incunabulum is a book, single sheet, or image that was printed — not handwritten — before the year 1501 in Europe. These are usually very
rare and fragile items whose nature can only be verified by experts. The origin of the word is the Latin incunabula for "swaddling clothes", used by
extension for the infancy or early stages of something. The first recorded use of incunabula as a printing term is in a pamphlet by Bernard von
Mallinckrodt, "Of the rise and progress of the typographic art", published in Cologne in 1639, which includes the phrase prima typographicae
incunabula, "the first infancy of printing". The term came to denote the printed books themselves from the late 17th century.
There are two types of incunabula: the xylographic (made from a single carved or sculpted block for each page) and the typographic (made with
movable type on a printing press in the style of Johann Gutenberg). Many authors reserve the term incunabulum for the typographic ones only. The
end date for identifying a book as an incunabulum is convenient, but was chosen arbitrarily. It does not reflect any notable developments in the
printing process around the year 1500. Incunabula usually refers to the earliest printed books, completed at a time when some books were still
being hand-copied. The gradual spread of printing ensured that there was great variety in the texts chosen for printing and the styles in which they
appeared. Many early typefaces were modelled on local forms of writing or derived from the various European forms of Gothic script, but there
were also some derived from documentary scripts (such as most of Caxton's types), and, particularly in Italy, types modelled on humanistic hands.
These humanistic typefaces are often used today, barely modified, in digital form.
Incunabula from Germany. Late 15th century
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/press.html[13/09/17 4:37:13 a.m.]

Incunabula from Italy. End of 15th century.

Incunabula from France. End of 15th century
Printers tended to congregate in urban centres where there were scholars, ecclesiastics, lawyers, nobles and professionals who formed their major
customer-base. Standard works in Latin inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper,
works in the various vernaculars (or translations of standard works) began to appear. Famous incunabula include the Gutenberg Bible of 1455 and
the Liber Chronicarum of Hartmann Schedel, printed by Anton Koberger in 1493. Other well-known incunabula printers were Albrecht Pfister of
Bamberg, Günther Zainer of Augsburg, Johann Mentelin of Strasbourg and William Caxton of Bruges and London.
The design of the books shows all the characteristics of a transitional period: Although they still resemble their medieval counterparts where
ornamentation, initials and bordering are concerned they are certainly no longer as dark and dense as the medieval illuminated manuscripts:
Already we see a move towards whiter, lighter pages. Some of this can also be attributed to the import of paper manufacturing technologies which
lessened the cost of book production. While columns were already present during earlier times, during the incunabula book designers far greater
use of them for design purposes. The gridding which set type necessitated technologically caused the books to adhere to a grid system, yet
another novelty in design.

http://www.ndl.go.jp/incunabula/e/index.html
http://www.psymon.com/incunabula/
http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/incunabula/
The introduction of rag paper

The word paper comes from the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was woven from papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as
early as 3000 BC in Egypt, and in ancient Greece and Rome. Further north, parchment or vellum, made of processed sheepskin or calfskin,
replaced papyrus, as the papyrus plant requires subtropical conditions to grow. In China, documents were ordinarily written on bamboo, making
them very heavy and awkward to transport. Silk was sometimes used, but was normally too expensive to consider. Indeed, most of the above
materials were rare and costly.
Some historians speculate that paper was the key element in global cultural advancement. According to this theory, Chinese culture was less
developed than the West in ancient times prior to the Han Dynasty because bamboo, while abundant, was a clumsier writing material than papyrus;

Chinese culture advanced during the Han Dynasty and preceding centuries due to the invention of paper; and Europe advanced during the
Renaissance due to the introduction of paper and the printing press.
Paper remained a luxury item through the centuries, until the advent of steam-driven paper making machines in the 19th century, which could make
paper with fibres from wood pulp. Although older machines predated it, the Fourdrinier paper making machine became the basis for most modern
papermaking. Together with the invention of the practical fountain pen and the mass produced pencil of the same period, and in conjunction with
the advent of the steam driven rotary printing press, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in
industrialized countries. Before this era a book or a newspaper was a rare luxury object and illiteracy was normal. With the gradual introduction of
cheap paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became slowly available to nearly all the members of an industrial society. Cheap
wood based paper also meant that keeping personal diaries or writing letters ceased to be reserved to a privileged few. The office worker or the
white-collar worker was slowly born of this transformation, which can be considered as a part of the industrial revolution.
During the incunabula period, Europeans used rags to make paper by the following method: the rags were cut into small pieces; fermented; ground
by watermill; and scooped into a mould to dry. Therefore handmade paper does not have a uniform thickness; it varies in thickness according to the
mesh of the mould. If held against the light, the thinner part of handmade paper appears brighter, and it is possible to detect thick lines spaced
several centimeters apart, as well as thin lines closely spaced crossing the thick lines at a right angle. The thick lines are referred to as the "chain
line" and the thin lines the "wire line."

http://www.paperonline.org/history/history_frame.html
http://www.wipapercouncil.org/invention.htm
Johannes Gutenberg
(1398 – 1468) was a German goldsmith and inventor who achieved fame for his invention of the technology of printing with movable types during
1447. Gutenberg has often been credited as being the most influential and important person of all times, with his invention occupying similar status.
The A&E Network ranked him at #1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown in 1999.
The Gutenberg Bible. 1455
Block printing, whereby individual sheets of paper were pressed into wooden blocks with the text and illustrations carved into them, was first
recorded in Chinese history, and was in use in East Asia long before Gutenberg. By the 12th and 13th centuries, many Chinese libraries contained
tens of thousands of printed books. The Chinese and Koreans knew about moveable metal type at the time, but because of the complexity of the
movable type printing it was not as widely used as in Renaissance Europe.

Movable type and typesetters box.
It is not clear whether Gutenberg knew of these existing techniques, or invented them independently, although the former is considered unlikely
because of the substantial differences in technique. Some also claim that the Dutchman Laurens Janszoon Coster was the first European to invent
movable type.
Gutenberg certainly introduced efficient methods into book production, leading to a boom in the production of texts in Europe — in large part, owing
to the popularity of the Gutenberg Bibles, the first mass-produced work, starting on February 23, 1455. Even so, Gutenberg was a poor
businessman, and made little money from his printing system.
Gutenberg began experimenting with metal typography after he had moved from his native town of Mainz to Strasbourg (then in Germany, now
France) around 1430. Knowing that wood-block type involved a great deal of time and expense to reproduce, because it had to be hand-carved,
Gutenberg concluded that metal type could be reproduced much more quickly once a single mould had been fashioned.
In 1455, Gutenberg demonstrated the power of the printing press by selling copies of a two-volume Bible (Biblia Sacra) for 300 florins each. This
was the equivalent of approximately three years' wages for an average clerk, but it was significantly cheaper than a handwritten Bible that could
take a single monk 20 years to transcribe. The one copy of the Biblia Sacra dated 1455 went to Paris, and was dated by the binder. (View the
Gutenberg Bible)

The Korean Jikji: Oldest movable type.1377
The Gutenberg Bibles surviving today are sometimes called the oldest surviving books printed with movable type — although actually, the oldest
such surviving book is the Jikji, published in Korea in 1377. However, it is still notable, in that the print technology that produced the Gutenberg
Bible marks the beginning of a cultural revolution unlike any that followed the development of print culture in Asia. The Gutenberg Bible lacks many
print features that modern readers are accustomed to, such as pagination, word spacing, indentations, and paragraph breaks.

http://www.mainz.de/gutenberg/english/index.htm
http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blJohannesGutenberg.htm
http://elab.eserver.org/hfl0228.html
The Golden canon of page construction

Raúl Rosarivo, in his "Typographical Divine Proportion", first published in 1947, was the first to analyze Renaissance books with the help of
compass and ruler and concluded that Gutenberg applied the golden canon of page construction to his work. His work and assertion that
Gutenberg used the "golden number" or "secret number" to establish the harmonic relationships between the diverse parts of a work, was analyzed
by experts at the Gutenberg Museum and re-published in the Gutenberg Jahrbuch, its official magazine. Historian John Man points out that
Gutenberg's Bible's page was based on the golden section shape, based on the irrational number 0.618.... (a ratio of 5:8) and that the printed area
also had that shape.
Building on Rosarivo's work, contemporary experts in book design such as Jan Tschichold and Richard Hendel, assert as well that the page
proportion of the golden section (21:34), has been used in book design, in manuscripts, and incunabula, mostly in those produced between 1550
and 1770. Hendel writes that since Gutenberg's time, books have been most often printed in an upright position, that comform losely, if not
precisely, to the golden ratio.

http://learning.north.londonmet.ac.uk/epoc/tschichd.htm
http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1259091
Albrecht Duerer
(1471 – 1528) was a German painter, wood carver, engraver, and mathematician. Born in Nuremberg, Germany, he is best known for his woodcuts
in series, including the Apocalypse (1498), two series on the crucifixion of Christ, the Great Passion (1498–1510) and the Little Passion (1510–
1511) as well as many of his individual prints, such as Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) and Melencholia I
(1514). In this latter work appears the Dürer's magic square. His Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1497–1498), part of the Apocalypse series, is

also celebrated. He is also known for his numerous self-portraits. He is important for the history of graphic design in that he spent considerable time
on the geometry of letters as well as book design. Best known of the books on the geometry of letters is Dürer's Unterweysung der Messung [A
Course on the Art of Measurement]. The text is printed in a form of textura, a black letter style. The book presents the principles of perspective
developed in Renaissance Italy, applying them to architecture, painting, and lettering. Dürer's designs of Roman capital letters, shown below,
demonstrate how they can be created using geometrical aids.
Pages from Albrecht Duerer famous book on design fundamentals: "De Symmetria" (Unterweysung der Messung), 1525

Albrecht Duerer, drawings from 1497 to 1525

Albrecht Duerer, watercolours from 1497 to 1525
Albrecht Duerer, paintings from 1505

http://www.artchive.com/artchive/D/durer.html
http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/durer_albrecht.html
http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1982.htm
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/durer/
http://www.wga.hu/index1.html

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incunabula
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_canon_of_page_construction
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Duerer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper

The History of Visual Communication - The Art of the Book
The Art of the Book

Medieval Europe. One of the darkest periods known to mankind: Pestilence and plague, darkness and fear, witch-hunts and illiteracy roam the
land. It is a world where most people seldom leave their place of birth for any distance longer than 10 miles, where few people even live beyond the
age of 30. In this inhospitable milieu, secluded in the scriptoria of cold monasteries, under the light of feeble oil lamps, mittened against the biting
cold; some of the greatest book designers that ever lived, created some of the most beautiful books the world has ever seen. The colophons of the
their creations are testimony to their short lives since most of the books that they worked upon were only completed in several of their brief
lifetimes, one scribe replacing the other over decades. We call these beautiful books Illuminated Manuscripts.
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration or illustration, such as decorated initials,
borders and miniatures. In the strictest definition of the term, an illuminated manuscript only refers to manuscripts decorated with gold or silver.
However, in both common usage and modern scholarship, the term is now used to refer to any decorated manuscript.
The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period AD 400 to 600, primarily produced in Ireland, Italy and other
locations on the European continent. The meaning of these works lies not only in their inherent art history value, but in the maintenance of a link of
literacy. Had it not been for the (mostly monastic) scribes of late antiquity, the entire content of western heritage literature from Greece and Rome
could have perished. The very existence of illuminated manuscripts as a way of giving stature and commemoration to ancient documents may have
been largely responsible for their preservation in an era when barbarian hordes had overrun continental Europe.
The majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many illuminated manuscripts survive from the 15th century
Renaissance, along with a very limited number from late antiquity. The majority of these manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially
from 13th century onward, an increasing number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, although
many illuminated manuscripts were rolls or single sheets. A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus. Most medieval
manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment (most commonly calf, sheep, or goat skin) or vellum (calf skin). Beginning in the late
Middle Ages manuscripts began to be produced on paper.
Illuminated manuscripts are the most common item to survive from the Middle Ages. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval
painting. Indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting.
The Scriptorium
A scriptorium (plural scriptoria) was a room devoted to the hand-lettered copying of manuscripts. Before the invention of printing by moveable type,
a scriptorium was a normal adjunct to a library. In the monasteries, the scriptorium was a room, rarely a building, set apart for the professional
copying of manuscripts. The director of a monastic scriptorium was the armarius or scrittori, who provided the scribes with their materials and
directed the process. Rubrics and illuminations were added by a separate class of specialists.
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/book.html[13/09/17 4:38:29 a.m.]

Techniques
Illumination was a complex and frequently costly process. As such, it was usually reserved for special books: an altar Bible, for example. Wealthy
people often had richly illuminated "books of hours" made, which set down prayers appropriate for various times in the liturgical day.
Papyrus, the writing surface of choice in Antiquity, became prohibitively expensive as commercial supplies dried up propably through over-
harvesting (see Papyrus) and was replaced by parchment and vellum. During the 7th through the 9th centuries, many earlier parchment
manuscripts were scrubbed and scoured to be ready for rewriting. Such overwritten parchment manuscripts, where the original text has begun
faintly to show through, are called palimpsests. Many of the works of Antiquity often said to have been preserved in the monasteries were only
preserved as palimsests. In the 13th century paper began to displace parchment. As paper became cheaper, parchment was reserved for elite
uses of documents that were of particular importance.
In the making of an illuminated manuscript, the text was usually written first. Sheets of parchment or vellum, animal hides specially prepared for
writing, were cut down to the appropriate size. After the general layout of the page was planned (e.g., initial capital, borders), the page was lightly
ruled with a pointed stick, and the scribe went to work with ink-pot and either sharpened quill feather or reed pen.
The script depended on local customs and tastes. The sturdy Roman letters of the early Middle Ages gradually gave way to cursive scripts such as
Uncial and half-Uncial, especially in the British Isles, where distinctive scripts such as insular majuscule and insular minuscule developed. Stocky,
richly textured blackletter was first seen around the 13th century and was particularly popular in the later Middle Ages.
When the text was complete, the illustrator set to work. Complex designs were planned out beforehand, probably on wax tablets, the sketch pad of
the era. The design was then traced onto the vellum (possibly with the aid of pinpricks or other markings, as in the case of the Lindisfarne
Gospels).
Classifications
Art historians classify illuminated manuscripts into their historic periods and types, including (but not limited to): Insular script, Carolingian
manuscripts, Ottonian manuscripts, Romanesque manuscripts and Gothic manuscripts.
Insular/Celtic Manuscripts
The term insular is used to refer to manuscripts produced in monastic centres in the British Isles in the seventh and eighth centuries. Insular
manuscripts were written in uncial or half uncial scripts and were the first manuscripts to introduce spaces between words to make it easier to read.
They were decorated in abstract linear patterns adapted from Anglo-Saxon and Celtic metalwork and where zoomorphic forms were included these
were stylised and either copied from earlier art or drawn from the imagination. Three forms of decoration are commonly found in insular
manuscripts: ornamented borders enclosing full page illustrations; ornate initials used for beginning of gospels and important passages; and carpet
pages, which are full pages of decorative designs. Well known examples of Insular manuscripts are the Lindisfarne Gospels (c.698AD), the Book of
Durrow (c.680AD) and the Book of Kells (c.800AD).

The Book of Kells, Ireland, A.D. 800
The Book of Durrow, Ireland, 7th century
The Book of Lindisfarne, England, late 7th or early 8th century

The Codex Aureus, England, 9th century
Ottonian manuscripts
The Ottonian style is associated with the courts of the Saxon emperors from 960-1060. Gospel books, pericopes (books of Gospel readings) and
the Apocolypse were more popular than entire bibles. Ottonian manuscripts were influenced by Byzantium, featuring the use of burnished gold
backgrounds and large eyed figures in rigid, hieratic poses.
Ottonian manuscripts, Germany, 10th and 11th centuries
Carolingian manuscripts
The Carolingian style is associate with the court of Charlemagne who set out to revive book design and production. Manuscripts during this period
were made for imperial and aristocratic use as well as for ecclesiastical use and it was at this time that manuscript production expanded from the
monasteries to secular workshops. Caroline manuscripts were written in Caroline miniscule text and were more classical in style. They sometimes
included sections written in gold or silver ink on purple vellum and often contained lavish quantities of gold. The illuminations were display a
combination of two dimensional ornament and increased sense of three dimensions in the depiction of figures. The Old Testament was a popular
subject popular because its political themes appealed to a courtly audience. One of the best-known, but not typical, Carolingian mansucripts is the
Utrecht Psalter (c.820-830AD)

http://members.tripod.com/bibliomane/utrecht_psalter.htm
http://psalter.library.uu.nl/

Carolingian manuscripts, France, 7th to 10th centuries
Romanesque manuscripts
The Romanesque style, which dates from the year 1000, was an international rather than a national style and examples of Romanesque
manuscripts come from a wide geographical area. During this period a wider variety of books was produced, including large Bibles and
commentaries, lives of Saints, theological works, missals and Psalters as well as Gospels. An increase in monasticism meant that many books
were produced for public use, leading to the production of larger sized books. Romanesque manuscripts feature grotesques (a variety of real and
imaginary creatures), textured or gold backgrounds, and historiated initials. These initials, found at the commencement of a chapter, combined the
initial of the opening word with foliage, figures or pictures illustrating a portion of the text. These initials, which were more common than full-page
illustrations, could sometimes extend the length of the page. One well-known example of a Romanesque manuscript is the Winchester Bible
(c.1150-1200AD)

The St.Albans Psalter, England, 12th century
Gothic Manuscripts
The Gothic style dates from around 1150AD and, like the Romanesque, was an international style. The rise of universities and cathedral schools
led to an increased demand for books of all kinds. During the Gothic period books became smaller and more delicate, with increased integration
between illustrations and text. Generally there was less text on page, with blank spaces in lines of text being filled with decorative bars. Illustrations
were sometimes combined with borders, and marginal sketches and grotesques (now known as drolleries) were reintroduced. Historiated initials
were reduced in size, but illustrations, known as bas de page, were included at the bottom of text pages. Decorative scrolls of ivy leaves were a
feature of many Gothic manuscripts. The mid fourteenth century saw the introduction of original illustrations. Previously text was copied from book
to book and so were illustrations (modified of course to suit changing tastes), leading to continuity in iconography. However from mid-fourteenth
century some illustrators were making their own images, which became increasingly naturalistic. Famous Gothic manuscripts include the works the
Limbourg Brothers produced in the fifteenth century for the Duc de Berry.
Gothic book pages from the 13th century

Gothic book pages from the 14th century. Second from left: The Fitz-Payne Book, second from right the Queen Mary Psalter.

Gothic book pages from the 15th century, from France, Italy and Hungary.
The Chronicles of Hainaut. France, 15th century
The Book of Hours

A Book of Hours is the most common type of surviving medieval illuminated manuscript. Each Book of Hours is unique, but all contain a collection
of texts, prayers and psalms, along with appropriate illustrations, to form a convenient reference for Christian worship and devotion. The Books of
Hours were composed for use by lay people who wished to incorporate elements of monasticism into their devotional life. Reciting the hours
typically centered upon the recitation or singing of a number of psalms, accompanied by set prayers. The most famous of these were created by
the Limbourg Brothers for the Duc de Berry at the beginning of the 15th century.

Books of Hours for the Duc de Berry. Top: Les Tres belles Heures du Duc de Berry, bottom: Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.
However Books of Hours were not limited to the Duc de Berry's library. Here are a few more samples from the 15th and 16th centuries:
Books of Hours from France and the Netherlands. 15th and 16th centuries

Music scores (antiphoner) from late Gothic times.
Initials and Diminuendo

In Typography diminuendo is the art of arranging letters starting with a large initial and progressively diminishing the point size of the type as it runs
into the body text, assuring a smooth transitio between initial and body text. Possibly the most captivating design features of illuminated
manuscripts are these initials and the diminuendo, both of which are widely implemented in contemporary editorial design today as well:
Initials and Diminuendo
As Medieval Europe metamorphosed into a new age through the Renaisance these beautiful hand crafted books inevitably gave way to the onset
of a new technology: The printing press, whereby books could be mass produced and became everyday objects of use rather than the jewels

hidden in the libraries of Popes, Dukes and Kings as they had been for many many centuries. However, as we shall see in the next section, the
change was gradual and although the beauty of the illuminated manuscript was forever lost another beauty came to replace it: The mastery of the
grid and of type.
Furher reading and images

http://www.abdn.ac.uk/stalbanspsalter/english/index.shtml
http://www.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/MMM/index.html
http://www.wga.hu/
http://www.kb.nl/kb/manuscripts/
http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/wmss/medieval/browse.htm
http://www.museumhetvalkhof.nl/gebroedersvanlimburg/content/persdui.htm
http://www.medieval-life.net/index.htm
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptorium
http://www.csu.edu.au/faculty/arts/humss/art317/manstyles.htm

The History of Visual Communication - The Alphabet
The history of the alphabet starts in ancient Egypt. The first pure alphabets (properly, "abjads", mapping single symbols to single phonemes, but
not necessarily each phoneme to a symbol) emerged around 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt, as a representation of language developed by Semitic
workers in Egypt, but by then alphabetic principles had already been inculcated into Egyptian hieroglyphs for a millennium (see Middle Bronze Age
alphabets). Most other alphabets in the world today either descended from this one discovery, or were directly inspired by its design, including the
Phoenician alphabet and the Greek alphabet.
The Rosetta Stone shows the co-existence

of Hieroglyphics, Hieratic script and the
Greek Alphabet in Egypt in the third
century B.C.
The Proto-Canaanite alphabet, like its Egyptian prototype, only represented consonants, a system called an abjad. From it can be traced nearly all
the alphabets ever used, most of which descend from the younger Phoenician version of the script. The Aramaic alphabet, which evolved from the
Phoenician in the 7th century BC as the official script of the Persian Empire, appears to be the ancestor of nearly all the modern alphabets of Asia.

http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ67
The Phaistos Disk

The Phaistos Disc is a curious archaeological find, likely dating to the middle or late Minoan Bronze Age. Its purpose and meaning, and even its
original geographical place of manufacture, remain disputed, making it one of the most famous mysteries of archaeology. No object directly
comparable to the Phaistos Disc has been found. There is, however, a small number of comparable symbols known from other Cretan inscriptions,
known summarily as Cretan hieroglyphs. This unique object is now on display at the archaeological museum of Herakleion in Crete, Greece.
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/alphabet.html[13/09/17 4:41:05 a.m.]

The Phaistos Disk
There are a total of 241 tokens on the disc, comprising 45 unique signs. Many of these 45 signs represent easily identifiable every-day things. In
addition to these, there is a small diagonal line that occurs underneath the final sign in a group a total of 18 times. The disc shows traces of
corrections made by the scribe in several places. A great deal of speculation developed around the disc during the 20th century. The Phaistos Disc
captured the imagination of amateur archeologists. Many attempts have been made to decipher the code behind the disc's signs. Historically,
almost anything has been proposed, including prayers, a narrative or an adventure story, a "psalterion", a call to arms, a board game, and a
geometric theorem. Some of the more fanciful interpretations of its meaning are classic examples of pseudoarchaeology.
While enthusiasts still believe the mystery can be solved, scholarly attempts at decipherment are thought to be unlikely to succeed unless more
examples of the signs turn up somewhere, as it is generally thought that there isn't enough context available for meaningful analysis. Any
decipherment without external confirmation, such as successful comparison to other inscriptions, is unlikely to be accepted as conclusive.

http://www.crystalinks.com/phaistosdisc.html
The Phoenician alphabet seamlessly continues the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention called Phoenician from the mid 11th century. The
Phoenicians are the descendants of the Bronze Age Canaanites who, protected by the Lebanon mountains and the sea, did not succumb to the
Israelites or the 'Sea Peoples'. When they first appear in western historiography, in the eighth and seventh century BCE, the Phoenicians already
possess scores of colonies all around the Mediterranean, and have extensive trade networks, extending as far as the Atlantic coast of Africa and
the Black Sea, from which they challenged the Greeks, and later the Romans, for supremacy of the seas. According to Biblical accounts, already at
an earlier period, the tenth century BCE, their artisans and artists were unparalleled, and they were sponsoring, together with king Solomon,
ambitious naval undertakings. The Phoenician alphabet was based on the principle that one sign represents one spoken sound.
The Phoenician Alphabet (left and centre), Phoenician fleet (right)
Besides Aramaic, the Phoenician alphabet gave rise to the Greek and Berber alphabets. Whereas separate letters for vowels would have actually
hindered the legibility of Egyptian, Berber, or Semitic, their absence was problematic for Greek, which had a very different morphological structure.
However, there was a simple solution. All of the names of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet started with consonants, and these consonants
were what the letters represented. However, several of them were rather soft and unpronounceable by the Greeks, and thus several letter names
came to be pronounced with initial vowels. By the acrophonic principle that was the basis of the system, the letters now stood for those vowels. For
example, the Greeks had no glottal stop or h, so the Phoenician letter ’alep' became the Greek 'alpha' and e (later renamed epsilon). As this
fortunate development only provided for six of the twelve Greek vowels, the Greeks eventually created digraphs and other modifications, such as
ei, ou, and o (which became omega), or in some cases simply ignored the deficiency, as in long a, i, u.

http://phoenicia.org/
http://www.cedarland.org/phoenicia.html
http://www.cedarland.org/ships.html
The Greeks
The Greek alphabet is the source for all the modern scripts of Europe. The History of the Greek alphabet starts with the adoption of Phoenician
letterforms and continues to the present day. The Phoenician alphabet was strictly speaking an abjad in other words it represented only
consonants. This arrangement is much less suitable for Greek than for Semitic languages and several of the Phoenician consonants, representing
sounds or distinctions not present in Greek, were adapted to represent vowels; consequently the Greek alphabet can be considered to be the
world's first true alphabet.

The Greek alphabet on pottery, mosaics and coins.
Greek inscriptions
"Boustrophedon" (as the ox plows): Lines go from left to

right and from right to left
The alphabet of the early western Greek dialects, where the letter "eta" remained an "h", gave rise to the Old Italic and Roman alphabets. In the
eastern Greek dialects, which did not have an "h", "eta" stood for a vowel, and remains a vowel in modern Greek and all other alphabets derived
from the eastern variants: Glagolitic, Cyrillic, Armenian, Gothic (which used both Greek and Roman letters), and perhaps Georgian.

http://www.arwhead.com/Greeks/
http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Greek_World/Index.html
http://members.aol.com/Donnclass/Greeklife.html
http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/aegean/
http://www.mythweb.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology
The Romans
Several hundred years later, the Romans used the Greek alphabet as the basis for the uppercase alphabet that we know today. They refined the
art of handwriting, fashioning several distinctive styles of lettering which they used for different purposes. They scribed a rigid, formal script for
important manuscripts and official documents and a quicker, more informal style for letters and routine types of writing. However the Romans made
further important contributions to type design: In the Roman alphabet, serif's originated with the carving of words into stone in ancient Italy: Roman
stonemasons started adding little hooks to the tips of letters to prevent the chisel from slipping, which turned out to be the very aesthetic as well as
legibility increasing addition to type that we use to this day.

Serif chiselings
Yet another Roman innovation is the institution of the baseline: In typography and penmanship, the baseline is the line upon which most letters
"sit" and under which descenders extend. By these additions Romans ensured that type, in opposition to the higgeldy piggedly writing of the
Greeks, was perfectly aligned in rows, thus greatly contributing to type aesthetics.
Roman inscriptions
By A.D. 100, the Romans had developed a flourishing book industry and, as Roman handwriting continued to evolve, lower case letters and rough
forms of punctuation were gradually added. Yet another Roman innovation was the invention of the Codex: A codex (Latin for block of wood, book;
plural codices) is a handwritten book, in general, one produced from Late Antiquity through the Middle Ages. The codex was a vast improvement
upon the scroll, which it gradually replaced as the written medium. In Western culture the codex gradually replaced the scroll. From the fourth
century, when the codex gained wide acceptance, to the Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth century, many works that were not converted from
scroll to codex were lost to posterity. The codex was an improvement over the scroll in several ways. It could be opened flat at any page, allowing
easier reading; the pages could be written on both recto and verso; and the codex, protected within its durable covers, was more compact and
easier to transport. The codex also made it easier to organize documents in a library because it had a stable spine on which the title of the book
could be written. The spine could be used for the incipit, before the concept of a proper title was developed, during medieval times. Although most
early codices were made of papyrus, papyrus was fragile and supplies from Egypt, the only place where papyrus grew, became scanty; the more
durable parchment and vellum gained favor, despite the cost. From the point of view of Graphic Design the codex completely revolutionised the
field in that codices brought about the gridded page layout system, which we still use today.

The alphabet used by the Romans consisted only of capital (upper case or majuscule) letters. The lower case (minuscule) letters developed in the
Middle Ages from cursive writing, first as the uncial script, and later as minuscule script. The old Roman letters were retained for formal inscriptions
and for emphasis in written documents. The languages that use the Latin alphabet generally use capital letters to begin paragraphs and sentences
and for proper nouns.

http://www.exovedate.com/ancient_timeline_one.html
http://members.aol.com/Donnclass/Romelife.html
http://www.historylink101.com/ancient_rome.htm
http://www.dl.ket.org/latin1/things/romanlife/ancientp15.htm
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/8991/roman.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_mythology
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaistos_disk
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/type_basics/history.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicians
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_alphabet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex

avantgarde

The History of Visual Communication - Ideograms
Download slideshow on the arts and crafts of China/Japan >>>

Pictograms, ideograms and logograms

A pictogram or pictograph is a symbol representing a concept, object, activity, place or event by illustration. Pictography is a form of writing
whereby ideas are transmitted through drawing. It is the basis of cuneiform and hieroglyphs. Early written symbols were based on pictograms
(pictures which resemble what they signify) and ideograms (pictures which represent ideas). It is commonly believed that pictograms appeared
before ideograms. They were used by various ancient cultures all over the world since around 9000 BC and began to develop into logographic
writing systems around 5000 BC. Pictograms are still in use as the main medium of written communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa,
The Americas, and Oceania, and are often used as simple symbols by most contemporary cultures.
An ideogram or ideograph is a graphical symbol that represents an idea, rather than a group of letters arranged according to the phonemes of a
spoken language, as is done in alphabetic languages. Examples of ideograms include wayfinding signage, such as in airports and other
environments where many people may not be familiar with the language of the place they are in, as well as Arabic numerals and mathematical
notation, which are used worldwide regardless of how they are pronounced in different languages. The term "ideogram" is commonly used to
describe logographic writing systems such as Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters. However, symbols in logographic systems generally
represent words or morphemes rather than pure ideas.
A logogram, or logograph, is a single grapheme which represents a word or a morpheme (a meaningful unit of language). This stands in contrast
to other writing systems, such as alphabets, where each symbol (letter) primarily represents a sound or a combination of sounds.
Far Eastern Ideogramatic writing systems

A Chinese character is a logogram used in writing Chinese, Japanese and Korean . Its possible precursors appeared as early as 8000 years ago,
and a complete writing system in Chinese characters was developed 3500 years ago in China, making it perhaps the oldest surviving writing
system. Chinese characters are derived directly from individual pictograms or combinations of pictograms and phonetic signs.
The number of Chinese characters contained in the Kangxi dictionary is approximately 47,035, although a large number of these are rarely-used
variants accumulated throughout history. In China, literacy for the working citizen is defined as knowledge of 4,000 - 5,000 characters.
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/ideograms.html[13/09/17 4:41:10 a.m.]

Various examples of Chinese Calligraphy throughout the ages, from newspapers to fan inscriptions.
Just as Roman letters have a characteristic shape (lower-case letters occupying a roundish area, with ascenders or descenders on some letters),
Chinese characters occupy a more or less square area. Characters made up of multiple parts squash these parts together in order to maintain a
uniform size and shape. Because of this, beginners often practise on squared graph paper, and the Chinese sometimes use the term "Square-
Block Characters" . The actual shape of many Chinese characters varies in different cultures. Mainland China adopted simplified characters in
1956, but traditional Chinese characters are still used in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Japan has used its own less drastically simplified characters since
1946, while Korea has limited the use of Chinese characters, and Vietnam completely abolished their use in favour of romanized Vietnamese.
According to legend, Chinese characters were invented by Cangjie (c. 2650 BC), a bureaucrat under the legendary emperor, Huangdi. The legend
tells that Cangjie was hunting on Mount Yangxu (today Shanxi) when he saw a tortoise whose veins caught his curiosity. Inspired by the possibility
of a logical relation of those veins, he studied the animals of the world, the landscape of the earth, and the stars in the sky, and invented a symbolic
system called zi, Chinese characters.
It was said that on the day the characters were born, Chinese heard the devil mourning, and saw crops falling like rain, as it marked the beginning
of civilization, for good and for bad.

Japanese calligraphy examples from Ukiyo-e to Sumi-e
A knowledge of calligraphy is an important step in the understanding of Japanese culture. Calligraphy is not merely an exercise in good
handwriting, but rather the foremost art form of the Orient. It is the combination of the skill and imagination of the person who has studied intensely
the combinations available using only lines. In the West, calligraphy was intended to suppress individuality and produce a uniform style. Japanese
calligraphy (sho in Japanese) attempts to bring words to life, and endow them with character. Styles are highly individualistic, differing from person
to person. Japanese calligraphy presents a problem for westerners trying to understand it; the work is completed in a matter of seconds so the
uninitiated cannot really appreciate the degree of difficulty involved. However, bear in mind that the characters must be written only once. There is

no altering, touching up, or adding to them afterwards.
Calligraphy began to filter into Japan during the seventh century A.D. Buddhism from India had travelled via China and Korea and was making
many converts in Japan, including the Emperors. Buddhist scriptures were recorded in Chinese writing. This was produced by priests and was
aesthetically very pleasing. The most famous Japanese calligrapher was probably the Buddhist monk Kukai. One story records how the Emperor
Tokusokutei asked him to rewrite a section of a badly damaged five panelled screen. Kukai is said to have picked up a brush in each hand, gripped
one between the toes of each foot, placed another between his teeth, and immediately written five columns of verse simultaneously!
Further Reading and Images

http://www.asiawind.com/art/callig/Default.htm
http://www.chinapage.com/callig1.html#han
http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/callig/callmain.htm
Cuneiforms
Over five thousand years ago, the people dwelling in southern Iraq, the Sumerians, invented one of the world's earliest systems of writing. They did
not do so in order to write stories or letters, nor yet to publicize the deeds of gods and kings, though soon enough writing came to be used for those
purposes. They invented writing because they needed a means of accounting for the receipt and distribution of resources. For their numbers had
grown and their society had become complex in the alluvial plains of the lower Tigris and Euphrates rivers, an environment which required attentive
management in order to sustain a large, agriculture-based civilization. Hence the need for organizing labor and resources; hence the need for
accounting and accountability. The accounting system the people of ancient Iraq developed comprised both a method of recording language in
writing, and a method of authenticating and authorizing records and transactions, through sealing them with personal or official seals.
The writing system employed signs to represent numbers, things, words, and the sounds of words. All of the signs were originally pictograms, that
is, little schematic pictures of things, actions, or concepts. But they could be used to represent either the things of which they were pictures, or the
sounds of the words for those things. For example, a picture of water could be used to mean “water,” or it could stand for the sound of the word for
“water,” which was “A” in the Sumerian language spoken in southern Iraq at the time. A picture of a person's head could be used to mean "head" or
"person," and it could also stand for the sound of the word for "head," which was "SAG" in Sumerian. Through using signs to represent syllables
(like "a" and "sag") as well as to represent things and words for things, all the elements of language could be encoded in writing.
Clay was chosen as the standard medium of writing, for it was readily available, malleable, and recyclable, yet durable when dried in the sun or
baked. Reeds, which grow abundantly in marshes and along riverbanks, were used to make writing implements called reed styli. For most types of
records and documents, clay was formed into rectangular tablets, but for certain purposes cones, balls, prisms, and other shapes were used! To
write on clay, one would impress the tip of a reed stylus into the surface and draw it along to make each stroke of a sign. These strokes acquired a
"wedge-shaped" appearance, having a triangular head and slender tail, so the modern discoverers of this ancient writing system called it
"cuneiform" – Latin for "wedge-shaped." Meanwhile, although the signs were originally oriented so that the pictures were right side up, they came to
be turned on their sides and written left to right, since that was the easiest way for right-handed scribes to write without smearing their clay.
Cuneiforms
The Sumerian script was adapted for the writing of the Akkadian, Elamite, Hittite (and Luwian), Hurrian (and Urartian) languages, and it inspired the
Old Persian and Ugaritic national alphabets.
The complexity of the system prompted the development of a number of simplified versions of the script. Old Persian was written in a subset of
simplified cuneiform characters known today as Old Persian cuneiform. It formed a semi-alphabetic syllabary, using far fewer wedge strokes than
Assyrian used, together with a handful of logograms for frequently occurring words like "god" and "king." The Ugaritic language was written using
the Ugaritic alphabet, a standard Semitic style alphabet (an abjad) written using the cuneiform method.
The use of Aramaic became widespread under the Assyrian Empire and the Aramaean alphabet gradually replaced cuneiform. The last known
cuneiform inscription, an astronomical text, was written in AD 75.
Further Reading and Images

http://www.upennmuseum.com/cuneiform.cgi
Hieroglyphics
Egyptian hieroglyphs are a writing system used by the Ancient Egyptians, that contained a combination of logographic, alphabetic, and ideographic
elements. Hieroglyphs emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt.

Hieroglyphic frescoes
Engraved hieroglyphs are all more or less figurative: they represent real or imaginary elements, sometimes stylized and simplified, but perfectly
recognizable in most cases. In fact, the same character can even, according to context, be interpreted in diverse ways: as a phonogram (phonetic
reading), as an ideogram, or as a determinative (semantic reading).
Hieroglyphic reliefs
Hieroglyphs consist of three kinds of glyphs: phonetic glyphs, including single-consonant characters that functioned like an alphabet; logographs,
representing morphemes; and determinatives, or ideograms, which narrowed down the meaning of a logographic or phonetic word. In the era of the
Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom, about 700 hieroglyphs existed. By the Greco-Roman period, they numbered more than
5,000.
As writing developed and became more widespread among the Egyptian people, simplified glyph forms developed, resulting in the hieratic (priestly)
and demotic (popular) scripts, which eventually formed the basis on which the Phoenicians structured the modern alphabetic system. These
variants were also more suited than hieroglyphs for use on papyrus. Hieroglyphic writing was not, however, eclipsed, but existed along side the
other forms, especially in monumental and other formal writing. The Rosetta Stone contains parallel texts in hieroglyphic and demotic writing.
Further Reading
http://greatscott.com/hiero/
http://www.quizland.com/hiero.htm
http://www.touregypt.net/ename/
http://www.bergen.org/AAST/Projects/Egypt/egyptian_hieroglyphics.html
http://www.virtual-egypt.com/newhtml/hieroglyphics/
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictogram
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logogram
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideogram
http://www.connectedglobe.com/ohmori/intro1.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_character
http://www.smm.org/research/Anthropology/cuneiform/cuneiform.php

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs

The History of Visual Communication - Caves and Rocks
The Cro-Magnons
form the earliest known European examples of Homo sapiens, from ca. 40,000 years ago, chromosomally descending from populations of the
Middle East. Cro-Magnons lived from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic period of the Pleistocene epoch. For all intents and
purposes these people were anatomically modern, only differing from their modern day descendants in Europe by their slightly more robust
physiology and brains larger capacity than that of modern humans. When they arrived in Europe about 40,000 years ago, they brought with them
sculpture, engraving, painting, body ornamentation, music and the painstaking decoration of utilitarian objects.
Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave paintings, carvings and antler-tipped spears. The remains of tools suggest that they knew how to
make woven clothing. They had huts, constructed of rocks, clay, bones, branches, and animal hide/fur. These early humans used manganese and
iron oxides to paint pictures and may have created the first calendar around 15,000 years ago. The flint tools found in association with the remains
at Cro-Magnon have associations with the Aurignacian culture that Lartet had identified a few years before he found the skeletons. The Cro-
Magnons must have come into contact with the Neanderthals, and are often credited with causing the latter's extinction, although morphologically
modern humans seem to have coexisted with Neanderthals for some 60,000 years in the Levant and for more than 1000 years in France.
Cave Paintings
Cave or rock paintings are paintings painted on cave or rock walls and ceilings, usually dating to prehistoric times. Rock paintings are made since
the Upper Paleolithic, 40,000 years ago. It is widely believed that the paintings are the work of respected elders or shamans.
The most common themes in cave paintings are large wild animals, such as bison, horses, aurochs, and deer, and tracings of human hands as well
as abstract patterns, called Macaroni by Breuil. Drawings of humans are rare and are usually schematic rather than the more naturalistic animal
subjects. Cave art may have begun in the Aurignacian period (Hohle Fels, Germany), but reached its apogee in the late Magdalenian (Lascaux,
France).
The paintings were drawn with red and yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide and charcoal. Sometimes the silhouette of the animal was incised
in the rock first. Stone lamps provided some light. Abbé Breuil interpreted the paintings as being hunting magic, meant to increase the number of
animals. As there are some clay sculptures that seem to have been the targets of spears, this may partly be true, but does not explain the pictures
of beasts of prey such as the lion or the bear.
An alternative and more modern theory, based on studies of more modern hunter-gatherer societies, is that the paintings were made by Cro-
Magnon shaman. The shaman would retreat into the darkness of the caves, enter into a trance state and then paint images of their visions,
perhaps with some notion of drawing power out of the cave walls themselves. This goes some way towards explaining the remoteness of some of
the paintings (which often occur in deep or small caves) and the variety of subject matter (from prey animals to predators and human hand-prints).
However, as with all prehistory, it is impossible to be certain due to the relative lack of material evidence and the many pitfalls associated with
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/rockandcaves.html[13/09/17 4:41:14 a.m.]

trying to understand the prehistoric mindset with a modern mind.
Recommended further reading:

Do not miss this fascinating lecture on the dawn of astronomy in Paleolithic times:
http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/tharriso/ast110/class02.html
Petroglyphs
Petroglyphs are images incised in rock, usually by prehistoric, especially Neolithic, peoples. They were an important form of pre-writing symbols,
used in communication from approximately 10,000 B.C. to modern times, depending on culture and location. Many petroglyphs are thought to
represent some kind of not-yet-fully understood symbolic or ritual language.

The oldest petroglyphs are dated to approximately 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Around 7,000 to 9,000 years ago, other writing systems such as
pictographs and ideograms began to appear. Petroglyphs were still common though, and tribal societies continued using them much longer, even
until contact with Western culture was made in the 20th century. These images probably had deep cultural and religious significance for the
societies that created them; in many cases this significance remains for their descendants.
Some researchers have noticed the resemblance of different styles of petroglyphs across different continents; while it is expected that all people
would be inspired by their surroundings, it is hard to explain the common styles. Explanations for this similarity are mostly grounded in Jungian
psychology and the views of Mircea Eliade. According to these theories it is possible that the similarity of petroglyphs (and other atavistic or
archetypal symbols) from different cultures and continents is a result of the genetically inherited structure of the human brain. Other theories
suggest that petroglyphs were made by shamans in an altered state of consciousness, perhaps induced by the use of natural hallucinogens.
Many of the geometric patterns (known as form constants) which recur in petroglyphs and cave paintings have been shown to be "hard-wired" into
the human brain; they frequently occur in visual disturbances and hallucinations brought on by drugs, migraine and other stimuli.
Geoglyphs
are drawings on the ground, or a large motif, (generally greater than 4 metres) or design produced on the ground, either by arranging clasts
(stones, stone fragments, gravel or earth) to create a positive geoglyph or by removing patinated clasts to expose unpatinated ground. Some of the
most famous negative geoglyphs are the Nazca Lines in Peru. Other areas with geoglyphs include Western Australia and parts of the Great Basin
Desert in SW United States. Hill figures, turf mazes and the stone-lined labyrinths of Scandinavia, Iceland, Lappland and the former Soviet Union
are types of geoglyph. The largest geoglyph is the Marree Man in South Australia.
The Nazca Lines are gigantic geoglyphs located in the Nazca Desert, a high arid plateau that stretches 53 miles between the towns of Nazca and
Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana in Peru. They were created by the Nazca culture between 200 BC and 600 AD. There are hundreds of individual
figures, ranging in complexity from simple lines to stylized hummingbirds, spiders, monkeys, and lizards. The Nazca lines cannot be recognized as
coherent figures except from the air. Since it is presumed the Nazca people could never have seen their work from this vantage point, there has
been much speculation on the builders' abilities and motivations. Since their discovery, various theories have been proposed regarding the
methods and motivations behind the lines' construction. The accepted archaeological theory is that the Nazca people made the lines using nothing
but simple tools and surveying equipment. Wooden stakes in the ground at the end of some lines (which, coincidently, were used to date the
figures) support this theory. Furthermore, Joe Nickell of the University of Kentucky has reproduced one of the figures using the technology available
to the Nazca Indians of the time without aerial supervision. With careful planning and simple technologies, a small team of individuals could
recreate even the largest figures within a 48 hour period. However, there is not much extant evidence concerning 'why' the figures were built, so the
Nazca's motivation remains the lines' most persistent mystery. Most believe that their motivation was religious, making images that only gods could
see clearly. The details of their theology, however, remain unsolved.
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_painting
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroglyph
http://www.jqjacobs.net/rock_art/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazca_Lines


The vernacular
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/vernacular.html[13/09/17 4:41:19 a.m.]

Deconstructive Typography by "Substance"
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/deconstructive.html[13/09/17 4:41:25 a.m.]

Deconstructive typography
Deconstructivist typography, inspired by the vernacular, i.e. torn billboard signage. By Cornell Windlin Deconstructivist typography, inspired by the vernacular, i.e. torn billboard signage. By Cornell Windlin Deconstructivist typography, inspired by the vernacular, i.e. torn billboard signage. By Cornell Windlin
Neville Brody/FUSE Neville Brody/FUSE
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/deconstructive01.html[13/09/17 4:41:33 a.m.]

Emigre
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/emigre.html[13/09/17 4:41:36 a.m.]

Emigre
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/emigre.html[13/09/17 4:41:36 a.m.]

Neville Brody
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/nevillebrody.html[13/09/17 4:41:39 a.m.]

Neville Brody Fuse
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/nevillebrody-fuse.html[13/09/17 4:41:41 a.m.]

Neville Brody
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/nevillebrody-adv.html[13/09/17 4:44:26 a.m.]

David Carso
Ray Gun magazine
Beach Culture magazine Ray Gun magazine
Advertising design
Advertising design
Beach Culture magazine
Advertising design
Domus magazine
Probes, book jacket
Metropolis magazine
Ray Gun magazine

Ray Gun magazine
Advertising design Cyclops magazine

Advertising design
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/davidcarson.html[13/09/17 4:46:35 a.m.]

cs450 ::: Milla Partners___________________________
http://www.milla.de >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
http://www.citrinitas.com/cs450/layoutandtypo/milla01.htm[13/09/17 4:46:37 a.m.]


cs450 ::: Aeriform___________________________
http://www.aeriform.co.uk >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
http://www.citrinitas.com/cs450/layoutandtypo/aeriform01.htm[13/09/17 4:46:38 a.m.]

cs450 ::: Aeriform___________________________

cs450 ::: Asterix Project___________________________
http://www.jhwd.com/asteriks/
http://www.citrinitas.com/cs450/layoutandtypo/asterix.htm[13/09/17 4:46:40 a.m.]

cs450 ::: Asterix Project___________________________
http://www.citrinitas.com/cs450/layoutandtypo/asterix.htm[13/09/17 4:46:40 a.m.]

cs450 ::: FuseID___________________________
http://www.fuseid.com/main.html/ >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
http://www.citrinitas.com/cs450/layoutandtypo/fuse01.htm[13/09/17 4:46:41 a.m.]

cs450 ::: FuseID___________________________

cs450 ::: POTD___________________________
http://www.planetofthedrums.com/potd2004/ >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
http://www.citrinitas.com/cs450/layoutandtypo/potd01.htm[13/09/17 4:46:43 a.m.]

cs450 ::: POTD___________________________

Processing: Metropop Denim
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/metropop.html[13/09/17 4:46:45 a.m.]

Processing: digital acoustic cartography
frequencies (third-octave-bands) of an automobile gear (58 - 78 db) automobile gear at 1600 Hz (58 - 78 db) 1250 Hz in comparison with 1600 Hz (58 - 78 db) 62ms db-sequence of an automobile door shut (75 - 85 db) db-image of an automobile door shut (75 - 85 db)
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/processing-acousticcartography.html[13/09/17 4:46:47 a.m.]

Data visualisation: Txtkit
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/txtkit.html[13/09/17 4:46:49 a.m.]

Computer Games: Planet Half-Life
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/planethalflife.html[13/09/17 4:46:52 a.m.]

The Nybble Engine
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/nybble.html[13/09/17 4:46:57 a.m.]

3D applications for education
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/education.html[13/09/17 4:47:00 a.m.]

GUI
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/gui.html[13/09/17 4:47:02 a.m.]

Custom skins for Windows operating system.
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/skin01.html[13/09/17 4:47:06 a.m.]








Wallpapers
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/wallpapers.html[13/09/17 4:47:22 a.m.]

Wallpapers
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/computer/motiongraphics.html[13/09/17 4:47:27 a.m.]

Modernist amagazine advertisements
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/artdeco-magad.html[13/09/17 4:47:31 a.m.]

The Art Deco buildings of NYC
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/nyc.html[13/09/17 4:47:34 a.m.]

Tamara de Lempicka
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/lempicka.html[13/09/17 4:48:38 a.m.]

A. M. Cassandre
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/cassandre.html[13/09/17 4:48:42 a.m.]

WPA posters
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/wpa.html[13/09/17 4:48:44 a.m.]

Fortune magazine covers
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/fortune-cover.html[13/09/17 4:48:47 a.m.]

Fortune magazine Information graphics spreads
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/fortune-info.html[13/09/17 4:48:52 a.m.]

Fortune magazine Herbert Bayer
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/fortune-bayer.html[13/09/17 4:48:55 a.m.]

Max Bill
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/maxbill.html[13/09/17 4:48:57 a.m.]

Armin Hofmann
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/arminhofmann.html[13/09/17 4:49:00 a.m.]

Fridolin Mueller
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/fridolinmuller.html[13/09/17 4:49:02 a.m.]

Joseph Mueller-Brockman
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/brockman.html[13/09/17 4:49:04 a.m.]

Alexey Brodovitch
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/brodovitch.html[13/09/17 4:49:06 a.m.]

Paul Rand Editorial Design
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/paulrand-editorial.html[13/09/17 4:49:11 a.m.]

Paul Rand Advertising Design
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/paulrand-ad.html[13/09/17 4:49:14 a.m.]

Paul Rand Corporate Identities
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/paulrand-ci.html[13/09/17 4:49:16 a.m.]

Bradbury Thompson
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/bradthompson.htm[13/09/17 4:49:21 a.m.]

Saul Bass: Work from the 1950s to the 1980s
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/saulbass.html[13/09/17 4:50:37 a.m.]

Herb Lubalin, work from the 1960's to the early 1980's.
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/lubalin.html[13/09/17 4:50:41 a.m.]

Milton Glaser
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/modernism/miltonglaser.html[13/09/17 4:50:46 a.m.]

The Constructivists - Kasimir Malevich
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/malevich.html[13/09/17 4:50:48 a.m.]

Constructivism - Culture
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/constructivism.html[13/09/17 4:50:50 a.m.]

The Constructivists - El Lissitzky

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/lissitzky01.html[13/09/17 4:50:53 a.m.]

The Constructivists - El Lissitzky - "The story of the little red square", Children's book design

The Constructivists - El Lissitzky - "The Prouns"


The Constructivists - Alexander Rodchenko
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/rodchenko.html[13/09/17 4:51:03 a.m.]

The Futurists
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/futurism.html[13/09/17 4:51:06 a.m.]

Dada Periodicals - 391 - Francis Picabia
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/391.html[13/09/17 4:51:09 a.m.]

Dada Periodicals - Dada - Tristan Tzara
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/dadaperiodical.html[13/09/17 4:51:12 a.m.]

Dada Periodicals - Merz - Kurt Schwitters
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/merz1.html[13/09/17 4:51:15 a.m.]



http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/merz6-7.html[13/09/17 4:52:43 a.m.]



Dada - Raul Hausmann
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/hausmann.html[13/09/17 4:54:07 a.m.]

Dada - John Heartfield
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/johnheartfield.html[13/09/17 4:54:21 a.m.]

Bauhaus - Graphic Design and Typography
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/bauhaus-graphicdesign.html[13/09/17 4:54:24 a.m.]

De Stijl: Paul Schuitema
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/avantgarde/destijl.html[13/09/17 4:54:28 a.m.]

The Victorian era - Photography
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/photography.html[13/09/17 4:54:30 a.m.]

The Victorian era - Travel postcards
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/travel-postcards.html[13/09/17 4:54:32 a.m.]

The Victorian era - Fashions
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/victorian-fashion.html[13/09/17 4:54:35 a.m.]

The Victorian era - Greeting cards
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/greetingcards.html[13/09/17 4:54:38 a.m.]

The Victorian era - Photography
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/die-cuts.html[13/09/17 4:54:42 a.m.]

Danté Gabriel Rosetti
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/rosetti.html[13/09/17 4:54:45 a.m.]

Edward Burne-Jones
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/burne-jones.html[13/09/17 4:54:48 a.m.]

William Morris
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/morris.html[13/09/17 4:54:54 a.m.]

William Morris - The Kelmscott Press
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/kelmscott.html[13/09/17 4:55:00 a.m.]

The Glasgow School - Margaret MacDonald
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/glasgowscholl-macdonald.html[13/09/17 4:55:05 a.m.]

The Glasgow School - Margaret MacDonald
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/glasgowscholl-macdonald01.html[13/09/17 4:55:09 a.m.]

The Glasgow School - Charles Rennie Mackintosh
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/glasgowscholl-mackintosh.html[13/09/17 4:55:11 a.m.]

Eclecticism - Japanese wood prints
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/japanese.html[13/09/17 4:55:15 a.m.]

Art nouveau packages
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/artnouveau-package.html[13/09/17 4:56:30 a.m.]

Art Nouveau
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/artnouveau.html[13/09/17 4:56:47 a.m.]

The Secessionists
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/secession.html[13/09/17 4:56:52 a.m.]

Art Nouveau posters
Alphonse Mucha
Alphonse Mucha
Koloman Moser Koloman Moser
Alphonse Mucha
Alphonse Mucha
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/artnouveau-poster.html[13/09/17 4:56:56 a.m.]

Alphonse Mucha - Posters and designs

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/mucha-poster.html[13/09/17 4:57:01 a.m.]

Alphonse Mucha - Postcards
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/mucha-postcard.html[13/09/17 4:57:06 a.m.]

Henri de Toulouse Lautrec
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/19th_century/lautrec.html[13/09/17 4:57:11 a.m.]

Sandro Boticelli

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/boticelli.html[13/09/17 4:57:17 a.m.]

Caravaggio

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/caravaggio.html[13/09/17 4:57:20 a.m.]

Renaisance notebooks

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/renaisance-notebooks.html[13/09/17 4:57:27 a.m.]

Leonardo da Vinci - Paintings
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/leonardo-painting.html[13/09/17 4:57:31 a.m.]

Leonardo da Vinci - Engineering

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/leonardo-engineering.html[13/09/17 4:57:36 a.m.]

Leonardo da Vinci - Anatomy

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/leonardo-anatomy.html[13/09/17 4:57:39 a.m.]

Renaisance book binding

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/renaisance-bookbinding.html[13/09/17 4:57:43 a.m.]

Renaisance books

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/renaisance-books.html[13/09/17 4:59:00 a.m.]

Aldus Manutius
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/aldusmanutius.html[13/09/17 5:00:30 a.m.]

Geofrey Tory - Champs Fleury

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/champsfleury.html[13/09/17 5:00:43 a.m.]

Baroque flourishes
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/flourish.html[13/09/17 5:00:44 a.m.]

John Baskerville
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/baskerville.html[13/09/17 5:00:47 a.m.]

Pierre Simon Fournier

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/fournier.html[13/09/17 5:00:48 a.m.]

Ambroise Didot
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/didot.html[13/09/17 5:00:50 a.m.]

Giambattista Bodoni
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/bodoni.html[13/09/17 5:00:51 a.m.]

Andreas Vesalius - Anatomical drawings
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/vesalius.html[13/09/17 5:00:56 a.m.]

Sydney Parkinson - Botanical drawings
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/parkinson.html[13/09/17 5:00:59 a.m.]

Johann Willhelm Weinmann - Scientific illustrations
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/weinmann.html[13/09/17 5:01:03 a.m.]

William Curtis - Botanical illustrations
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/curtis.html[13/09/17 5:01:06 a.m.]

Pierre Joseph Redouté - Botanical illustrations
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/redoute.html[13/09/17 5:01:09 a.m.]

Martin Waldseemüller (1470 - 1522)
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/Martin-Waldseemuller.html[13/09/17 5:01:14 a.m.]

Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) "The Mercator Atlas"
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/mercator.html[13/09/17 5:08:05 a.m.]

Abraham Ortelius(1527 - 1598) "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum"
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/ortelius.html[13/09/17 5:08:14 a.m.]

Johann Bayer (1572 ? 1625) "Uranometria"
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/uranometria.html[13/09/17 5:08:18 a.m.]

Astronomical maps from the 17th century

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/astronomy.html[13/09/17 5:08:20 a.m.]

The Cyclopedia

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/cyclopedia.html[13/09/17 5:08:24 a.m.]

Diderot - "Encyclopédie"
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/diderot.html[13/09/17 5:08:28 a.m.]

L'Architecture Francoise
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/masters/architecture.html[13/09/17 5:08:30 a.m.]

Incunabula from Germany

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/germany.html[13/09/17 5:08:36 a.m.]

Incunabula from Italy
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/italy.html[13/09/17 5:08:41 a.m.]

Incunabula from France

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/france.html[13/09/17 5:08:44 a.m.]

The Golden Canon
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/goldencanon.html[13/09/17 5:08:46 a.m.]

Albrecht Duerer - De Symmetria
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/duerer.html[13/09/17 5:08:49 a.m.]

Albrecht Duerer - Drawings
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/duerer-drawings.html[13/09/17 5:09:52 a.m.]

Albrecht Duerer - Watercolours
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/duerer-watercolours.html[13/09/17 5:09:56 a.m.]

Albrecht Duerer - Paintings

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/printing/duerer-paintings.html[13/09/17 5:10:01 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Book of Kells
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/kells.html[13/09/17 5:10:05 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Book of Durrow
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/durrow.html[13/09/17 5:10:11 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Lindisfarne Gospel
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/lindisfarne.html[13/09/17 5:10:15 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Lindisfarne Gospel
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/lindisfarne.html[13/09/17 5:10:15 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Codex Aureus
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/codexaureus.html[13/09/17 5:10:19 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Codex Aureus
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/codexaureus.html[13/09/17 5:10:19 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - Ottonian manuscripts

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/ottonian.html[13/09/17 5:10:23 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - Carolingian manuscripts
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/carolingian.html[13/09/17 5:10:27 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The St. Albans Psalter
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/romanesque.html[13/09/17 5:10:30 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - Gothic illuminated pages from the 13th century
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/gothic-13th.html[13/09/17 5:10:33 a.m.]



The Art of the Book - The Chronicles of Hainaut
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/hainaut.html[13/09/17 5:10:46 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Books of Hours of the Duc de Berry
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/berry.html[13/09/17 5:13:58 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Books of Hours
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/boh.html[13/09/17 5:14:05 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - The Books of Hours

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/music.html[13/09/17 5:14:11 a.m.]

The Art of the Book - Initials and Diminuendo
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/books/diminuendo.html[13/09/17 5:14:17 a.m.]

The Rosetta Stone
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/alphabet/rosetta.html[13/09/17 5:14:19 a.m.]

The Rosetta Stone
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/alphabet/rosetta.html[13/09/17 5:14:19 a.m.]

The Rosetta Stone
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/alphabet/phaistos.html[13/09/17 5:14:23 a.m.]

The Roman Codex
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/alphabet/codex.html[13/09/17 5:14:26 a.m.]

The Roman Codex
http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/images/alphabet/codex.html[13/09/17 5:14:26 a.m.]

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The History of Visual Communication PDF

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The History of Visual Communication

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/index.html[13/09/17 4:30:26 a.m.]

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Graphic Design at the end of the millenium

Deconstructivist typography by "Substance" design agency, London, UK, mid 1990's

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Deconstructivist Typography: Cornell Windlin (left), Neville Brody (right)

Emigre magazine: Issue cover and spreads

Further Reading and images:

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Neville Brody for FUSE

Neville Brody, Advertising brochure, mid 1990's

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

David Carson, advertising design 1990's

Editorial design: "Beach Culture"

Editorial design: "Ray Gun"

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Editorial design: book and magazine covers.

The age of the computer

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Web interfaces, flash and html

Emerging design applications

Design and programming

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Pages from Maeda@Media

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Processing: Metropop Denim by Clayton Cubitt and Tom Carden

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Walrus: information visualisation is used here to create abstractions.

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Further reading and images

3D: Game Design and Educational Environments

Screenshots from "Planet Half-life", created by GameSpy http://planethalflife.gamespy.com/

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Educational software for Mathematics: http://www.teber.biz/

User interface design

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Industrial design and interface design. Output: VA215, Sina Çetin

Graphic User Interfaces

Custom skins for the Windows operating system.

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Desktop wallpapers: An emerging design genre.

Motion graphics stills

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/computer.html[13/09/17 4:30:33 a.m.]

Download slideshow >>>

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/modernists.html[13/09/17 4:31:38 a.m.]

Art Deco/modernist everyday objects.

Modernist magazine advertisements of the mid 20th century

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/modernists.html[13/09/17 4:31:38 a.m.]

Art Deco cigar labels.

Adolphe Mouron Cassandre

The posters of Cassandre

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/modernists.html[13/09/17 4:31:38 a.m.]

The posters of the WPA

The silkscreen posters of the WPA

Further reading and images

Editorial Design between the two wars: Fortune Magazine

Fortune magazine covers

Fortune magazine, double spreads of information graphics

http://www.citrinitas.com/history_of_viscom/modernists.html[13/09/17 4:31:38 a.m.]

Herbert Bayer for Fortune magazine

Further reading and images